Chapter 7

Collecting Qualitative Data

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Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e All rights reserved.
 By the end of this chapter,
you should be able to:
 Identify the five process steps in collecting qualitative data
 Identify different sampling approaches to selecting participants
and sites
 Describe the types of permissions required to gain access to
participants and sites
 Recognize the various types of qualitative data you can collect
 Identify the procedures for recording qualitative data
 Recognize the field issues and ethical considerations that need
to be anticipated in administering the data collection

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-2
 Five Steps in the Process of
Data Collection
 Identify participants and sites
 Gain access to individuals and sites
 Identify what types of information will
answer your research questions
 Design protocols or instruments for
collecting and recording information
 Administer the data collection
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-3
 Who Will Be Studied:
Purposeful Sampling
Random “Quantitative” Sampling
Select representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make “claims” about the population
To build/test “theories” that explain the population

Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling

Select people/sites who can best help us understand our
phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful” information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-4
 Types of Purposeful Sampling
When Does Sampling Occur?
Before Data Collection After Data Collection
What is the intent? Has Started
To develop
many
What is the intent?
To describe what To describe some
perspectives is “typical” to subgroup in depth
those unfamiliar To take advantage To explore
Maximal with the case of whatever case confirming or
Variation Homogenous unfolds disconfirming
Sampling Sampling cases
Typical To describe a
To describe Sampling case that Opportunistic Confirming/
particularly illustrates Sampling Disconfirming
troublesome To generate a theory “dramatically” Sampling
or enlightening or concept the situation
cases To locate people
or sites to study
Critical Theory or Concept
Extreme
Sampling Sampling
Case Snowball
Sampling Sampling
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-5
 Sample Size
 Small for in-depth perspective
 1 individual
 4 cases
 20–30 interviews

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-6
 Permissions That Are Needed
 Gain permission from Institutional Review
Board (IRB)
 Gain permission from “gatekeepers” at the
research site
 Gatekeepers are individuals at the site who
provide site access, help researcher locate people
and identify places to study.
 The gatekeeper may require written information
about the project.

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-7
 Differences Between Qualitative and
Quantitative Permissions
 Qualitative studies are usually conducted at the
research site.
 The researcher has personal contact with the
participants through in-depth interviewing and
prolonged observing.
 Qualitative studies are personal in nature and are not
centered on variables or measures.
 Qualitative researchers use video cameras or audio
recorders to record in-depth interviews for
transcription.

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-8
 Information for the
Gatekeeper
 Why their site was chosen
 What time and resources are required
 What will be accomplished at the site
 What potential there is for your
presence to be disruptive
 What individuals at the site will gain
from the study
 How you will use and report the results

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-9
 The Information You Will
Collect
 Observations
 Interviews
 Documents
 Audiovisual materials

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-10
 Observations
 An observation is the process of gathering first-hand
information by observing people and places at a
research site.
 Observational roles
 Participant observer: An observational role

adopted by researchers when they take part in

activities in the setting they observe
 Nonparticipant observer: An observer who visits a

site and records notes without becoming involved

in the activities of the participants
 Observational roles can be changed.
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-11
 The Process of Observing

 Obtain the required permissions needed to

gain access to the site
 Ease into the site slowly by looking around,
getting a general sense of the site, and taking
limited notes, at least initially
 Identify who or what to observe, when to
observe, and how long to observe
 Determine, initially, your role as an observer
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-12
 The Process of Observing
(cont’d)

 Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the

best understanding of the site and the individuals
 Design some means for recording notes during an
observation
 Descriptive field notes describe the events,

activities, and people

 Reflective field notes record personal reflections

that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad

themes that emerge
 When complete, slowly withdraw from the site

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-13
 Interviews
 Types: One-on-one, phone, e-mail, focus
group
 General open-ended questions that are
asked allow the participant to:
 Create options for responding
 Voice their experiences and perspectives
 Information is recorded, then transcribed
for analysis.

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-14
 Interview Procedures
 Identify the interviewees
 Determine the type of interview you will
use (e.g., focus group, one-on-one)
 Take brief notes during the interview
 Locate a quiet, suitable place
 Obtain consent from the interviewee to
participate in the study

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-15
 Interview Procedures (cont’d)
 During the interview, have an interview plan
using your interview protocol, but be flexible
 Use probes to follow up on areas of interest
 Include possible probes in your interview

protocol
 During the interview, design probes as you

listen to what the participant is talking about

 Be courteous and professional when the
interview is over

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-16
 Structured, Unstructured
and Semi-Structured Interviews
Type of
Approach to
Response Types of Leading to
Data
Options to Interviews Data
Collection
Questions

Quantitative Closed- Structured/ Scores to

Ended Semi-Structured Answers
Interviews

Qualitative Open- Unstructured Transcription

Ended Interviews of Words
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-17
 Documents
 Public and private records
 Good source for text data
 Obtain permission before using
documents
 Optically scan documents when
possible

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-18
 Audiovisual materials
 Determine the material that can provide
evidence to address your research
questions
 Determine if the material is available
and obtain permission to use it
 Check the accuracy and authenticity of
the material if you do not record it
yourself
 Collect the data and organize it
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-19
 Recording Data Using
Protocols
 Interview protocols: A form designed by the
researcher that contains instructions for the process
of the interview, the questions to be asked, possible
probes associated with each question, and space to
take notes on responses from the interviewee
 Observation protocols: A form designed by the
researcher before data collection that is used for
taking fieldnotes during an observation

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-20
 Interview Protocols
 The header: Essential information about the
interview
 Open-ended questions
 “Ice-breaker”

 Questions that address major research questions

 Probes that clarify and elaborate

 Include space between each question for notes

 Closing comments thanking the participant

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-21
 Observational Protocols
 In the header, record information about the time,
place, setting, and your observational role
 Divide the rest of the protocol into two columns:
 Left column to record descriptive notes about the

activities at the site

 Right column to record reflective notes about

themes, quotes, and personal experiences at the

site
 Include a sketch of the site

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-22
 Field Issues in Data Collection
 Sufficient access to the site for data collection
 Sufficient time for data collection

 Limit initial collection to one or two observations or

interviews
 Time is needed to establish a substantial database

 Observational role
 Building rapport with participants
 Obtaining permission to use documents and
audiovisual materials

Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-23
 Ethical Issues
 Informing participants of purpose
 Refraining from deceptive practices
 Sharing your role as researcher
 Being respectful of the research site
 Giving back or reciprocity
 Using ethical interview practices
 Maintaining confidentiality
 Collaborating with participants
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson
and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Education, Inc.
Research, 4e – Creswell All rights reserved.
ISBN: 0132755912 7-24