Fiber optics is the science of transmitting data, voice, and images by the passage of light

through thin, transparent fibers

Fiber optic systems are superior to metallic conductors in many applications. Their greatest
advantage is bandwidth. Because of the wavelength of light, it is possible to transmit a signal that
contains considerably more information than is possible with a metallic conductor — even a
coaxial conductor.
Other advantages include:

• Electrical Isolation — Fiber optics do not need a grounding connection. Both the transmitter
and the receiver are isolated from each other and are therefore free of ground loop problems.
Also, there is no danger of sparks or electrical shock.

• Freedom from EMI — Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI), and
they emit no radiation themselves to cause other interference.

• Low Power Loss — The power loss is very small through the Fibre. This permits longer cable
runs and fewer repeater amplifiers.

• Lighter and Smaller — Fiber weighs less and needs less space than metallic conductors with
equivalent signal-carrying capacity.Copper wire is about 13 times heavier. Fiber also is easier to
install and requires less duct space.

Applications
Some of the major application areas of optical fibers are:
• Communications — Voice, data, and video transmission are the most common uses of fiber
optics, and these include:
– Telecommunications
– Local area networks (LANs)
– Industrial control systems
– Avionic systems
– Military command, control, and communications systems
• Sensing — Fiber optics can be used to deliver light from a remote source to a detector to obtain
pressure, temperature, or spectral information. The fiber also can be used directly as a transducer
to measure a number of environmental effects, such as strain, pressure, electrical resistance, and
pH. Environmental changes affect the light intensity, phase and/or polarization in ways that can
be detected at the other end of the fiber.
• Power Delivery — Optical fibers can deliver remarkably high levels of power for tasks such as
laser cutting, welding, marking, and drilling.
• Illumination — a bundle of fibers gathered together with a light source at one end can
illuminate areas that are difficult to reach — for example, inside the human body, in conjunction
with an endoscope. Also, they can be used as a display sign or simply as decorative illumination.

1
Optical Fibre: is an optical device which is used to transport the huge amount of information from
one place to other place in form of optical signals over a wide bandwidth with negligible loss. The
light is guided by phenomena of Total Internal Reflection.it is denied as ‘It is a hair thin flexible
transparent medium of cylindrical shape usually made of glass or plastic through which light
propagate under Total Internal Reflection. Light is transmitted along the center of the fiber from
one end to the other.’
Construction of optical Fiber:
A fiber-optic cable is designed to protect the inside fiber core that carries the transmission of a
light signal. The construction of a fiber-optic cable includes the main components: fiber core,
cladding and supporting components: primary coating, strength members (or buffer strengthening
fibers), and cable jacket.
Main components:
Core: The fiber core of optical fiber is the central physical transplant medium of the cable that
carries the light signal received from an attached light source and delivers it to a receiving device.
This core is a continuous hair like thin structure of silica glass or plastic. The refractive index of
core is higher than other. While the range of diameter of core is 0 to 9 µm single mode cores and
the most commonly available multimode sizes of fiber-optic cable are 50 µm and 62.5 µm.
Cladding: The cladding is a second important thin layer that surrounds the fiber core. It is
responsible to keep light signal inside the core through TIR at core and cladding interface the
refractive index of cladding is smaller than refractive index of core. This enables data to travel the
length of the fiber segment.
Supporting Components:
Primary Coating: The primary coating is third important and coated about the cladding. It is is
designed to absorb shocks, provide protection against excessive cable bends, and reinforce the
fiber core. This primary coating is basically a layer of plastic which does not interfere with the
cladding or the light transmission of the core. These coatings are measured in microns - the buffer
is 900 µm and the coating is 250 µm.
Buffer Layer: Buffer is a protective layer that is applied directly on the fiber to protect the fiber
or cable from physical damage.
Strength Members As name strengthening fibers, it has been specifically placed to protect the
core against excessive tension during installation and other crushing forces.
Cable Jacket: The outer layer of any cable is known as the cable jacket. It is designed to protect
the Fibre from Environment and physical damaged caused due to human interaction.

2
Principle of Fiber Optics: The optical fiber is a device i.e., cylindrical waveguide that propagates
information coded in form of light pulses along its axis by the process of total internal reflection
(TIR) by which light signals can be transmitted from one place to another with a negligible loss of
energy. It consists of core surrounded by cladding with different refractive index. To confine the
light signal in core, the refractive index of core must be greater than cladding. The interface of
core and cladding may be either be abrupt or gradually depending the radius of Fibre.
Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that happens when a propagating wave strikes
a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to
the surface . If the refractive index is lower on the other side of the boundary and the incident angle
is greater than the critical angle, the wave cannot pass through and is entirely reflected. The critical
angle is the angle of incidence above which the total internal reflectance occurs.
Critical angle
The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which total internal reflection occurs. The angle
of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary
(see diagram illustrating Snell's law). Consider a light ray passing from glass into air. The light
emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased
sufficiently, the transmitted angle (in air) reaches 90 degrees. It is at this point no light is
transmitted into air. The critical angle θc is given by Snell's law, n1 sin θ1=n2 sin θ2. Here, n1 and
n2 are refractive indices of the media, and θ1 and θ2 are angles of incidence and refraction,
respectively. To find the critical angle, we find the value for θ1 when θ2 = 90° and thus sin θ2 =1.
The resulting value of θ1 is equal to the critical angle θc= θ1= arc sin (n1/n ). So the critical angle
is only defined when n2/n1 is less than 1.

3
Condition of optical communication;
𝒏𝟏 > 𝒏𝟐 , 𝜽𝟏 ≥ 𝜽𝒄

Acceptance Angle: As per Principal of TIR, the light signal is propagating through core of optical
Fibre. If the angle of incidence of light signal at interface of core and cladding is equal or greater
than a critical angle 𝜽𝟏 ≥ 𝜽𝒄 , the light signal propagate through core of optical Fibre. If the angle
of incidence of light signal at interface of core and cladding is lower than a critical angle𝜽𝟏 < 𝜽𝒄 ,
the light signal absorbed by cladding of optical Fibre.
The light signal is feed to optical Fibre at interface of external medium and core at the core axis of
cylindrical optical fiber as per above condition discussed.
The maximum external incident angle of light signal made at interface of external medium and
core by light ray with axis of optical fiber, corresponding to the critical angle of incidence at core-
cladding interface, is termed as acceptance angle. Another words, the maximum entrance angle
subtended by ray at entry point (on external medium and core interface) of Optical Fibre with the
Fibre axis. For which light signal suffers TIR on interface of core cladding, is called Acceptance.
Angle.
.
It is different for different fibers and depends on the material of Optical fibres. It is dependent on
refractive index of Core and cladding
Acceptance Cone:
When the signal feed in optical Fibre at certain range of angle at interface of external medium
and core, made with axis of core, corresponds to critical angle or greater than critical angle
.The light signal suffers TIR and propagate through core of optical fibres with no leakage of
light signal. Such rays of light make a cone around the core axis with acceptance angle as semi
vertex angle. This cone is called Acceptance Cone.
It is formed by rotating the ray with angle of acceptance about the Fibre axis with vertex angle at
point of entry of light signal on external medium –core interface. The vertex angle of light cone
is twice of acceptance angle. The size of acceptance cone is function of the refractive index
difference between core and cladding materials.

4
Derivation Acceptances angle of Optical fiber:
The ray AO, from external medium of refractive index n, is incident on entry end of the Fibre at
angle α and refracted to core along OB. If the angle of refraction is θ with axis of core having
refractive index 𝑛1 .
According to Snell’s law, 𝑛1 sin(𝜃) = 𝑛 sin(𝛼) 1
If 𝜃𝑖 is the angle subtended by refracted ray OB on core-cladding interface, then from geometry
𝜃 = 90 − 𝜃𝑖 2
As α decreases also θ decreases so that 𝜃𝑖 increases. When α is sufficient small, 𝜃𝑖 exceeds that of
critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) for core and cladding interface and
refracted ray OB is totally refracted at point B and continue to propagate inside the core. For
maximum value of α for which refracted ray OB can suffer TIR at core cladding interface, such
value of α is called acceptance angle.
If the maximum value of α at which angle of incidence at core cladding interface satisfies 𝜃𝑖 ≥ 𝜃𝑐 .
Using equation 1 and 2 with above condition, we get
𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛 sin(𝛼) 3
𝑛1 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛 sin(𝛼)
𝑛 sin(𝛼) = 𝑛1 √(1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃𝑐 )) 4
Applying Snell’s law at core and cladding interface of Fibre at point B, having𝜃𝑖 ≥ 𝜃𝑐 ., we get
𝑛1 sin(𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝑛2 sin(90) 5
𝑛1 sin(𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛2
𝑛
sin(𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛 2 6
1
Put the value of 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑐 ) in equation 4 by equation 6, we get
𝑛 2
𝑛 sin(𝛼) = 𝑛1 √(1 − ( 𝑛 2 )
1
√(𝑛1 )2 −( 𝑛2 )2
sin(𝛼) = 𝑛
2 2
−1 √(𝑛1 ) −( 𝑛2 )
𝛼= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑛
This is expression of Acceptance angle which is function refractive index of core, cladding and
external medium. If the external medium is air so n=1, we get the value of acceptance angle
𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√(𝑛1 )2 − ( 𝑛2 )2 ) 7
Where 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
The angle of acceptance for ray at core, so it suffers TIR. If angle is enraging beyond the value of,
ray get absorbed by cladding so no TIR take place.

5
Numerical Aperture:
It is number which defines the light acceptance or gathering capacity of Fibre. It is also know
figure of merit. There is maximum angle made with the Fibre axis at which the light may enter the
Fibre so that it propagates in by several reflections. The Sins of this maximum angle of acceptance
is a Numerical Aperture. So mathematically it defend as
√(𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 −( 𝒏𝟐 )𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶) = 𝒏
For external air medium
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜶) = √(𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 − ( 𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 Where 𝒏𝟏 > 𝒏𝟐
Let us defined as fractional relative index is given as
(𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐 )
∆= , The difference of 𝑛1 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑛2 is very small and the𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ≅ 2𝑛1
𝒏𝟏
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
∆= 𝑛1 (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
(𝑛1 )2 −( 𝑛2 )2 𝑁𝐴2
∆= =
2 (𝑛1 )2 2 (𝑛1 )2
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆
Numerical Aperture for Graded index Fibers:
𝑟 𝑥
𝑁𝐴(𝑟) = (𝑛1 (𝑟))2 − ( 𝑛2 )2 ≅ 𝑁𝐴(0)√1 − (𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎
𝑁𝐴(𝑟) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑎
The (a) is radius of core.
Number of Modes and Cut-off Parameters of Fibers:
The number mode supported by an optical Fibre is obtained by an important a parameter
associated with cut-off frequency is called condition of normalized frequency which is also called
V-parameters. It is given
𝝅𝒂√(𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 −( 𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 𝝅𝒂𝑵𝑨(𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎)
𝑽= =
𝝀𝟎 𝒏 𝝀𝟎
The (a) is diameter of core. And 𝝀𝟎 is operative wavelength.
𝝅𝒂√(𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 −( 𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 𝝅𝒂𝑵𝑨
𝑽= =
𝝀𝟎 𝝀𝟎
The value of V is given in air medium (n=1).
The value of V parameter for single mode optical Fibre is less than 2.405. If the value is larger
than this multimode may exist.
The number of Modes (N) in step index fiber is approximated equal to
𝑽𝟐
𝑵= 𝟐
The number of Modes (N) in graded index fiber is approximated equal to
𝑽𝟐
𝑵= 𝟒

6
Classification of optical Fibre: the optical Fibre is classified into three category. The optical Fibre
are broadly classified in the bases of following three ways.
Based on Material of Optical Fibre: It is a very important way to characterised the optical fibre.
On bases of it, the optical fibre s are two types i.e,
1. Glass based
2. Plastic based.
In the Glass based the optical fibres are made of glass. The core and cladding are made of pure
glass. Example Core: SiO2 Cladding: SiO2, Core: GeO2- SiO2 Cladding: SiO2.
In the Plastic based the optical fibres are made of transparent plastics or polymers. The core and
cladding are made of transparent plastics or polymers. Example Core: polymethyl methacrylate:
Cladding: Co- Polymer, Core: Polystyrene: Cladding: Methyl methacrylate.
Based on the number of modes: Light propagates as electromagnetic waves through an optical
fiber. All waves, having ray directions above the critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due
to total internal reflection. However, all such waves do not propagate through the fiber. Only
certain ray directions are allowed to propagate. The allowed directions correspond to the modes of
the fiber. In simple terms, modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths of light in an
optical fiber. The paths are all zigzag paths excepting the axial direction. Accordingly, light rays
travelling through a fiber are classified as axial rays or zigzag rays.
The optical fibres are classified one the bases of Modes which propagate through the core of optical
fiber as
1. Single mode Fibre
2. Multimode Fibre
Signal Mode Optical Fibre: In general, the single mode fibers are step – index fibers. These types
of fibers are made from doped transparent material with the refractive index of core is uniform and
constant and refractive index of cladding is also uniform and constant. It has a very small core
diameter so that it can allow only one mode of propagation and hence called single mode fibers.
The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter. Thus in the case of single
mode fiber, the optical loss is very much reduced. The structure of a single mode fiber as shown.

Structure:
Core diameter : 5-10μm
Cladding diameter : Generally around 125μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1000μm
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.10

7
Band width: More than 50MHz km.
Application:
Because of high bandwidth, they are used in long haul communication systems.

MULTI- MODE FIBERS

The multi-mode fibers are useful in manufacturing both for step – index and graded index fibers.
The multi-mode fibers are made by multi-component glass compounds such as Glass – Clad Glass,
Silica – Clad – Silica, doped silica etc. Here the core diameter is very large compared to single
mode fibers, so that it can allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as Multi
mode fibers. The cladding diameter is also larger than the diameter of the single mode fibers. The
structure of the multimode fiber is as shown in the figure.

Structure:
Core diameter : 50-350μm
Cladding diameter : 125 μm - 500μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1100μm
Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5
Band width: Less than 50MHz km.

Based on the refractive index profile: The optical Fibres are also category on the bases of
refractive index profile.
1. Step- index fiber
2. Graded index fiber
In general, the Optical Fibres are three types on the bases of mode and refractive index profile, are
given as
STEP INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER (SMF)
A single mode step index fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive index surrounded
by a cladding of refractive index lower than that of core. The refractive index abruptly changes at
the core cladding boundary. Light travels along a side path, i.e., along the axis only. So zero order
modes is supported by Single Mode Fiber.

8
The diameter of core is ranging from 5 μ m to 10 μ m. The diameter of cladding is ranging from
50 μ m to 125 μ m

Uses and Application

The SMF can support one mode propagation.
It is suitable for long range distance communications.
Fabrication is very difficulty
No dispersion in signal transmission.
Monochromatic source (laser Diode source) is used.
STEP INDEX MULTI MODE FIBER (MMF)
A multimode step index fiber consists of a core of uniform refractive index surrounded by cladding
of refractive index lower than that of the core. The refractive index abruptly changes at the core
cladding boundary. The core is of large diameter. Light follows zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many
such zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in Multi-Mode Fiber. The Numerical Aperture of
a Multi-mode fiber is larger as the core diameter of the fiber is large.
The diameter of core is ranging from 50 μ m to 200 μ m. The diameter of cladding is ranging from
125 μ m to 300 μ m

Uses and Application

The MMF can support more than one mode propagation.
It is suitable for long range distance communications.
Fabrication is relatively easy
NA is effectively large
Hugh dispersion in signal transmission and lower bandwidth.
GRADED INDEX MULTI MODE FIBER:
GRIN fiber is one in which refractive index varies radially, decreasing continuously in a parabolic
manner from the maximum value of𝑛1 , at the center of the core to a constant value of 𝑛2 at the
core cladding interface.The refractive index of core is varying with radius of core expressed as

9
 𝑟 𝑝
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛1 √(1 − 2∆ (𝑎) ) for r<a
Where a is radius of core. ∆ is a fractional refractive index. And p is profile parameter. If p=1
profile is triangular, If p =2 profile is parabolic and if p= infinity, the profile is step index.

In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of the fiber because the
refractive index varies throughout the fiber. Near the outer edge, the refractive index is lower. As
a result, rays near the outer edge travel faster than the rays at the center of the core. Because of
this, rays arrive at the end of the fiber at approximately the same time. In effect light rays arrive at
the end of the fiber are continuously refocused as they travel down the fiber. All rays take the same
amount of time in traversing the fiber. This leads to small pulse dispersion.

For a parabolic index fiber, the pulse dispersion is reduced by a factor of about 200 in comparison
to step index fiber. It is because of this reason that first and second generation optical
communication systems used near parabolic index fibers.
Uses and Application
The GRINF can support multi- mode propagation.
Fabrication is difficult
NA is effectively large
Low dispersion in signal transmission and higher bandwidth.

10
Comparison of Single Mode Index Fibre (SMF0 and Multi-Mode Index Fibre (MMF)

Attributes SMF MMF

Diameter of Very small : order of Large and range: : 30-100µ m
Core wavelength, range : 5-10µ m
Diameter of Order of diameter: 125 µ m range: : 125-300µ m
Cladding
Difference Small large
in ncore and
ncladding
Light Specific light source : laser Any source
Source
Size of small large
acceptance
angle
Numerical small lerge
Aperture
Information high low
Carrying
Capacity
Modal Nil Present and large
Dispersion
Material low large
Dispersion
Bandwidth Very large small
Application Undersea cable Dta link

11
 Difference between Step Index Fiber (SIF) and Graded Index Fibre (GRIN)

Attribute SIF GRIN

Refractive has constant value Decreases continuously in varies nearly
index of Core 𝒏𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝒓 ≤ 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 parabolic manner form. The vale at center of
𝒏(𝒓) = { 𝒏
𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 > 𝒂 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 core is Maximum to constant vale at core
cladding interface
𝑟 𝑝
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝒓 ≤ 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆
𝑛(𝑟) = {𝑛1 √(1 − 2∆ (𝑎) )
𝒐𝒓 𝒓 > 𝒂 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒏𝟐
Reflection of Abruptly Smooth
light signal at
core cladding
interface
Irregularities large No
at core
cladding
interface
NA Large small
Pulse No pulse dispersion for Single mode -----------Not Applicable---------------------
Dispersion Step index Fiber
Large for multi-mode step index Small for multi-mode Graded index Fibre
Fibre
Bandwidth Is order of 50Hz Km Is in range of 200-600MHzKm
product

Attenuation:

It is defined as the reduction in power of the light signal as it is travelled

through optical Fibre. Attenuation is caused by components, such as
cables, cable splices, and connectors. Although attenuation is significantly
lower for optical fiber than for other wire based communication system,
it still occurs in both multimode and single-mode transmission in optical
Fibre.

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber.
Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the
optical output power (Po). Optical input power is the power injected into

12
the fiber from an optical source. Optical output power is the power
received at the fiber end or optical detector.

Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and

bending losses. The following equation defines signal attenuation as
𝑃𝑖
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑜

The following equation defines signal attenuation as a unit of length: i.e

called attenuation coefficient 𝛼. As
10 𝑃𝑖
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑑𝐵/𝐾𝑚) = log10 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑜

Signal attenuation is a log relationship. Length (L) is expressed in

kilometers. Therefore, the unit of attenuation is decibels/kilometer
(dB/km).

The attenuation in optical fiber is caused by

 ABSORPTION
 SCATTERING
 BENDING LOSSES.
Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and
fiber structure. However, loss is also present at fiber connections i.e.,
Fiber connector, splice, and coupler losses.

Q.1 Define attenuation.

ABSORPTION:

Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical

fiber. Absorption is defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from
the conversion of optical power into another energy form, such as heat.
The absorption of light signal by core and cladding of optical fiber while
light signal is propagating through core, is major cause of attenuation in
13
light signal. The absorption of light signal is mainly absorbed by material
of optical fiber i.e., core and cladding in which impurities, imperfection
and atomic defect. In material of optical fiber.

Cause of loss in absorption process:

When light signal (energy) is absorbed by material of optical Fibre and

frequency (wavelength of light signal is also matching with natural
frequency of material. Due to this resonance, the energy is being
transferred to atom of material and makes up warded transition from lower
to higher states by absorbing input energy for light signal. So It causes
attenuation in light signal.

Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:

 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

 The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
 The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties

Imperfections

Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence

of missing molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the
diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass fiber.

Since intrinsic and extrinsic material properties are the main cause of
absorption, they are discussed further.

Intrinsic Absorption. - Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-

material properties. If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no
imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic.
Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.

In fiber optics, silica (pure glass) fibers are used predominately. Silica
fibers are used because of their low intrinsic material absorption at the
wavelengths of operation.

14
In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometers
(nm) to 1600 nm. 21shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of
operation. This wavelength of operation is between two intrinsic
absorption regions. The first region is the ultraviolet region (below 400-
nm wavelength). The second region is the infrared region (above 2000-
nm wavelength).

Figure of losses in optical fiber.

The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the

characteristic vibration frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass,
absorption is caused by the vibration of silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. The
interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field of
the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is transferred
from the electromagnetic field to the bond. The tail of the infrared
absorption band is shown in figure.

Extrinsic Absorption. - Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities

introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron,
nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the fiber during
fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of
these metal ions from one energy level to another.

Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced
into the fiber. Water in silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond.
This bond has a fundamental absorption at 2700 nm. However, the
harmonics or overtones of the fundamental absorption occur in the region
15
of operation. These harmonics increase extrinsic absorption at 1383 nm,
1250 nm, and 950 nm. Figure shows the presence of the three
OH- harmonics. The level of the OH- harmonic absorption is also
indicated.

These absorption peaks define three regions or windows of preferred

operation. The first window is centered at 850 nm. The second window is
centered at 1300 nm. The third window is centered at 1550 nm. Fiber optic
systems operate at wavelengths defined by one of these windows.

The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fiber should be less

than a few parts per billion. Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic
absorption is affected by the level of impurities (OH-) present in the fiber.
If the amount of impurities in a fiber is reduced, then fiber attenuation is
reduced.

Q.2. what are the main causes of absorption in optical fiber?

Q.3 Silica (pure glass) fibers are used because of their low intrinsic
material absorption at the wavelengths of operation. This wavelength of
operation is between two intrinsic absorption regions. What are these two
regions called? What are the wavelengths of operation for these two
regions?
Q.4 Extrinsic (OH-) absorption peaks define three regions or windows of
preferred operation. List the three windows of operation.

SCATTERING. - Scattering losses occur when a wave interacts with a

particle in a way that removes energy in the directional propagating wave
and transfers it to other directions. The light isn’t absorbed, just sent in
another direction. However, the distinction between scattering and
absorption doesn’t matter much because the light is lost from the fiber in
either case.
There are two main types of scattering: linear scattering and nonlinear
scattering.

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For linear scattering, the amount of light power that is transferred from
a wave is proportional to the power in the wave. It is characterized by
having no change in frequency in the scattered wave.
1. Rayleigh Scattering (Linear Scattering)
2. Mie Scattering (Linear Scattering
On the other hand, nonlinear scattering is accompanied by a frequency
shift of the scattered light. Nonlinear scattering is caused by high values
of electric field within the fiber (modest to high amount of optical power).
Nonlinear scattering causes significant power to be scattered in the
forward, backward, or sideways directions.
1. Brillouin Scattering (Nonlinear Scattering)
2. Stimulated Raman Scattering (Nonlinear Scattering)
Rayleigh scattering: It is caused by small-scale (small compared with the
wavelength of the light wave) inhomogeneities that are produced in the
fiber fabrication process. Examples of inhomogeneities are glass
composition fluctuations (which results in minute refractive index
change) and density fluctuations (fundamental and not improvable).
Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96% of attenuation in optical fiber.
As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the
core. These elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica
molecules result in Rayleigh scattering. If the scattered light maintains an
angle that supports forward travel within the core, no attenuation occurs.
If the light is scattered at an angle that does not support continued forward
travel, the light is diverted out of the core and attenuation occurs.
Depending on the incident angle, some portion of the light propagates
forward and the other part deviates out of the propagation path and
escapes from the fiber core. Some scattered light is reflected back toward
the light source. This is a property that is used in an OTDR (Optical Time
Domain Reflectometer) to test fibers.

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The size of a scattering particle is parameterized by the ratio x of its
characteristic dimension r and wavelength λ:
2𝜋𝑟
𝑥=
𝜆
Rayleigh scattering can be defined as scattering in the small size
parameter regime x ≪ 1.

It can be seen from the above equation that Rayleigh scattering is strongly
dependent upon the size of the particle and the wavelengths. The intensity
of the Rayleigh scattered radiation increases rapidly as the ratio of particle
size to wavelength increases. Furthermore, the intensity of Rayleigh
scattered radiation is identical in the forward and reverse
directions. Rayleigh scattering depends not on the specific type of
material but on the size of the particles relative to the wavelength of light.
The loss due to Rayleigh scattering is proportional to λ-4 and obviously
decreases rapidly with increase in wavelength.

Mie Scattering:
Scattering of electromagnetic radiation by particles that are comparable
in size to a wavelength (larger than 10% of wavelength).
For particles much larger, and much smaller than the wavelength of
scattered light there are simple and excellent approximations that suffice.
The size of a scattering particle is parameterized by the ratio x of its
characteristic dimension r and wavelength λ:

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 2𝜋𝑟
𝑥=
𝜆
Mie scattering can be defined as scattering in the larger size parameter
regime x > 1.

For glass fibers, Mie scattering occurs in inhomogeneities such as core-

cladding refractive index variations over the length of the fiber, impurities
at the core-cladding interface, strains or bubbles in the fiber, or diameter
fluctuations.
Mie scattering can be reduced by carefully removing imperfections from
the glass material, carefully controlling the quality and cleanliness of the
manufacturing process.

Brillouin Scattering (Nonlinear Scattering)

Brillouin scattering is caused by the nonlinearity of a medium. In glass
fibers, Brillouin scattering shows as a modulation of the light by the
thermal energy in the material.

An incident photon can be converted into a scattered photon of slightly

lower energy, usually propagating in the backward direction, and a
phonon (vibrational energy). This coupling of optical fields and acoustic
waves occurs via electrostriction.
The frequency of the reflected beam is slightly lower than that of the
incident beam; the frequency difference vB corresponds to the frequency
of emitted phonons. This is called Brillouin Frequency Shift. This
phenomenon has been used for fiber optic sensor applications.

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Brillouin scattering can occur spontaneously even at low optical powers.
This is different than Stimulated Brillouin Scattering which requires
optical power to meet a threshold high enough to happen.
Above a certain threshold power, stimulated Brillouin scattering can
reflect most of the power of an incident beam.

Stimulated Raman Scattering (Nonlinear Scattering)

Stimulated Raman scattering is a nonlinear response of glass fibers to the
optical intensity of light. This is caused by vibrations of the crystal (or
glass) lattice. Stimulated Raman scattering produces a high-frequency
optical phonon, as compared to Brillouin scattering, which produces a
low-frequency acoustical phonon, and a scattered photon.
When two laser beams with different wavelengths (and normally with the
same polarization direction) propagate together through a Raman-active
medium, the longer wavelength beam can experience optical
amplification at the expense of the shorter wavelength beam. This
phenomenon has been used for Raman amplifiers and Raman lasers.

In Stimulated Raman scattering, the scattering is predominately in the

forward direction, hence the power is not lost to the receiver.
Stimulated Raman Scattering also requires optical power to be higher than
a threshold to happen

Q.6 Scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fiber. What are the two scattering mechanisms called
when the size of the density fluctuations is (a) greater than and (b) less
than one-tenth of the operating wavelength?

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BENDING LOSS. - Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending
loss is classified according to the bend radius of curvature: Microbend
loss or Macrobend loss. Microbend and Macrobend losses are very
important loss mechanisms.

Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in

the fiber. Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures
increase Microbend loss.

The core has small variation in shape due above discussed causes such
variations which change the angle of incident at which light strike core
and cladding interface other than critical angle. So the light gets refracted
to cladding rather reflecting in core to hold TIR. light gets loss. External
forces are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the
cabled jacket surrounding the fiber but causes only a small bend in the
fiber. Microbends change the path that propagating modes. Microbend
loss increases attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with
high-order modes that are naturally lossy. Microbends are small
microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is
cabled. Fiber loss caused by microbending can still occur even if the fiber
is cabled correctly.

Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature

is large compared to the fiber diameter. Macrobends are bends having a
large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter. During installation,
if fibers are bent too sharply, Macrobend losses will occur.

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If Fiber is sharply bent so that light travelling through optical fiber can’t
make such sharp trun and it lost to cladding because the angle of incident
at interface of core- cladding is other than critical angle therefore, light
does not suffers TIR at the point. So the energy is being lost. It causes los
in input power of light signal.

The loss in Macrobending is dependent on core radius and bending radius.

These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of curvature
is less than several centimeters. Light propagating at the inner side of the
bend travels a shorter distance than that on the outer side. To maintain the
phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase. When the
fiber bend is less than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must
increase to a speed greater than the speed of light. However, it is
impossible to exceed the speed of light. This condition causes some of the
light within the fiber to be converted to high-order modes. These high-
order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fiber.

Fiber sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index

of the core is increased, then fiber sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also
decreases as the diameter of the overall fiber increases. However,
increases in the fiber core diameter increase fiber sensitivity. Fibers with
larger core size propagate more modes. These additional modes tend to be
more lossy.

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Q.7 Microbend loss is caused by microscopic bends of the fiber axis. List
three sources of microbend loss.

.8 How is fiber sensitivity to bending losses reduced?

Dispersion:

When light signal travelling along the optical fiber is not only attenuated
but also distorted as the signal broadening of spreading on time scale, it
known as Dispersion. It is properties of medium in which light travels. In
this phenomena, the phase velocity of light wave is function of frequency
of light signal.
In fiber optic the information is coded as in form of light pulse and feed
in optical fiber. These light pulse has their pulse duration. It n this way
any information is coded and sent through light pulse. Such pulse are
broadened in time scale as it pass through optical fiber. So Size of pulse
get broadened.
Remark:
Dispersion is also known as ‘pulse spreading’ or ‘pulse broadening.
Dispersion is caused by the delay of some of the optical power in a pulse
at the output end of the fiber. Dispersion refers to the fact that the optical
power that enters the fiber at the same time, exits the fiber at different
times.
Dispersion causes an optical pulse width that increases continuously
through the fiber.

 Note: When dispersion exceeds the maximum amount allowed

by the data rate, the output signal is different from the input
signal.

This difference creates signal inaccuracy. Dispersion is one of the two

mechanisms that limits transmission distances. Dispersion limits distance
because it determines the accuracy with which a fiber can transmit data.

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The following two types of dispersion can affect an optical data link:
 Modal dispersion/Internal Modal dispersion— spreading of the
signal over time resulting from the different propagation modes in
the fiber.
 Chromatic dispersion/Intra Modal dispersion.— spreading of the
signal over time resulting from the different speeds of light rays.

Modal dispersion/Internal Modal dispersion:

In a fiber, light signal (equivalent to Mode) can take two types of paths:

 light signal (equivalent to Mode) can travel along the same path and
have the same path length
 light signal (equivalent to Mode) can travel along different paths and
have different path lengths

Modal dispersion occurs when the light signal (equivalent to Mode) travel
along multiple paths and have multiple path lengths. Since the light
signals (equivalent to Mode) do not travel the same distance, different
light signal (equivalent to Mode) will arrive at the end of the fiber at
different times. In other wards the each mode travels a different path
length in same time interval. Due to different optical path for modes, some
of them reach sooner at receiving end than other. It leads pulse spreading
 If pulse broadening is lager, then adjacent pulses shall overlap at
output end and may not be separable. Therefore, no information can
be retrieved from this mixed output.
 If pulse broadening is small or zero, then adjacent pulses shall mot
overlap at output end and may be separable. Therefore all
information can be retrieved from output.

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Smaller the pulse dispersion, the greater will be the information carrying
capacity. Modal dispersion is the biggest cause of dispersion. This type of
dispersion occurs in multi-mode fibers, but not in single mode fibers.

Chromatic dispersion/Intra Modal dispersion:

The Chromatic dispersion/Intra Modal dispersion is resulted due to

propagation of different wavelength light signals which enter to Optical
Fibre. So in reality, Optical source does not emit a light signal of same
frequency but a band of frequencies. All of them propagate through core
of optical Fibre. The propagation delay in different light signal of different
frequencies. This causes Broadening of each transmitted light signal of
mode. It is called Intra Modal Dispersion.
It is two kinds
 MATERIAL DISPERSION:
 WAVE GUIDE DISPERSION
 POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION

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Material dispersion:

It is a wavelength based effect caused by material of optical fiber. Every

Light source has range of several wavelength or frequencies. Since pulse
of light signal usually contains pulse of all such emitted wavelength. As
we know that the refractive index of material varies with wavelength of
light wave. Material.
The optical source emits light of different wavelength i,e., band of
wavelength. So each corresponding to pulse, has different speed in
material. Therefore it causes the pulse broadening in time after traveling
through the core material. Of optical Fibre.
As refractive index decreases, wavelength increases. So Longer
wavelength travel faster than shorter wavelength.
 At shorter wavelength <1300nm, the so the speed of light signal or
such mode travel slower and reaches late than longer wavelength at
end of optical Fibre.
 At longer wavelength>1300nm, the light signal reaches earlier
because it has higher speed.
 At wavelength=1300nm, the difference in speed is minimized so
dispersion is zero at 1300Nm.This dispersion disappear at this
wavelength.
Wave guide Dispersion:

At wave length =1300nm, the intermodal and material dispersion is

disappear. But Wave guide dispersion become dominate.
Wave guide dispersion is consequence of change in optical Fibre
dimension. It occurs when speed of wave in optical Fibre depends on its

26
frequency due to geometrical reasons. It difference in refractive index of
core and cladding.

POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION

When the light is defined as an energy wave or energy region, it possesses

2 mutually perpendicular axes, the E (also known and electromotive
force) and H, (also known as the magneto motive force).

The moment the energy inside these two axes transfers at different speeds
in a fiber this leads to Polarization Mode Dispersion. PMD’s significance
raises in levels that exceed 2.5 Gbps at long transmission distances.

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