CHAPTER TWO

INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
Individual Differences Framework
Heredity Environment
Genes Culture & education
Race/Ethnicity Parental Influence
Gender Physical Environment

INDIVIDUAL CHARATERISTICS
Personality

Abilities & Values

Skills

Leadership Style and

Behaviors
The Effect Of Individual Characteristics On
Behavior

BEHAVIORAL RANGE

Comfort Zone

Zone of Individual Zone of

Discomfort characteristics Discomfort
Personality
 Psychological
characteristics
 Stable over time and
across situations
 A set of
characteristics, rather
than one trait
 Makes the person
unique and different
from others
 Abilities and Skills

➢ Ability, or aptitude, is a stable

natural talent for doing something
mental or physical.

➢ A skill is an acquired talent that a

person develops related to a specific
task.
 Values And Value System

Values are long-lasting beliefs about what is

worthwhile and desirable

Factors that affect values include:

▪ Culture
▪ Personality
▪ Gender
▪ Ethnicity
▪ Generational differences
 Views of Ethics
◆ The relativist view of ethics
suggests a belief that what is
right or wrong depends on the
situation or the culture.

◆ The universalist view of ethics

suggests that all activities should
be judged by the same
standards, regardless of the
situation or culture.
Components Of Emotional Intelligence

➢ Self-awareness
➢ Managing
emotions
➢ Self-motivation
➢ Empathy for
others
➢ Interpersonal
skills
Characteristics Of Creative Leaders

 Perseverance when facing obstacles

 Self-confidence
 Willingness to take risks
 Willingness to grow and openness to
new experiences
 Tolerance for ambiguity
Three Categories Of Leadership Skills

1. Technical skills

2. Interpersonal skills

3. Conceptual skills
Perception, Attribution
and Learning
Social Perception

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
 Social Perception

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person

Perceiver Characteristics
• Familiarity with target
• Attitudes/Mood
• Self-Concept
• Cognitive structure
 Social Perception

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person

Perceiver Characteristics Target Characteristics

• Familiarity with target • Physical appearance
• Attitudes/Mood • Verbal communication
• Self-Concept • Nonverbal cues
• Cognitive structure • Intentions
 Social Perception

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person

Perceiver Characteristics Target Characteristics

• Familiarity with target • Physical appearance
• Attitudes/Mood • Verbal communication
• Self-Concept • Nonverbal cues
• Cognitive structure • Intentions
Situational Characteristics
• Interaction context
• Strength of situational cues
 The Perception Process

ATTENTION ORGANIZATION
•The Perceived •Patterns
•Schemas PERCEPTION
•The Perceiver
•Scripts
Comprehending Perception

We all have a different store of knowledge.

We all therefore interpret the world around us
differently.
Understanding relies upon the speaker and his
audience having the same perception of the required
outcome.
 Perception is a 'Learned
Experience'

◆ It is the “awareness” of the

external world (or some aspect of
it, through one or more of our
senses and, the interpretation of
these by our mind.
 Understanding
◆ Understanding is achieved by interpreting current
experience using past experience as a source of
reference, and establishing a context upon which to
base this new information. In other words:
• We are only able to understand today in terms of,
and because of, our past experiences.
• Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'.
• We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to
interpret what our senses are experiencing in the
present.
• These patterns are simultaneously essential and
yet out of date.
 How do we perceive?
◆ We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects.
◆ The process of perceiving involves
‘matching’ what our senses are
experiencing to one of our ‘models.’
◆ Perception is an active pattern-matching
process.
◆ We recognize the world because of our
historical store of information.
◆ We create our own unique world, our own
interpretation of reality.
 Barriers to Social Perception

◆ Selective perception
◆ Stereotyping
◆ First-impression Social Perception -
error interpreting information
◆ Implicit personality about another person
theory
◆ Self-fulfilling
prophecies
 Personality Theories

Trait Theory - understand individuals by breaking

down behavior patterns into observable traits
Psychodynamic Theory - emphasizes the unconscious
determinants of behavior
Humanistic Theory - emphasizes individual growth
and improvement
Integrative Approach - describes personality as a
composite of an individual’s psychological
processes
 Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities
• personality
• perception
• attribution
• attitudes
• values
• ethics
 Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics
 Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics

Behavior
 Interactional Psychology
Approach
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics

Behavior
B = f(P,E)
 The “Big Five” Personality
Dimensions
 Conscientiousness

 Extraversion/introversion

 Openness to experience

 Emotional stability

 Agreeableness
 Characteristics Of Individuals
With Internal Locus Of Control
 Less anxious
 Set harder goals
 Manage stress well and adapt to
change
 More considerate of followers and
less likely to use coercive power
 Internal CEOs select risky and
innovative strategies
 Characteristics Of Type A Individuals

High need for control

“Doing more in less and less time”

Work-Related Behaviors

Defining Characteristics • Poor delegation

•Time urgency • Likes to work alone
• Competitiveness • Jumps into action
• Polyphasic behaviors • Sets high goals
• Hostility • Hard work
• Perceives more stress
 Characteristics Of High
Self-monitors
✓ Able to read cues from the
environment
✓ Able to change behavior to match
situation
✓ Able to cope in cross-cultural
environments
✓ May be a key factor in leadership
effectiveness
 Four Major MBTI Types
THINKING (T)

Sensation Thinkers (ST) Intuitive Thinkers (NT)

Focus on hard facts Change agents
Realistic, goal-oriented but Responsive to creativity

INTUITIVE (N)
SENSING (S)

can be impatient and jump but can be unreasonable and

into action quickly unaware of others

Sensation Feelers (SF) Intuitive Feelers (NF)

Practical and caring Personal charisma and
Good understanding of commitment to others
systems but can be Many ideas, trouble with
reluctant to accept change implementation

FEELING (F)
 Machiavellian Personality

 High Machs are:

• Skilled at controlling others
• Able to perceive and resist
manipulation
• More successful in
unstructured environments
 Low Machs are:
• Naive and trusting
 Leadership is associated with
moderate Mach score
Characteristics Of
Leaders Who Fail
* Abrasive and intimidating
* Cold and arrogant
* Untrustworthy
* Self-centered and political
* Poor performers
* Unable to delegate
 The Johari Window
Known to Self Not Known to
Self
Known to FREE/ARENA BLIND SPOT
Others
Not Known to FACADE UNKNOWN
Others
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
◆ Based on Carl Jung’s work
• People are fundamentally different
• People are fundamentally alike
• People have preference combinations for
extraversion/introversion, perception,
judgment
◆ Briggs & Myers developed the MBTI to
understand individual differences

Take it at:
http://www.humanmetrics.com
Kiersey Temperament Sorter
◆ 1.In most situations are you more
deliberate than spontaneous
spontaneous than deliberate
◆ 2.Is it worse to be
a softy
hard-nosed
◆ 3.Is it better to be
just
merciful
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

◆ Introvert-Extrovert
• where you derive your energy
◆ Sensing-Intuitive
• where you obtain your
information
◆ Thinking-Feeling
• analysis & logic versus pleasing
people
◆ Judging-Perceiving
• how you make a decision
 MBTI Preferences

Preferences Represents

Extraversion Introversion How one

re-energizes
Sensing Intuiting How one gathers
information
Thinking Feeling How one makes
decisions
Judging Perceiving How one orients to the
outer world
 Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type
That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths and
Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations
Psychological Focus and Weaknesses
Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)

Extroversion Focuses on Good at social Intellectual super-

people interaction; en- ficiality; intrusive;
and things; thusiastic and lack of respect for
sociable; confident; insti- others’ privacy;
outgoing gates action; open easily distracted
and straightforward

Introversion Good at personal May lose touch

interaction; stays calm with outer world;
Focuses on and focused; can con- keeps people at
thoughts centrate intensely; a distance; easily
and concepts; develops ideas; uses preoccupied
reflective; discretion in talking
inwardly directed
 Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and
Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.)

Psychological Focus and Weaknesses

Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)
Sensing Facts; data; details; Pragmatic; precise; Lacks long-range
concrete; reality stable; results orient- outlook; may reject
based; present ed; sensible; system- innovative ideas
oriented atic

Intuitive Possibilities; Imaginative; concep- Unrealistic; out of

hunches; tulizes easily; creative; touch; bored by
speculations; theor- intellectually tenacious; routine; scattered
etical ; future idealistic
oriented
Thinking Rational; analytical; Undervalues feel-
assertive; logical; care- ings; overly anal-
Analysis; objective; fully weighs alternatives; ytical; insensitive;
logic; impersonal; firm but fair; explains critical; judgmental
justice; systematic thoroughly
inquiry
 Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths
and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They
Arise (Cont.)
Psychological Focus and Weaknesses
Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)
Feeling Sympathy; Persuasive; empathic; Overly sensitive;
subjective; humane; warm; sensitive; demon- moody; can become
personal; strative and expressive; emotionally over-
compassion; trust; loyal burdened
consideration
Plan, organize, and Close minded; in-
Judging Organized; planned;control well; persistent; flexible; can jump to
settled;control one’s decisive; conscientious; conclusions too
life; set goals; struc- reliable quickly; intolerant;
tured; routine judgmental

Perceiving Pending; flexible; Open minded; adaptable; Indecisive; procrast-

curious; spontaneity;spontaneous; under- inates; unfocused;
tentative; let life standing; tolerant; disorganized; im-
happen; undaunted inquisitive pulsive; may collect
by surprise; open to data too long before
change deciding