ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE AT THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, slabs and walls, rigidly connected
together to form a monolithic frame.
Each individual member must be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, thus the determination
of these forces is an essential part of the design process.
Full analysis of a rigid concrete frame is rarely simple. The analysis must begin with an evaluation
of all the loads carried by the structure, including self-weight
All possible critical arrangements of loads must be considered. The forces in each member can be
determined by one of the following methods:
 Applying moment and shear coefficients
 Manual calculations
 Computer methods
Tabulated coefficients are suitable for use only with simple, regular structures such as equal-span
continuous beams carrying uniform loads.
Manual calculations are possible for the vast majority of structures, but may be tedious for large
or complicated ones.
The computer can be an invaluable help in the analysis of even quite small frames, and for some
calculations it is almost indispensable.
1 Actions
Recommendations for loadings on structures are given in the European standards
 EN 1991-1-1-General actions
 EN 1991-1-3-Snow loads
 EN 1991-1-4- Wind actions
 EN 1991-1-7-Accidental actions from impact and explosions
 EN 1991-2- Traffic loads on bridges
1.1 Permanent actions
 Permanent actions included the weight of the structure itself and all architectural
components such as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings.
 Self-weight for reinforced concrete is 25 kN per cubic meter.
 The weight of any permanent partitions should be calculated from the architect’s drawings.
A minimum partition loading equivalent to 1.0 kN per square meter is often specified as a
variable action, but this is only adequate for lightweight partitions.
 Permanent action are generally calculated on a slightly conservative basis, so that a
member will not need redesigning because of a small change in its dimensions.
  Overestimation should be done with care, since the permanent action can often actually
reduce some of the forces in parts of the structure eg.hogging moments in a continuous
beam
1.2 Variable actions
Example of variable actions on buildings are : the weights of its occupants, furniture, or machinery;
the pressures of wind, the weight of snow and of retained earth or water, the forces caused by
thermal expansions or shrinkage of concrete.
A large building is unlikely to be carrying its full variable action simultaneously on all its floors.
For this reason, EN 1991-1-1: 2002, clause 6.3.1.2(11) allows a reduction in the total variable floor
actions when the columns, walls or foundations are designed for a building more than two storeys
high. Similarly, clause 6.3.1.2(10), the variable action may be reduced when designing a beam
span which supports a large floor area.
1.3 Load combinations and patterns
Load combinations and patterns for the ultimate limit state
1. Permanent and variable actions
𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘 + 𝛾𝑄 𝑄𝑘 = 1.35𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑄𝑘

2. Permanent and wind actions

𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘 + 𝛾𝑄 𝑊𝑘 = 1.35𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑊𝑘

The variable load can usually cover all or any part of the structure and, therefore, should be
arranged to cause the most severe stresses.
For three span continuous beam, load combination 1 would have the loading arrangement shown
below, in order to cause the maximum sagging moment in the outer span and maximum hogging
moments in the center span.

Loading combination 2 is used to check the stability of a structure.

For a multi-span continuous beam, see the arrangement in the figure below.
1.4 Load path determination
All structures are composed of a number of inter-connected elements such as slabs, beams, columns, wall
and foundations. Collectively, they enable the internal and external loads acting on the structure to be
safely transmitted down to the ground. It is assumed that the reaction from one element is a load on the
next and that the sequence of load transfer between elements occurs in the order: ceiling/floor slab to beams
to columns to foundations to ground.
The designer must make an assessment of the future likely level of loading, including self-weight, to which
the structure may be subject during its design life. The design loads acting on individual elements can then
be evaluated. The design loads are used to calculate the bending moments, shear forces and deflections at
critical points along the elements. Finally, suitable dimensions for the element can be determined. This
aspect requires an understanding of the elementary theory of bending and the behavior of elements subject
to compressive loading. These steps are summarized in the figure below.

3 Analysis of beams
To design a structure, it is necessary to know the bending moments, torsional moments, shearing
forces and axial forces in each member.
Non-continuous beam
Continuous beam

Bending moment
Shear force diagram

Envelopes

4 Analysis of frames
Reinforced concrete frames can be analyzed as a whole space frame or be divided into a series of
plane frames
The columns and main beams can be considered as a series of rigid plane frames which can be
divided into two types:
1. Braced frames supporting vertical loads only
2. Frames supporting vertical and lateral loads
Type 1 frames are in buildings where none of the lateral loads are transmitted to the columns and
beams but resisted by much stiffer elements such as shear walls, lift shafts or stairwells.
Type 2 frames are designed to resist the lateral loads, which cause bending, shearing and axial
loads in the beams and columns.
For both types of frames the axial forces in the columns can generally be calculated as if the beams
and slabs were simply supported.
4.1 Braced frames supporting vertical loads only
A building frame can be analysis as a complete frame, or it can be simplified into a series of
substitute frames for the vertical loading analysis.

Substitute frame 1 will give the bending moments and shearing forces in the beams and columns
for the floor level considered.
Substitute frame 2 will give the bending moments and shearing forces in the central beam.
Provided that the central span is greater than the two adjacent span, the bending moments in the
columns can also be found with this frame.
Substitute frame 3 can be used to find the moments in the columns only. This type of sub frame
would be used when beams have been analyzed as continuous over simple supports.
In frames 2 and 3, the assumption of fixed ends to outer beams over-estimates their stiffness. These
values are, therefore, halved to allow for the flexibility resulting from continuity.
Various critical loading patterns must be considered. When considering the column, maximum
moment and minimum possible axial load should be included in order to investigate the possibility
of tension failure caused by bending.

4.2 Lateral loads on frames

Lateral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by retained earth or by seismic
forces.
A horizontal force should also be applied at each level of a structure resulting from a notional
inclination of the vertical members representing imperfections. The value of this depends on
building height and number of columns (EC2 clause 5.2), but with typically less than 1% of the
vertical load at that level for a braced structure. This should be added to any wind loads at the
ultimate limit state.
An unbraced frame subjected to wind forces must be analyzed for all the vertical loading
combinations (permanent action +wind actions).
The analysis for the lateral loads should be kept separate. The forces may be calculated by an
elastic computer analysis or by a simplified approximate method (cantilever method)

5 Shear wall structures resisting horizontal loads

Shear walls resist horizontal loads such as Fz which acts in the direction of the plane of the walls.
As the walls are relatively thin they offer little resistance to loads which are perpendicular to their
plane.
The floors slabs which are supported by the walls also act as rigid diaphragms which transfer and
distribute the horizontal forces into the shear walls.
Shear walls act as vertical cantilevers transferring the horizontal loads to the structural foundations.
With symmetrical arrangement of walls shown, the horizontal load is distributed in proportion to
the relative stiffness ki of each wall.
𝑘𝑖 = ℎ × 𝑏 3
Where ℎ isthe thickness of the wall and b is is the length of the wall.
The force 𝑃𝑖 distributed into each wall is given by.
𝑘𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐹 ×
∑𝑘
5.1 Unsymmetrical arrangement of walls
For unsymmetrical arrangement of shear walls, there will also be a torsional forces on the structure
about the center of rotation in addition to the direct forces caused by the translator movement.
The calculation procedure for this case is:
1. Determine the location of the center of rotation by taking moments of the wall stiffness k
about convenient axes. Such that

∑(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) ∑(𝑘𝑦 𝑦)
𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 =
∑ 𝑘𝑥 ∑ 𝑘𝑦
 Where 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 are the stiffnesses of the walls oriented in the x and y directions
respectively

2. Calculate the torsional moment 𝑀𝑡 on the group of shear walls as

𝑀𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑒
Where e is the eccentricity of the horizontal force F about the center of rotation.
3. Calculate the force 𝑃𝑖 in each wall as the sum of the direct component 𝑃𝑑 and the torsional
rotation component 𝑃𝑟

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑖 𝑟𝑖
=𝐹× ± 𝑀𝑡 ×
∑ 𝑘𝑥 ∑(𝑘𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 )

Where 𝑟𝑖 is the perpendicular distance between the axis of each wall and the center of
rotation.
 5.2 Shear walls with openings
Shear walls with openings can be idealized into equivalent plane frames as shown.

 In the plane frame, the second moment of are Ic of the columns is equivalent to that
of the wall on either side of openings. The second moment are Ib of the beams is
equivalent to that part of the wall between the openings.
 The length of the beam that extend beyond the openings are given a very large
stiffness so that their second moment of area would be say 100Ib.
 The equivalent frame would be analysis by computer with plane frame program
5.3 Shear walls combined with structural frames
Low or medium-height structures shear walls or a lift shaft are usually considered to resist all of
the horizontal load.
A method of analyzing a structure with shear walls and structural frames as one equivalent linked-
plane frame.

The actual structure consist of type A frames and type B frames (which includes shear walls).
Type A frames are lumped together into one frame whose member stiffnesses are multiplied by
four. Similarly two type B frames are lumped together into one frame whose member stiffness are
doubled. These two equivalent frames are then linked together by beams pinned at each end.
The two shear wall are represented by one column having the sectional properties of the sum of
the two shear walls. For the purposes of analysis this column is connected to the rest of its frame
by beams with a very high bending stiffness, say 1000 times that of the other beams so as to
represent the width and rigidity of the shear wall.
The linked beams transfer the load axially between the two types of frames A and B so representing
the rigid diaphragm action of the concrete floor slabs. These links beams, pinned at their ends,
would be given a cross-sectional area of say 1000 times that of the other beams in the frame.
To overcome the effects of axial shortening in the beams, the cross-sectional areas of all the beams
in the model may be increased say to 1000m2.
In the computer output, the member forces for type A frame would need to be divided by a factor
of four and those for type B frames by a factor of two.
6 Redistribution of moments
When the section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur,
this allows redistribution of the elastic moments subject to certain limitations.
A section is considered virtually elastic until the steel yields; and then plastic until the concrete
fails in compression. Thus the plastic behavior is limited by the concrete failure: the concrete
failure limits the rotation that may take place at a section in bending.

In an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment resistance, Mu, it
behaves as a plastic hinge resisting constant moment of that value. Further loading must be taken
by other parts of the structure, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if a
real hinge existed.
Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the concrete, further hinges will be formed
until a mechanism is produced.
For a beam element, the bending strength are equal at the span and at the supports, and where
adequate rotations is possible, then the additional load wa, which the member can sustain by plastic
behavior, can be found.
𝑤𝐿2
Elastic support moment= 12

𝑤𝐿2
Elastic span moment= 24

At collapse
𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝑢 =
12
𝑤𝐿2
= + 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑖𝑑 − 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝐵
24
Thus
𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝑎 𝐿2
= +
12 24 8
𝑤
𝑤𝑎 =
3
Thus the beam can carry a load of 1.33w with redistribution.
Bending moment diagram can be obtained for the required ultimate in the ordinary way. Some
moments may be reduced, but this will increase other moments to maintain the static equilibrium
of the structure.
Usually it is the maximum support moments which are reduced, so economizing in reinforcing
steel and also reducing congestion at the columns.
Thus the requirement for applying moment redistribution are:
1. Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained, hence it is necessart
to recalculate the span bending moments and other shear forces for the load cases involved.
2. The continuous beams or slabs are predominately subject to flexure
3. The ratio of adjacent spans be in the range of 0.5 to 0.2
4. The column design moments must not be reduced.
Advantages of moment redistribution
1. Helps to reduce bending moment in the peak regions, thereby reduction in the congestion
of the reinforcement
2. Reduce support moment utilizes higher moment resisting capacity in mid span region
3. Ensure under reinforced failure since depth of neutral axis decreases with increase in %
redistribution
4. Give better distribution along length and makes detailing easier with economic design.