IOP1601

PERSONALITY IN THE WORK

CONTEXT

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 Format IOP101M:
May/June 2010 examination
Details of the examination paper are as follows:

Duration : 2 hours
Composition: 75 multiple choice questions
Total marks: 75 marks (will be converted to a percentage)

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Scope of the IOP1601
May/June 2012 examination

RELEVANT CHAPTERS FOR B & T (2009):

13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
Chapters 15, 21 and 22 WILL NOT be
included in your May/June 2012 examination.

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 Social
Environment processes

Individual
Organisational
Processes
Inputs Outputs processes
Personality

Work, Tasks
Processes

Feedback

4
You have an organ in your head. Part of that
organ is called the cerebral Cortex. This nifty
gadget transforms matter into consciousness.
With it we can do what no other organism on
this Planet has ever been able to do. We can
change ourselves.
Think of the Possibilities.

- Michael P. Black
 Chapter 13

THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY

AND FUNDAMENTAL
ASSUMPTIONS IN PERSONALITY
STUDY
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What is the nature of personality and why is it

important?
• Name and discuss the main characteristics of different approaches to
personality in the work context
• Define personality and its related concepts
• Discuss the determinants of personality development
• Explain the different dimensions and domains of personality and
human behaviour
• Describe assumptions and controversies, determinants and research
on personality
• Explain how personality research can be utilised in the work context.
Foundation of personality

Personality
• Most important discipline for the study of:
− Human nature
− Individual differences
− Similarities
• Between and within individuals and groups in the workplace
• Human resource management and development, competency models
of personnel assessment for selection, promotion training and
performance appraisals – based on various aspects of personality.
Personality theories
• Provide the constructs or meaning concepts, methods application, etc
to explain, describe, predict and influence human behaviour in in
various life roles.
Theories or perspectives in
personality
Psychodynamic theories

• Psychoanalytic theories – founded by Sigmund Freud

• Clinical approach originating from studies of mental illness
• Also called Depth psychology based on the fact that the structure of
personality is determined by unconscious factors
• Structures of personality are unconscious
• People are mostly unaware of their behaviour
• Early childhood development is formative and more significant than
development in adult life
• Personality remains stable across time and situations.
Behaviouristic or learning theories

• Personality characterised by acquired, observable behaviour or

responses, expectations and thoughts as learned and rewarded
• People’s environment and circumstances are dominant influences on
what they become
• Personality develops as certain behaviours occur and are rewarded
• As people are continuously learning, personality is not as stable
• Individual differences result from different learning experiences/
influences
• Behaviourist theories depend on objective, observable experimental
and other observable techniques.
Trait and type theories

• Human behaviour characterised by enduring and consistent attributes

and patterns of behaviour
• Traits viewed as neuro-psychic structures existing inside person,
motivate behaviour and are distinguishable in and between people
• Traits can be measured by many psychometric instruments
• Trait theories contributed most to:
− Classification of personality into integrated traits and type models
− A holistic view of personality as well as the application of personality
across many domains of psychology
− Classification of and measurement of individual differences assessed by
use of objective instruments.
Cognitive and social-cognitive theory

• People are rational and thinking

• People form own personality and destiny by using cognitive powers
and knowledge to create and change cognitive construct and
schemas
• People act according to their acquired thinking or knowledge of the
world
• Personality not consistent as cognitive constructs change
• Individual differences exist due to different constructs
• Relational schema – self-image of relationships and interaction with
other people
• Social-cognitive theory – emphasises that specific psychologically
important situations have different influences on different individuals.
Biological and evolutionary
perspectives
• Behaviour primarily determined by genetic and neurological factors
• Personality traits and behaviour are viewed as a function of transfer
from generation to generation
• Personality is quite stable in people and across time
• Individual differences exist as a result of differences in temperament –
acquired through inheritance and social survival behaviours and
strategies.
Psychosocial theories

• Self as core dimension of personality and personality development

• Dominant role of interpersonal, social factors and other people in
personality development
• Social context of personality strongly emphasised
• Psychosocial approach strongly emphasised in cultural and socio-
cultural psychological perspectives
• Researchers utilise more qualitative types of enquiry – discourse or
narrative analysis
• All human behaviour and ideas about behaviour are part of social
reality and people’s interpretation of social realities
• People have stories relating to all aspect of their lives
• Stories may differ even though event may be similar
• Language and discourse are powerful determinants in shaping
worldviews.
African and Asian perspectives

• Psychology and personality not separated from world-view

• Less emphasis on the individual
• More emphasis collectivistic and holistic nature of things
• Person’s identity is closely related to cultural and communal identity
• Basic natural ingredient of human personality is spiritual
• From before birth the guiding spirit is developed and preserved
• Cultural experiences are aimed at unifying possible opposing forces
between the individual, society and spiritual world
• Often use metaphors to tell stories.
The cultural context of personality

• Explored in cross cultural research

• Self as core dimension of personality and personality development
• Challenge of studying personality across culture is the diverse view
different psychologists have.

African Western

• Survival of the tribe • Survival of the best and fittest

Ethos
• Unity with nature • Controlling nature

• Co-operation • Competition
Values and
• Collective group responsibility • Individual rights
Customs
• Independence through co-operation • Independence and separateness

• Group orientation • Individuality

Psychological
• Sameness/equality • Uniqueness
Modalities
• Commonality • Differences

Table 13.1
Adapted from Nobles (1991:299); & Meyer, Moore & Viljoen (1997:620)
Foundation of personality

Personology
• Scientific study of consistent and repetitive behaviour patterns
• In both unique and universal aspects
• It is the what/how/why of people and their behaviour
• A reciprocal relationship exists between personality and occupational behaviour
Evaluation criteria for personality theories
• Comprehensiveness
• Simplicity
• Empirical support
Integrated cultural-trait psychology
• Reciprocal relation between culture and personality
• Heritability and cross-cultural comparability
• Consistency and uniqueness of personality structure
• Predictive validity personality traits.
Defining personality and related
concepts
Allport
• Dynamic organisation within the individual of psychophysical systems
that determine characteristic behaviour and thought
Meyer
• Constantly changing but nevertheless relatively stable organisation of
all physical, psychological and spiritual of the individual's
characteristics
Mischel
• Distinctive patterns of behaviour characterising each person’s
adaptation life situations
Schultz and Schultz
• Unique, relatively enduring internal and external aspects of a person’s
character influencing behaviour in different situations.
Defining personality and related
concepts (continued)
Cattell
• What people will do/think/say when placed in specific situation
Child
• More or less stable, internal factors making one person’s behaviour
consistent across, and different from, the behaviour other people
would manifest in comparable situations
Weiten
• Personality refers to an individual’s unique collection of consistent
behavioural traits
Eastern and African
• Emphasise differences less and rather stress the collective nature of
personality.
Defining personality and related
concepts (continued)
Sullivan
• Relatively enduring patterns of recurrent interpersonal situation which
characterise a human life
Neff
• Work personality is autonomous from other aspects of personality
Individuality or individual differences
• May include all personal and personality factors which distinguish
people from each other
• Mostly expressed and measured in terms of cognitive and non
cognitive traits.
Aspects to consider in defining
personality in all its dimensions
Dimensions of personality

• Most theories have fundamental view of humankind

• Describe central ideas and main assumptions
Allport
• People as unique individuals with unique personality traits and
purposeful behaviours
Freud
• People motivated by internal biological & unconscious forces which
are often in conflict with societal norms
Kelly
• People exist in the world by cognitively forming and adapting their
own personal constructs
Rogers
• People as basically good and positive and able to realise their
potential to be fully functioning persons.
Dimensions of personality (continued)

Structure of personality
• Basic building blocks which constitute personality and how they are
organised
Motivation of personality
• Why people behave in a particular manner and what motivates,
energises or directs behaviour
Personality development
• Growth, maturation and expansion of and in personality, and
influencing factors.
Personality adjustment

• Psychological or mental health and maladjustment/illness

Cattell
• Stress understanding of normal behaviour in diagnosis and
understanding of abnormal behaviour
Rogers
• People as basically good and positive and able to realise their
potential to be fully functioning persons
Freud
• Coupled psychopathology with traumatic past experiences, conflicts of
structures and defence mechanism.
Assessment and research methods

Clinical approach Statistical approach

• Subjective • Objective
• Qualitative analyses of the • Quantitative analysis of the
individual. individual.
Assumptions and controversies
about personality
• Knowability vs unknowability of human nature
• Whole vs part explanation of personality
• Determinism vs causation in making predictions
• Cause vs relationship of personality and behaviour
• Nature vs nurture
• Idiographic (emphasis on individuality) vs nomothetic (emphasis on
general laws).
 Chapter 14

PERSONALITY IN UNCONSCIOUS
PROCESSES
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What are the main contributions of psychoanalysis and

why is it important?
• Describe background of the psychodynamic perspective
• Name and discuss the basic assumptions of the psychodynamic
perspective
• Describe the structure, development, motivation and adjustment of
personality according to the psychodynamic perspectives
• Describe the main contributions and criticism of psychoanalysis.
Psychodynamic assumptions

• Personality seen as dynamic set of processes

• Processes sometimes work in harmony, sometimes against each
other but are never passive
• Competing pressures within personality conflict with each other
• Conflicts which take place among the elements of personality are
often unconscious
• The basic drive is sexual (life instinct), supplemented by aggression
(death instinct), and has its foundations in the biology of the individual
• Individual’s history is important in determining contemporary
behaviour
• Mental health depends on balance of forces in one’s life
• The defence mechanisms of the ego protect an individual from
psychological harm.
Ego-defence mechanisms

Repression Unconscious preventing or denying threatening or painful experience

Projection Ascribing of own threatening and undesirable thoughts, etc to others

Reaction formation Behaving in a manner which is opposite to one’s true feelings

Displacement Directing negative emotions from original source to substitute object

Fantasy Fulfilling frustrated needs through imaginary success or wishful thinking

Overcompensation Protecting one’s weaknesses by over emphasising certain aspects

Intellectualisation Isolating hostile experiences by ascribing intellectual meaning to them

Rationalisation Finding logical but false excuses to justify irrational behaviour

Regression Avoiding painful feelings by reverting back to less threatening behaviour

Identification Defending against threatening feelings by relating to an idea

Sublimation Channelling threatening behaviour into acceptable outlets - displacement .

Mechanism of repression

Tension Manifestation of
Conscious psychic in ego unconscious
Contents – painful tensions e.g.
disturbing unpleasant
threatening for ego bodily sensations;
apprehension

CONSCIOUS

UNCONSCIOUS Threshold of
consciousness
Typographical model

The conscious
• Sensations and experiences
people are aware of
The preconscious
• Memory not readily available to
awareness
• Can easily be retrieved into
awareness
The unconscious
• Experiences not easily
accessible/repressed to
awareness.
Structure of personality

The id
• Pleasure principle
• Seeks immediate gratification
• Contains instincts – life (libido) and death drives
The ego
• Reality principle
• Evaluative agent – selects behaviour with less pain
The superego
• Morality principle
• Suppresses pleasurable demands of the id
• Two subsystems:
− Conscience which punishes
− Ego ideal which rewards.
The Johari window
Levels and structures of personality

Levels of consciousness Structures of personality

1. Unconscious 1. Id
2. Conscious Pre-Conscious 2. Ego
3. Conscious Pre-Conscious Unconscious 3. Ego and Superego
 Levels and structures of
consciousness

Ideas and
CONSCIOUS
perceptions

Memories
PRE-CONSCIOUS
Ready knowledge

UNCONSCIOUS Sexual needs

Repressed wishes
and experiences

ID
Aggressive drives
Death wishes CONFLICTS
Freud’s psychosexual development

Fixation
• Being “stranded” in the tasks of a previous psychosexual stage
Oedipus complex
• A male child’s unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sex parent
and simultaneously dispose of the same-sex parent
Electra complex
• A female child’s unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sex
parent and simultaneously dispose of the same-sex parent
Womb envy
• Both sexes envious of each other.
Jung’s five archetypes

Persona
• Mask presented by person to the world
Anima
• Feminine part of men
Animus
• Masculine part of women
Shadow
• Similar to Freud’s id
• Consists of biological instincts
• Source of immoral and passionate impulses
Self
• Most important archetype, holds all others together
• Represents striving for a whole and integrated personality.
Jung’s level of consciousness

• Ego/conscious
• Personal unconscious and
its complexes
• Collective unconscious and
its archetypes
2 attitudes
• Introversion/extroversion
lead to functional type
4 functions
• Sensing (S)
• iNtuition (N)
• Thinking (T)
• Feeling (F).
Motivation

Jung
• Archetypical influences
• Psychic energy
− Directed at other achievements, not only homeostasis (future directed)
• Self-actualisation
• Causal-teleological principle
Adler
• Creative self
Fromm
• Organic and non-organic drives
− Organic – animal-like instincts
− Non-organic – distinguish human from animals.
Mahler’s four stages in process of
separation and individuation
STAGE 1 DIFFERENTIATION
The development of a body image separate
from that of the Mother

STAGE 2 PRACTISING
Perfecting motor abilities

STAGE 3 REPROACHMENT
The time during which a child experiences
conflict between the urge to separate and the fear of loss

STAGE 4 CONSOLIDATION
Time when the child’s image of the mother is a separate
entity in the external world
Personality adjustment:
The healthy personality

Freud
• Well adjusted person
Adler
• Inferiority and superiority complex and sibling rivalry
Fromm
• Productive frame of orientation
Jung
• Emergence of self through individuation.
Personality adjustment:
Psychopathology

Freud’s 3 forms of anxiety

• Reality anxiety
− Experienced in face of real danger
• Neurotic anxiety
− Experienced when id impulses are in conflict with the ego
• Moral anxiety
− Represent conflict between ego and superego.
Personality adjustment

Freud’s concept of transference

• Positive transference – affectionate feelings towards therapist
• Negative transference – expression of hostile feeling towards therapist
Erickson
• Sense of identity
Rank
• Birth trauma/separation anxiety
Horney
• Neurosis/basic anxiety
Fromm
• Non-productive person
• Receptive orientation
• Exploitative orientation
• Hoarding orientation
• Marketing orientation.
 Chapter 16

PERSONALITY RECOGNISED IN
TRAITS
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What are the main contributions of trait theory and why

is trait theory important in psychology?
• Identify and describe themes of trait theory
• Name and discuss the main assumptions of the trait theory
• Describe the structure, development, motivation and adjustment of
personality according to trait theories
• Explain what you understand psychological adjustment to be
• Discuss the aspect of consistency in personality.
What are traits?

• Distinctive traits or personality characteristics that can

more or less be consistent or enduring behaviour patterns in people,
across time and situations.

• Study of traits is essential in the aiding understanding of

individual differences indicating;
• characteristics
• internal dispositions
• observable behaviours
• thoughts and feelings
Trait or factor or dimensional
approach
• Largely responsible for qualifying psychology as a science
• Contribution in development of objective or psychometric tests
Nomothetic approach
• Establishment of general laws of human behaviour
• Emphasis on similarities and differences between people
Idiographic approach
• Identification of unique traits in each person
• Emphasis on the individual.
Main trait assumptions

• Personality consists of traits which are more or less enduring

characteristics which people have
• Traits are consistent or stable, can change over time & situations
• Trait are tendencies or a predisposition to act in a particular way
• People’s traits might be similar in some respects
• Each individual has a unique disposition
• Traits are affected by genetics, learning, culture and situational
experiences.
What is personality:
The what/how/why of people & their behaviour

Cattell’s definition Allport’s definition

Traits are the building blocks of Personality is the dynamic

personality which much provide organisation within the
personality with characteristic, individual of those
consistent behaviour to allow psychological systems that
others to know what to expect determine his characteristic
of someone. behaviour and thought.
Personality defined as traits

Allport’s definition recognises that personality …

• Is determined by interaction of biological and psychological
processes
• Is an organised whole consisting of interdependent physical,
cognitive and psychosocial aspects
• Develops, grows and changes as individual learns and matures
(personality is dynamic)
• Is expressed differently from time to time
• Motivates and directs behaviour through psychological systems
• Provides characteristic unique attributes, thoughts and behaviours
that influence adaptation.
Traits

• Utilise specific attributes to describe and explain characteristic ways

of behaving, thinking, feeling and doing
• Traits are inherited and represent learned potential or
predispositions, which direct and motivate behaviour and give
structure to personality
• Combination of traits can lead to a profile, type or style description
• Scores of personality questionnaires may be integrated using
statistical techniques in order to present types (conflict management
style, leadership style, etc).
Eysenck’s THREE factor model

Extraversion vs Emotional stability vs Tough-mindedness vs

introversion neuroticsm psychoticism

Activity Low self-esteem Aggressiveness

Sociability Unhappiness Assertiveness

Risk taking Anxiety Achievement orientation

Impulsiveness Obsessiveness Manipulation

Expressiveness Lack of autonomy Sensation seeking

Lack of reflection Hypochondria Dogmatism

Lack of responsibility Guilt Masculinity

The one-word primary factor
descriptors for the 16PF instrument
FACTOR LEFT MEANING RIGHT MEANING
Warmth Reserved Warm
Reasoning Concrete Abstract
Emotional stability Reactive Emotionally stable
Dominance Deferential Dominant
Liveliness Serious Lively
Rule consciousness Expedient Role-conscious
Social boldness Shy Socially bold
Sensitivity Utilitarian Sensitive
Vigilance Trusting Vigilant
Abstractedness Grounded Abstracted
Privateness Forthcoming Private
Apprehension Self assured Apprehensive
Open to change Traditional Open to change
Self-reliance Group oriented Self- reliant
Perfection Tolerates disorder Perfectionist
Tension Relaxed Tense
Personality as 16 factors

Reserved Outgoing

Concrete reasoning Abstract reasoning

Affected by feeling Emotionally stable
Submissive Dominant
Serious Happy-go-lucky
Expedient Rule conscientious
Timid or shy Venturesome or socially bold
Tough-minded Sensitive
Trusting Suspicious or vigilant
Practical Imaginative
Forthright Shrewd or private
Self-assured Apprehensive
Traditional Open to change
Group-Oriented Self reliant
Tolerate disorder Controlled or perfectionist
Relaxed Tense
The five factor model (FFM)

1 Extraversion (Surgency) Introversion

Warmth, assertiveness, activity-seeking, Silent, unadventurous, timid, unenergetic,
excitement, positive emotions, unassertive
gregariousness

2 Agreeableness (Friendliness) Antagonism

Trust, tender-mindedness, straight Stingy, unkind, selfish, distrustful, unhelpful
forwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty
3 Conscientiousness (Dependability) Lack of Direction
Order, competence, achievement, striving, Impractical, lazy, disorganized,
deliberation, self-disciplined, dutifulness irresponsible, careless
4 Neuroticism (Emotional instability) Emotional Stability
Hostility, anger, anxiety, impulsiveness, Relaxed, calm, contented, unemotional,
depression, self-consciousness stable
5 Openness to Experiences (Intellect) Closeness
Values, fantasy, aesthetics, actions, feelings, Uncreative, uninquisitive, unreflective,
ideas unsophisticated, unimaginative
 Interpersonal circle of personality
traits

Ambitious-dominant
Arrogant-calculating Gregarious-extraverted

Cold-quarrelsome Warm-agreeable

Aloof-introverted Unassuming-ingenious

Unassured-submissive
The four personality types of Galen
Characteristics associated with the
16 MBTI-personality type

Sensing iNtuitive

1. ISTJ 2. ISFJ 3. INFJ 4. INTJ Judging

Introvert
5. ISTP 6. ISFP 7. INFP 8. INTP Perceiving

9. ESTP 10. ESFP 11. ENFP 12. ENTP Perceiving

Extrovert
13. ESTJ 14. ESFJ 15. ENFJ 16. ENTJ Judging

Thinking Feeling Feeling Thinking

Five conflict – management style
Types of traits

General or common traits

• Personality test scores used to compare these
• Acquired through environmental learning
• Common to all or most people in a specific culture
• Neuroticism, ambitiousness, friendliness, intelligence, extra - and
introversion, masculinity and gregariousness
Source traits
• Similar to Allport’s common traits
• Underlie and determine other traits
• e.g. 16 PF
Surface traits
• Clusters of less-overt responses or behaviour (sociable – carefree,
friendly).
Unique traits

Personal dispositions
• Underlying real and unique neurophysiological structure in each trait
• Central personal dispositions – each person’s uniqueness manifested
• Secondary personal disposition – manifest in a particular situation
Central traits
• Fundamental underlying and motivational structures
Cardinal traits
• Very pervasive, strong & persistent characteristics in some people
− Authoritarian, competitive, ambitious, possessive, perfectionistic
Secondary traits
• Less overt, not generalised but can be very specific e.g. food preferences.
Traits in personality development

Proprium (Like ego, self in other theories)

• Unifying core or most personal and important aspect of personality
Allport’s propriate striving (expression of self-concept)
• Functional autonomy
− When behaviour acquired for a specific reason is persisted with, even
when the original motive no longer applies (study to further development)
Propriate functional autonomy
• People select motives that they like and which suit their self concepts
(proprium)
Preservative functional autonomy
• Behaviour which is dependent on habits, addictions and automatic
responses.
The seven proprium-development
stages
Traits in personality development

Cattell
• Dynamic traits
− Attitudes (interests, emotions and behaviour towards things)
− Ergs (basic permanent innate energy of all behaviour-drive/instinct)
− Sentiments (learned dynamic traits that direct & motivate behaviour)
• Fluid general intelligence - largely inherited
• Principle of subsidisation – mutually subordinate
Murray
• Underlying needs – primary biological, secondary psychological
• Needs aroused by cognitive & emotional motives and environmental
influences (press).
McClelland
• Need for achievement (desire to excel, perform well in tasks,
overcome obstacles and improve performance)
 Traits consistency

• Across time and situations vital in predicting behaviour

Consistency via trait consistency in people
• Stability and consistency in personality in persons
across time, situations and cultures
Consistency within and across situations
(situationism)
• Person’s perception of event influences behaviour
Consistency from person-situation
interaction (interactionism)
• Assertiveness in work vs in sport
• Consider effects of person, situation and behaviour
 Traits of psychologically healthy or
mature people
Mature people have positive
Engage in future directed
relationships with others and
behaviour according to positive
show compassion, empathy and
values
tolerance

Mature people have

Psychologically
a realistic
mature people can Traits of perception of
extend their sense of
functionally realities, and are
self to other people
realistic about their
and activities; they
are not egocentric
autonomous or own competencies
and the goals they
and do not live for mature people set for themselves
themselves only
and others

Adult mature people have Psychologically healthy people

achieved self-acceptance and have self-insight: they are not
manifest emotional security and oversensitive and also show
behaviours humour in appropriate situations
 Chapter 17
PERSONALITY THROUGH SELF
EXPERIENCES
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What are the main contributions of humanism and why

is it important in psychology?
• Identify and describe themes of humanist psychology
• Name and discuss the main assumptions of humanism
• Define self concept
• Describe the development of self
• Discuss the motivation factors in becoming a person
• Describe the optimality and deficiencies in being.
Humanistic View Defined
This perspective engages with the subjective and
unique experiences of each person that give meaning
to life.
Necessary paradigm used to understand how people
form their self-images, perceptions of others and of
the world from their own subjective experiences.

Philosophical ideas:
Phenomenology
Existentialism
The Value of Humanistic perspective

• Important in IOP to assess and facilitate

optimal functioning, well-being and job
redesign to make work more
meaningful
• Valuable in understanding the self
• Shows that most forms of human
behaviour involves some form of self-
reflection to evaluate or confirm self-
perceptions
• Interactions such as interviews, therapy
and group facilitation are richer due to
the emphasis on human dignity and
growth.
Background to humanistic view

• Views being a person or having a sense of self as a

continual rational process
• Each person has their own perception of reality
• Uniqueness of each person’s context
• Also called the third force, ( vs. psychoanalytical &
behavioural)
• View personality from an optimistic point of view
compared to Freud’s determinism and behaviourism
• Humanists are a reaction to existentialism’s emphasis
on despair in life
• Made up of various theories
• Main concern is that people are seen as intrinsically good
• Reality seen as how each person exist in the “here and
now”
Main assumptions of humanistic
approach
• Subjective or phenomenological experiences
− How people subjectively interpret events and phenomena
− Focus: Self-experience
• Uniqueness of each individual
− People’s experiences are unique as well as subjective
• Personality as a Gestalt or holistic phenomenon
− Consider the person and behaviour as a whole or in totality
− Personality is an integrated whole
• Intrinsic goodness, potential and self-actualisation of people
− Belief in people’s intrinsic ability to grow toward healthy adjustment
• Free will or self determination
− People have the ability to be in control of what happens in their lives.
Self-concept:
The integrating personality structure

Rogers – self or ego psychologist

• Concept of self central
• Comprises three premises
1. Phenomenological field
• Represents all experiences, perceptions and meanings attached to objects or
events outside the person
• Or internal experiences and meanings about the person’s own self
2. The organism
• Refers to the total psychophysical individual or person
• Person’s desire and focus is to satisfy own needs
3. The self
• Refers to individual’s perceptions of themselves as a result of their
phenomenological field experiences.
Roger’s theory: the three premises

PREMISE 2

The phenomenological
field which
incorporates the
PREMISE 3 totality of experiences
and perception
The self, constituting a
different part of the
phenomenological field
and experiential field
and composed of a pattern
PREMISE 1 Conscious perceptions

The organism,
which is the total
individual
 Terminology of the self-concept
• Self concept consistency or patterned experiential knowledge of the self
- Pattern of enduring behaviour, consistent across time and situations
• Self-awareness in adults is reflecting on self-conscious emotions
• Self-guides and self-monitoring refers to cognitive sensitivity and “self-
standards” for acceptable behaviour – self-regulation to ensure self-
control
• Self-verification & -enhancement – agreement between info from
environment and self-perceptions
• Self-assessment & self-esteem –whether one
regards oneself as good or bad or able to
do things well.
This influences various aspects of self-
perception.
 Terminology of the self-concept

• Self-schemas used to describe the self – consists of attributes people

cognitively attach to themselves (pretty, intelligent)
• Self-concepts are flexible – environment and experiences –different
selves – family, work, social
• Self-concept may denote self-identity – who one is, being a person &
belonging somewhere –Erikson’s stages, one personality, many self-
concepts
• Self-efficacy
− Conviction that one can successfully engage in productive behaviour
• Constructs (Kelly)
− Cognitive self-representation which people use to define social and
interpersonal relationships
• Constructive alternative
− Meaning of things can always change.
Different meanings of the self-
concept
 Self-concept

• Connotations
• Self as integrative force in personality (attitudes, feelings & perceptions)
• Self as director and motivator of behaviour

• Sources of ideas and perceptions about self

• True knowledge of self
• Person’s understanding of what others may think
• Wishes to be a certain way
• Various aspects of self, others and environment
Development and maintenance of self

• The ongoing process of self-concept formation and development

centres on the physical, intellectual and psychosocial spheres of
human behaviour.
• Kelly’s construct systems (meaning system)
• Progressive process
Roger’s theory
• An inherent capacity for growth towards self-actualisation
− Organismic survival values
− Positive regard
• Unconditional positive regard leads to development
• Conditional positive regard – accepted with conditions.
 Motivational forces in becoming a
person
Finding meaning in life
• Will to meaning/self-transcendence (strongest motivational force)
• Frankl’s creative, experiential and attitude values
Needs and self actualisation
• Maslow’s self-esteem and actualisers
• Rogers’ self actualisation
• Transcendent self actualisers (Mother Theresa)
• Peak experiences
• Job-characteristics model
Free will as perceived self-control
• Freedom of choice and the sense of being in control
• Learned helplessness and self-handicapping behaviours
• Fears of success and failure.
Experiencing work meaningfully
Maladjustment, adjustment and
optimality

Negative Average Positive

Abnormal Normal Optimal

Maladjustment Healthy Actualised
unhealthy
Terminology of humanistic approach

• Fully functioning person

• Optimality
• The congruency of self-perception and experience
• Perceptual distortion
• Positive thinking
• Pathogenic
• Resilience
• Salutogenetic paradigm
• Fortigenesis
• Alienation
• Roger’s client centred therapy.
 Chapter 18

PERSONALITY THROUGH
KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTIONS
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What is cognitive theory and why is it important?

• Explain the background to the cognitive view of human nature
• Name and discussion the main assumptions of the cognitive theory
• Describe the structure, development, motivation and adjustment of
personality according to the cognitive theories
• Describe the main contributions and criticism of cognitive theories
• The relationship between cognitive theory and motivation
• Explain the cognitive perspective to psychological health.
 Cognitive Psychology defined

• Cognitive psychology explores...

• How people in their relationships with the world, like to;
• Be active
• Explore
• Manipulate
• Control
• Create
• Accomplish things

• Answers the questions:

• How is knowledge acquired? (Perception & Learning)
• How is knowledge retained? (Memory)
• How is knowledge used? (Thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making)
• What form is it represented in internally? (Episodic or Semantic memory)
View of human nature and
background
Cognition (George Kelly)
• Entails process of knowing
Constructs
• Hypothesis or filters of viewing the world
• Construct predict future situation

• Both psychologists and the people they study act as scientists

• People constantly develop and test hypotheses
• Process of knowing not just an element of personality but is entire
personality.
Main assumptions

• To understand human behaviour, processing of information is vital

• Life consists of continuous process of making decisions
• People are active gatherers of information relevant to making decision
• Human behaviour is intrinsically goal-directed or self-regulated
• Use of concepts to explain how people make sense of the world
− Schema describe how people perceive, organise and interpret
information.
Cognitive interpretation of
psychological concepts
• Cognitive and the behaviourist/learning perspective
− S-R modified to S-P-R (focus on process, rejects passive theory)
• Cognitive and psychoanalysis
− Explanation of transference similar
• Cognitive and concepts
− Self-construct – core roles, core constructs and peripheral constructs
− Basic motivating forces – interpret current events to anticipate future
− Cognitive dissonance, equity theory, need to maintain unity or self consistency
− The unconscious – preverbal, submerged, suspended constructs
− Defence mechanism – identification, resistance, reaction formation.
Structure of personality

Constructive alternativism
• Unique interpretation of world based on own constructs
• Different perception of objective reality
• Behaviour is not totally determined
Mischel’s five person variables
• Construction competencies (knowledge & skill)
• Encoding strategies (perceive & group events)
• Expectancies (occurrence in situation)
• Goals and subjective values
• Self control systems and plans (rules to regulate behaviour)
Structure of personality:
More terms of cognitive theory

• Meaning structures (explain why people experience events differently,

changes over time)
• Perceptualisation (schemas, interpret info)
• Images, plans and schemata
• Multimodal behaviour therapy – BASIC-ID
− B – Behaviour
− A – Affect
− S – Sensation
− I – Imagery
− C – Cognition
− I – Interpersonal relationships
− D – Drugs.
Personal construct theory

• Developed by George Kelly

• Viewed structure of personality in terms of personal construct or
templates of reality
• Construct constantly tested against reality
• May be retained, modified or rejected
Types of constructs proposed by Kelly
• Pre-emptive construct
− Prohibits its elements from belonging to any other range (ethnic labelling)
• Constellatory construct
− Determine ways in which other constructs apply to its elements
(stereotype)
• Propositional construct
− Leaves its elements open to propositional constructs (flexible)
The fundamental postulate:
Kelly’s corollaries

Construction
• Replication of events (similarities in repeated events)
Individuality
• Different interpretations of events/constructs
Organisation
• Relationships between events/constructs
Dichotomy
• Bipolar number of constructs (two opposite poles)
Choice
• Freedom of choice.
− Clarify own constructs
− Search out new ones
The fundamental postulate:
Kelly’s corollaries (continued)

Range
• Finite range – all events applicable to construct
Experience
• Exposure to new events, new info, flexible to change
Modulation
• Adaptation to new experience
Fragmentation
• Allows contradictions and competition between constructs
Commonality
• Similarities amongst people in explaining events (culture formation)
Sociality
• Explains interpersonal relationships (mutual understanding, i.e.
spouses)
Development of personality

• Constructs are formed throughout person’s history and life

• Role Construct Repertory (Rep) test – how the world is interpreted
• Permits revelation of constructs
− A person notes similarities and differences between three significant
people (James and Sarah are friendly, John is rude)
− Notes opposites of the construct identified (James and Sarah are
sympathetic, John is not, thus; sympathetic vs sarcastic)
• Repertory grid method
− Used to obtain change in organisations
• Cognitive complexity
− Ability to perceive differences between oneself and others
Cognition and motivation
• Knowledge
− Engine of performance
• Motivation
− Energy of performance
• Creativity
− Ability to first think loosely then tighten the construct
• Implication of motivational theory
− Individuals strive toward improvement of self-efficacy: push control and
decision-making down in hierarchy
− Performance-review systems: sensitive to motivational issues
• Cognitive resource theory
− A leader's cognitive ability contributes to the performance of the team only
when the leader's approach is through directive behaviour
• Cognitive modifiability in SA context (potential vs skills)
− Cognitive principles applied to new situations after coaching.
Factors on which the incentive value
of an outcome is dependent
Psychological health

Psychological adjustment
• Constructs tested against reality logically
• C-P-C cycle
− Circumspection – Several constructs used to interpret situation considered
− Pre-emption – Single construct decided upon
− Control or choice – Pole of construct chosen that will improve prediction
Psychological maladjustment
• Rigid or invalid constructs unable to predict future events and lack of
control
• Miller – Abnormal behaviour
− The result of two incompatible plans
− Anxiety when neither one can be abandoned
Emotions

• Guilt - self dislodged from core role (“who I am”)

• Threat – widespread changes in core constructs
• Anxiety – inability to anticipate future
• Hostility – holding on to invalid construct while facing contradiction
• Aggression – place oneself in situation requiring decision
• Love (Lecky) – reaction to someone already assimilated, supports self
• Pleasure (Lecky) – mastering new experiences
Ellis rational emotive therapy (RET) – A-B-C theory-
elaboration
• A – Activation event (see spider)
• B – Belief system (spiders are dangerous)
• C – Cause (anxiety)
 Chapter 19

PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What are the main contributions of studies in

psychological well-being and why are they
important?
• Discuss the conceptualisation of pathogenic and well-being
• Explain the conceptualisation of health and well-being
• Discuss directions of research for studying well-being
• Describe constructs used to describe well-being
• Explain implications for assessment and diagnosis of well-being
• Elaborate of the implication for health promotion in
organisations.
Conceptualisation of health and well-
being
Strength paradigm
• Emphasises the well being of people, their intrinsic potential to grow
and to be in control
Well-being and health
• Actual physical, mental, emotional or psychological health of
individuals
Optimum health
• State of complete physical, mental and social well-being
Wellness
• Integrated state of functioning for maximising an individual’s potential
Positive psychology
• The study and facilitation of optimum human functioning.
Subjective well-being

• Emotional or affective well-being Subjective or

psychological well-
− Positive and negative affect being (mental health)
− E.g. Happiness and life satisfaction is a person’s perceptions
and evaluations of
• Positive psychological and social functioning his/her own life in terms
of his/her general state
− E.g. Measures of self acceptance and of well-being.
personal growth
Six facets of psychological well-being
1. Self acceptance
2. Personal growth
3. Purpose in life
4. Environmental mastery
5. Autonomy
6. Positive relations with others.
Subjective well-being (continued)

Five facets of social well-being

1. Social acceptance
2. Social actualisation
3. Social coherence
4. Social integration
5. Social contribution
Self determination model
• Three innate, essential and universal psychological needs:
1. Relatedness
2. Competence
3. Autonomy.
Role of positive emotions in
subjective well-being
Positive emotion
• Brief positive reaction to a personally meaningful event
• Include emotions like feeling of well-being, happiness, joy, interest, etc
Broad-and-build theory
• Positive emotions and affect broaden people’s reactions
• Allow building of resources dealing with contextual situation
• This result in thought-action tendency
Undoing hypothesis
• Positive emotions help both body and mind regain send of flexibility and
equilibrium
• Cognitive broadening, cognitive flexibility
3 variable contributing to positive emotions
• Humour, optimism and gratitude.
 Employee well-being

Positive emotionality
• Personality traits which form superstructure of positive emotional
experiences
• Person’s perceptions and evaluations of own life in terms of own
general state of well-being
Emotional or affective well-being
• Individual’s evaluation of own happiness & life satisfaction
Wheel of wellness
• Explores lifespan wellness and prevention
Holistic employee wellness model
• Contributes towards a clearer understanding of the concept of
employee well-being.
The holistic employee wellness
model
Sources of studying wellness:
The three main directions of research

Salutogenesis
• Exploring the origins of
health and strength
Fortigenesis
• Includes the sources of
strengths
− Benefit finding
− Emphasis on agency
Positive psychology
• Seeks to change the focus of
theory and practice from primary
preoccupation with disease and
healing to well-being and the
fostering of strengths and virtues.
Salutogenesis

• Antonovsky’s approach to stress and illness

• Exploring origins of health and well-being
General resistance resource
• Any characteristics of person, group, subculture or society which
facilitate avoidance or combating of a variety of stressors
Strumpfer’s application of salutogenesis
• Health-disease continuum
• Stress not inherently bad
• The need to study deviant cases
Six salutogenic constructs
• Sense of coherence, locus of control, self-efficacy, hardiness, potency
and learned resourcefulness.
Salutogenic constructs

Sense of coherence
• Comprehensibility, manageability, meaningfulness
Locus of control
• Internal and external
Self-efficacy
• Personal judgment of own ability
Hardiness
• Commitment to activity at hand
• Having control over life events
• Seeing change as opportunity not threat.
Salutogenic constructs (continued)

Potency
• Person’s enduring confidence in own capabilities due to previous
successes
Learned resourcefulness
• Behaviours used to control own behaviour
− Regressive
− Reformative self-control
− Experiential self-control
Coping
• Anticipatory coping
• Proactive coping.
Positive psychology:
3 broad dimensions

Subjective level
• Positive psychology entails:
− Subjective experiences
− Positive emotions
Individual level
• The study of positive and individual traits
Group or organisational level
• Entails the development, creation and maintenance of positive
institutions which encourage development.
Historical and philosophical
foundations of positive psychology
Contributions to well-being concepts
• Maslow – Motivation and personality
• Roger – Fully functioning person
• Frankl – Strive for meaning and purpose
• Adler – Striving for superiority
• Jung – Individuation and self realisation
• Allport – Mature personality
• Werner – Orthogenetic development principle
• Rotter – Locus of control
• Bandura – Self efficacy
• Rosenbaum & Ben-Ari – Learned resourcefulness.
Positive psychology:
An overview of the different categories of constructs
Constructs used to describe well-
being
Happiness
• Eudaimonic happiness or good life
• Presence of pleasure and absence of pain
• Pleasurable life – simple hedonic pleasure subjectively
experience by an individual
Hope and optimism
• Person’s future-mindedness and orientation about successful
outcomes of endeavours.
Constructs used to describe well-
being (continued)
Virtues
• Virtues are core human characteristics
• Character strengths – distinguishable routes
• Enabling themes – allow for development
• Signature strengths – individuals use daily
• 6 Virtues
− Wisdom
− Courage
− Humanity
− Justice
− Temperance
− Transcendence.
Implications for health promotion
within organisations
• Proposed of a bidirectional causal relationship between employee
well-being and positive outcomes of business
− Productivity enhances feelings of well-being AND well-being enhances
productivity
• Low levels of well-being impacts financial health and profitability
• Financial cost includes
− Costs associated with lost productivity, absenteeism and turnover
− Indirect cost of workplace accidents
− Medical aid costs
− Law suit costs.
• Shift in thinking – reducing illness to promoting subjective well-being
− How can we enhance and develop an employee’s existing strengths?
Qualities of positive work
environments
• Opportunity for personal • Availability of money
control
• Physical security
• Opportunity for skill use
• Opportunity for
• Reasonable externally interpersonal contact
generated goals
• Valued social position
• Variety
• Supportive supervision.
• Environmental clarity

I-O psychologists should remain involved in developing and enhancing these

aspects of organisation in order to enhance job satisfaction and
organisational effectiveness.
 Chapter 20

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
AND WORK ADJUSTMENTS
 Learning outcomes to keep in mind whilst studying this chapter

What are the main contributions of studies in

psychological disorders and work-adjustments and why
are they important?
• Define psychological health
• Discuss the explanations for psychological adjustment and
maladjustment
• Describe diagnostic systems for psychological disorders
• Describe types of (classification) psychological disorders
• Discuss culture-bound syndromes.
Occupational psychological well-
being
Psychopathology
• The study of causes, characteristics and treatment of psychological
disorders in individuals and groups
Psychological maladjustment at work
• Employee’s behaviours, emotions, attitudes and thoughts that impair
work performance
Work dysfunction
• Includes symptoms of, but not necessarily completely diagnosed,
psychological disorders or syndromes
Occupational well-being
• Includes group, managerial and organisational phenomena and other
work-related problems.
Occupational psychological well-
being (defined)
Psychological health
• Refers to thoughts, perceptions, feelings, attitudes and behaviours
that might affect personal effectiveness and happiness, and impair
behaviour
Work adjustment
• Refers to occupational well-being
• A process of development in which the individual progressively learns
a productive role or attitude which will eventually characterise the
work personality.
Explanations for psychological
adjustment and maladjustment
Do psychologists study and manage illness or wellness?
• Psychopathology (and work maladjustment) focuses on illness
• Positive psychology emphasises development of health/wellness
• Balance achieved through using these approaches in a supplementary manner
Psychological and other theoretical explanations
• Range from animist (supernatural forces) explanations to scientific
psychological theories
• Cultural emphasis
• Explanations include both general and unique with regard to biological and
genetic factors evolutionary explanations, learned behaviours etc
Person-environment fit models
• Similar to job-characteristics model
• Employee-organisation congruent.
Stress models

• Acute stress – sudden onset of event Stress refers to the

physical and
• Chronic stress – long duration psychological reaction of
people to the adjustment
• Stressors – causes or stimuli for stress or coping demands of
reaction stressors.

• Hassle-and-uplifts approach – stress may arise from daily

hassles and uplifts
• Assessment and study of effect of stressors – examines life
changes and event occurring in people’s lives
• Social Readjustment Rating Scale
− Objective method for measuring cumulative stress.
Socio-cultural perspective

• Seek the causes of psychological disorders in social and

cultural stressors
• In psychology theory and practice attempts are made to
integrate sound cultural explanations in the classification of disorders
• Movement for indigenous psychologies emphasise the
need to indigenise existing and new psychological knowledge.
Psychological disorders

• Classifications of psychopathology syndromes as practiced worldwide

including in South Africa (APA 1994)
• Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TM)
Diagnostic statistical manual (DSM)
• Axis I – Any clinical disorder, related clinical conditions
• Axis II – Personal disorder and mental retardation
• Axis III – Possible general medical and physical problems
• Axis IV – Psychosocial and environmental problems
• Axis V – Global assessment of general functioning.
Psychological disorders

• Immune system
• Adjustment disorders
− Stress reactions to adverse life-events
• Psychological factors and physical disorders (Psycho-physiological
disorders)
− Manifestation of physical symptoms as a result of psychological stress
and negative emotions.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) explains how individuals react physically and
psychologically to acute and chronic stress-over short term and over even longer periods.

1st phase (alarm-and-mobilisation phase)

• Preparation to counteract stress and its effects
2nd phase (resistance phase)
• Rate of adaptive reactions increases as the endocrine system comes
into operation
3rd phase (exhaustion and disintegration phase)
• Sustained stress exceeds individual’s capacity for physical and
psychological adaptation.
Anxiety disorders (neurosis)

• Are less-serious psychological disorders when compared

with psychoses
• Characterised by consciously experiencing undefined anxiety
and panic
• Characterised by unsuccessful and misplaced attempts to
control the anxiety
• Feelings and intensity can vary from acute feelings of panic to
more chronic anxiety
• Secondary symptoms include tension, depression, anguish,
insomnia, irritation, stomach ulcers and cardiovascular problems.
Anxiety disorders (continued)

• Manifestations of anxiety
− Physical features
− Anxious social behaviours
− Cognitive symptoms
Types of anxiety disorders
• Generalised anxiety disorders (GAD)
− Chronic protracted conditions characterised by repeated episodes of
intense, undefined or free floating anxiety
• Obsessive-compulsive disorders
− Characterised by obsessive thoughts, ideas, feelings and action usually
irrational which an is individual unable to control
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
− Immediately after or some time after an intense traumatically acute or
chronic stressor
• Other types of panic and phobic disorders.
Personality disorders

• Also called character or social disorders

• Characterised by rigid and poorly acquired patterns of behaviour
• Often observable during childhood and adolescence
• Affected persons often experience their deviance as an integral part of
themselves.
Personality disorders (continued)

Eccentric behaviour
• Paranoid
• Schizoid
• Schizo-typical
Dramatic, emotional or erratic behaviour
• Narcissistic personality
• Antisocial personality or psychopath
• Histrionic personality
• Borderline personality
Anxious behaviour
• Obsessive-compulsive personality
• Avoidant personality
• Dependent personality.
Stages of substance dependence

Stage 1
The experimentation stage substances are used occasionally; users feel euphoric
and elated, but still in control

Stage 2
The routine-use stage is characterised by recurrent use

Stage 3
The dependence stage involves loss of control over the substance use, but often
also a near-total loss of all life-interests
Mood disorders and suicide

Mood disorders are characterised by disorders of emotions and moods which disturb
physical, social, cognitive and perceptual functioning.

Postpartum depression
• Depression experienced by mothers after child birth
Major depressive disorder
• Persistent and recurrent episodes of sadness and depression without any
occurrence or history of manic or elated mood states
Dysthymic depressive disorder
• Mild but persistent form of depression
• Bipolar affective or manic depressive disorder
• Mild but persistent form of depression
Cyclothymic depressive disorder
• Continuous mood disturbances with numerous fluctuations.
Dissociative disorders

Dissociative disorders occur when the afflicted person experiences loss of memory
and conscious life.

Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality)

• Characterised by a person assuming several totally different and
independent personalities
Dissociative amnesia
• Involves loss of memory for shorter or longer periods
Dissociative fugue
• Memory loss is linked with a “flight reaction” to new environments
Depersonalisation disorder
• Related to multiple personality
• Detachment from own identity and body.
Somatic disorders

Somatic disorders refer to patterns of behaviour where individuals complains of

physical symptoms without proof organic cause.

Hypochondriasis
• Complaints of numerous physical diseases and fear diseases
Other somatising disorders
• Characterised by complaints of, and treatments for, many physical
pains and illnesses over long periods of time
− Example: “Factitious disorders” – deliberately fabricating and lying about
diseases
Conversion disorders (hysteria)
• Involve patterns of behaviour indicating apparent physical dysfunction
or loss of control over physical functions without underlying organic
pathology.
Schizophrenia (functional psychosis)

• Refers to complex clinical conditions which can develop in various ways

Types
• Paranoid schizophrenia
• Catatonic schizophrenia
• Hebephrenic schizophrenia or disorganised schizophrenia
• Simple schizophrenia
• Process schizophrenia
• Reactive schizophrenia may have sudden onset
Type I schizophrenia
• “Positive” symptoms
Type II schizophrenia
• “Negative” symptoms.
Other psychotic disorders

• Delusional disorder
− Although similar to paranoid schizophrenia in some ways, it is a separate
disorder
• Hallucination (as a purely clinical condition – rare)
− An inaccurate observation without the existence of the corresponding
stimulus
• Cognitive disorders and disorders related to age
• Eating and sleeping disorders
• Disorders involving gender and sexuality
• Abnormal behaviour in childhood and adolescence
• Culture-bound syndromes.
Work dysfunctions and organisational
health
• Disturbances in the capacity to work
• Patterns of under-commitment
• Patterns of over-commitment
• Work-related anxiety, fears and depression
• Personality and behavioural dysfunctions at work
• Work and non-work conflicts
• Career-development problems
• Organisational health
• Other work-related problems.
Promoting and managing well-being
at work
Job characteristics model
• Positive performance and well-being outcomes will result if employee
experiences aspects like meaningfulness, responsibility and feedback
Demand (control) model
• Work and jobs must be designed to minimise high job demand, which causes
high strain employees
Demands and resources model
• Work impediments minimised, demands or requirements are appropriate, and
employees have internal and external resources available to provide optimal
work
The risk management model
• Emphasises the minimisation of psychosocial risk factors on the job or
workplace
The preventive-health-management model
• Emphasises some form of prevention to minimise the effects of work stress.
Employee assistance programmes

• Focus on the holistic approach to well-being

• Comprehensive programmes promote health at three levels:
− Organisational (management involvement and support)
− Environmental (physical hygiene factors)
− Individual & group (attitudes, lifestyles, behaviours etc.)
• In-house programmes
• Health promotion activities
• Seven levels of client needs
• Coping and self control behaviours
• Crisis and trauma management.
 THE END
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