recycling

Review
Comparison of Properties with Relevance for the Automotive
Sector in Mechanically Recycled and Virgin Polypropylene
Abdelhak Ladhari 1,† , Esra Kucukpinar 2 , Henning Stoll 1 and Sven Sängerlaub 1,3, *,†

1 Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering,

Munich University of Applied Sciences HM, Lothstraße 38, 80335 Munich, Germany;
ladhari.abdelhak@hm.edu (A.L.); henning.stoll@hm.edu (H.S.)
2 Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Giggenhauser Strasse 35,
85354 Freising, Germany; esra.kucukpinar@ivv.fraunhofer.de
3 Department of Building Services Engineering, Paper and Packaging Technology and Print and Media Technology,
Munich University of Applied Sciences HM, Lothstraße 38, 80335 Munich, Germany
* Correspondence: sven.saengerlaub@hm.edu
† Both authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Polypropylene (PP) has a high recycling potential. However, the properties of mechanically
recycled PP (R-PP) have not been fully compared to those of virgin PP (V-PP). Therefore, in this study,
properties of R-PP and V-PP were compared using data from recyclers, virgin plastic suppliers, and
the literature. The properties of recyclates could not be directly correlated either with the properties
of the virgin polymers from which the recyclates were made or the recycling parameters. It was found



that the MFR of R-PP was higher; MFR R-PP had a median value (m) of 11 g/10 min while MFR V-PP


had a median value of 6.3 g/10 min (at 230 ◦ C and with 2.16 kg). In terms of mechanical properties,
Citation: Ladhari, A.; Kucukpinar, E.; in many cases R-PP exhibited stiffer and more brittle behavior, with a slightly higher Young’s
Stoll, H.; Sängerlaub, S. Comparison modulus (ER-PP = 1400 and EV-PP = 1200 MPa), a reduced elongation at break (E bR-PP = 4 l.-% and
of Properties with Relevance for the
E bV-PP = 83 l.-%), and notched charpy impact strength (NCISR-PP = 4.8 and NCISV-PP = 7.5 kJ/m2 ).
Automotive Sector in Mechanically
However, the values for every property had a broad distribution. In addition to existing information
Recycled and Virgin Polypropylene.
from the literature, our research sheds fresh light on the variation of the characteristics of recycled
Recycling 2021, 6, 76. https://
polypropylenes presently on the market.
doi.org/10.3390/recycling6040076

Academic Editors:
Keywords: recycling; polypropylene; polypropylene recyclates; mechanical properties; rheological
Francesco Paolo La Mantia properties; automotive
and Beatrice Castellani

Received: 18 October 2021

Accepted: 21 November 2021 1. Introduction
Published: 24 November 2021 1.1. Plastics in the Car Industry
Plastics and the automobile industry have a shared history dating back to 1839, when
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Charles Goodyear developed vulcanized rubber by altering the mechanical characteristics
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
of natural rubber from the Pará rubber tree. This rubber was the one of the world’s first
published maps and institutional affil-
polymers; it had a high relevance for cars and was quickly adopted for use in automobile tires [1].
iations.
After World War II, the widespread usage of plastics in the automotive sector under-
went a major shift. The potential to create a low-cost petroleum-derived gasoline provided
a cohesive and dependable raw material for the manufacturing of low-cost plastics [2]. This
presented the automobile sector with many possibilities. Today, the automotive industry ranks
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. third in terms of plastics consumption, after packaging and building and construction [3].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
The use of plastics in the car manufacturing industry presents several advantages,
This article is an open access article
such as the following: (1) Fuel efficiency: The incorporation of plastics into vehicle design
distributed under the terms and
improves fuel efficiency and reduces overall emissions. Substituting plastics for heavier
conditions of the Creative Commons
materials results in an overall weight decrease, with a 10% weight reduction resulting
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
in a 3% to 7% increase in fuel economy [4]. (2) Design and innovation: External plastic
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
vehicle cladding enables automobile designers to develop novel designs that would not
4.0/).

Recycling 2021, 6, 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6040076 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/recycling

Recycling 2021, 6, 76 2 of 11

be achievable with metal. (3) Safety: Polymers are used to construct automobile safety
systems such as airbags and seatbelts. Exterior items, for example bumpers, serve as shields,
assisting in the prevention and/or mitigation of damage to the vehicle’s body caused by
low-speed accidents. Bumpers are important because they lower the chance of pedestrian
harm in low-speed crashes by absorbing energy and separating pedestrians from the more
rigid structural sections of the automobile [5]. (4) Weather resistance: synthetic coatings on
metal surfaces are employed to minimize the risk of corrosion caused by salt damage, high
heat, and water exposure.
The percentages of the top six plastics and polymers used in automobiles with different
powertrain configurations manufactured between 2016 and 2020 are as follows: 44% PP,
4% PBT, PET, 5% ABS, 7% PE, 8% PA, 9% PUR, and 23% others [6]. There are currently
approximately 39 different types of plastics and polymers used in the manufacture of
automobiles [7]; however, 72 kg of the 158 kg of plastic used is polypropylene (PP) [6].
European manufacturers alone use over one million tons of PP per year [8], which gives
PP a huge recycling potential. Key automotive application features of PP are its low
coefficient of linear thermal expansion and specific gravity, high chemical resistance, and
good weatherability, processability, and impact/stiffness balance. PP characteristics may
be further improved with the use of additives such as long-glass fiber reinforcing. Main
applications include bumpers, air ducts, battery cases and trays, fender liners, interior trim,
instrumental panels, and door trims [6]. Typical PP property requirements for automotive
applications are given in Table S1.
Automotive manufacturers worldwide have committed to reducing their industrial
footprints and plastics have been identified as a critical component of these environmental
sustainability initiatives. Volvo, the Swedish car manufacturer, stated that by 2025, at least
25% of the plastics used in its vehicles would come from recycled materials. As recyclates
are increasingly being used to create new automotive components [9], competition between
the recycled plastics may occur. To prevent production problems, it is necessary to ensure
a continuous supply of recycled material throughout the manufacturing process of an
automobile component. Therefore, recycling becomes interesting, but in order to use
recycled plastics as a substitute, recyclers must guarantee that they have sufficient technical
and quality properties compared to the virgin material. The substitution factor is the
key parameter that describes the effect of substituting recycled plastic for virgin plastic,
it being the ratio of virgin to recycled material for the same application. A substitution
factor of 1 indicates that recycled material can replace virgin plastic without increasing the
product’s weight. When more recycling material is required to compensate for physical
properties, the substitution factor is less than 1. If substitution of virgin materials in
products is not possible and the R-PP is instead used in lower-quality products, it is
called “downcycling” [10].

1.2. Degradation of PP during Multiple Extrusions

During extrusion, PP degrades, which is a known phenomenon. Different research
groups have conducted multiple extrusion experiments to analyze the influence of this
degradation. The subjects of these investigations were thermal properties (DSC, TGA),
rheological measurements (MFR), mechanical properties, and spectroscopy [11–33]. Molec-
ular weight decreases [13,34] by chain scission [28,35] causing lower viscosity and higher
MFR [13,15,25,36–38]. The molecular weight distribution is narrowed, which is associated
with higher flowability of the polymer melt but also lower mechanical performance of
parts thereof [34]. A higher extrusion temperature results in a higher MFR [37] caused
by more chain scission. In addition, a higher crystallinity [11,15,36] can be explained by
smaller macromolecules, which arrange and crystallize easier. A higher crystallinity due
to chain scission during multiple extrusion has been associated in several studies (but
not all) with a higher tensile modulus and tensile strength [36] but a lower elongation
at break [11,16]. However, in contrast, a lower tensile strength (here yield stress) was
 elongation at break [11,16]. However, in contrast, a lower tensile strength (here yield
Recycling 2021, 6, 76
stress) was observed with more extrusion cycles [13]. Virgin PP has a higher resistance3 of 11
to
break due to its higher molecular weight [30].
PP recyclates often contain traces of impurities such as other polymers (PA, PE, PET)
[39,40]. In such samples, lower tensile impact strength and strain but higher tensile
observed with more extrusion cycles [13]. Virgin PP has a higher resistance to break due to
strength and tensile modulus were observed [39].
its higher molecular weight [30].
PP recyclates often contain traces of impurities such as other polymers (PA, PE,
1.3.
PET)Intention
[39,40]. of
In This
suchStudy
samples, lower tensile impact strength and strain but higher tensile
strength and tensile modulus
The aim of this study was weretoobserved
compare [39].
the mechanical and rheological properties of
market-available recycled polypropylene (R-PP) with those of virgin polypropylene (V-
1.3. Intention of This Study
PP). We used the presented results of product data sheets and of various studies. Our
The aim of this study was to compare the mechanical and rheological properties
hypotheses were as follows:
of market-available recycled polypropylene (R-PP) with those of virgin polypropylene
(V-PP). We used the presented results of product data sheets and of various studies. Our
Hypothesis 1 (H1).
hypotheses were as R-PP has a higher MFR, tensile modulus, and yield strength compared to V-PP;
follows:

Hypothesis
Hypothesis 21(H2).
(H1).R-PP
R-PPhas
hasa alower elongation
higher at break
MFR, tensile and charpy
modulus, impact
and yield strength
strength compared to V-
compared
PP.
to V-PP;

Hypothesis ourR-PP
2 (H2).
We based has a loweron
assumption elongation at break and charpy
the phenomenon impact
of chain strengthwhich
scission, compared
causes a
to V-PP.
higher macromolecule mobility and therefore a higher crystallinity and lower elongation
at break.
We based our assumption on the phenomenon of chain scission, which causes a higher
macromolecule mobility and therefore a higher crystallinity and lower elongation at break.
2. Results and Discussion
2. Results
2.1. and Discussion
Rheological Properties (MFR)
2.1. Rheological Properties (MFR)
The melt flow rate (MFR) is a parameter that indicates the resistance to flow of a
The melt flow rate (MFR) is a parameter that indicates the resistance to flow of a
polymer melt (viscosity) at a particular temperature and applied force over a specified
polymer melt (viscosity) at a particular temperature and applied force over a specified
length of time. All values here were measured at 230 °C and with 2.16 kg weight. Full
length of time. All values here were measured at 230 ◦ C and with 2.16 kg weight. Full
viscosity
viscosity curves werenot
curves were notprovided
providedby by
thethe suppliers.
suppliers.
Figure
Figure 11 shows
showsthat
that both
both R-PP
R-PP andand
V-PPV-PP
MFR MFR
valuesvalues
spannedspanned
a broad a broad
range. range.
MFR R-PP
MFRR-
hada amedian
PPhad median value of 11 g/10 min (this means that 50% of the values collected for R-PP R-PP
value of 11 g/10 min (this means that 50% of the values collected for
were
were over 11 g/10
over 11 g/10 min)
min)while
whileMFRMFR had
had
V-PP
V-PP a median
a median value
value of 6.25
of 6.25 g/10g/10
min.min.

Figure 1. MFR values of recycled (R-PP) andvirgin polypropylene (V-PP) at 230 ◦ C and with 2.16 kg;
for data,
Figure 1. see
MFR Table S2. of recycled (R-PP) and virgin polypropylene (V-PP) at 230 °C and with 2.16
values
kg; for data, see Table S2.
 MFR indirectly correlates with molecular weight (Mw), with a low melt flow
dicating a high Mw [41]. Multiple extrusions have been demonstrated to result in
tion in the average molecular weight [24,42]. The decrease in molecular weight
ascribed to a chain scission mechanism caused by thermomechanical effects [43
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 4 of 11
fore, the result matches prior findings on the Mw reduction of PP due to the r
process. Stabilizers may be used to avoid this increase in MFI, but they also are ex
through recycling operations [15]. Information about their use in the present sa
MFR indirectly correlates with molecular weight (Mw ), with a low melt flow rate
unknown.
indicating a high Mw [41]. Multiple extrusions have been demonstrated to result in a
Theinvalues
reduction found
the average for R-PP
molecular were
weight still acceptable
[24,42]. The decreaseboth for injection
in molecular weight and
has blow
processes.
been ascribedMFR values
to a chain of 1 to
scission 100 g/10caused
mechanism min (230 °C/2.16 kg) for injection
by thermomechanical effects [43].molding
Therefore, the result matches prior findings on
g/10 min for extrusion blow molding, and 10–25 the M w reduction of PP due to the recycling
g/10 min for injection blow mold
process. Stabilizers may be used to avoid this increase in MFI, but they also are exhausted
been reported to be suitable [34]. Injection molding and the blow molding techn
through recycling operations [15]. Information about their use in the present samples
isextensively
unknown. utilized in the automobile sector due to their ability to produce com
products in afound
The values variety of forms
for R-PP and
were still shapes both
acceptable thatforwould beand
injection difficult to achieve w
blow molding
◦ C/2.16 kg) for injection molding,
technologies
processes. MFReven atof
values a considerably
1 to 100 g/10 mingreater
(230 cost [44].
1.0–2.5 g/10 min for extrusion blow molding, and 10–25 g/10 min for injection blow
molding have been reported to be suitable [34]. Injection molding and the blow molding
2.2. Mechanical Properties
technique are extensively utilized in the automobile sector due to their ability to produce
2.2.1. Tensile
complicated Modulus
products in a variety of forms and shapes that would be difficult to achieve
with other technologies even at a considerably greater cost [44].
R-PP had slightly a higher tensile modulus than V-PP (Figure 2); this coul
plained
2.2. by the
Mechanical higher crystallinity of the R-PP. With each recycling cycle, the d
Properties
crystallinity
2.2.1. increases [16]. As molecular weight decreases, chain mobility incre
Tensile Modulus
crystallization happens
R-PP had slightly in tensile
a higher a more organized
modulus manner
than V-PP [45].
(Figure 2); Crystalline
this could be materials
ex-
plained by the higher crystallinity of the R-PP. With each recycling cycle,
siderably stiffer than the same plastics in an amorphous state [15,46] due the degree of to a hig
crystallinity increases [16]. As molecular weight decreases, chain mobility increases and
sile modulus.
crystallization happens in a more organized manner [45]. Crystalline materials are con-
A higher
siderably tensile
stiffer than the modulus caninalso
same plastics be caused state
an amorphous by inorganic
[15,46] duefillers used to rein
to a higher
Fillersmodulus.
tensile can act as nucleating agents. Nucleating agents increase crystallinity [47–4

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Tensile
Tensile modulus
modulus valuesvalues
of R-PP of
andR-PP
V-PP;and V-PP;
for data, seefor data,
Table S2. see Table S2.

A higher tensile modulus can also be caused by inorganic fillers used to reinforce PP.
2.2.2. Yield Strength
Fillers can act as nucleating agents. Nucleating agents increase crystallinity [47–49].
The median of the R-PP yield strength (σy) was similar to that of the V-PP (F
2.2.2. Yield Strength
However, the R-PP values had a wider distribution. The possible increase in yield
The median of the R-PP yield strength (σy ) was similar to that of the V-PP (Figure 3).
could be associated with the higher crystallinity of the recycled polypropylene, w
However, the R-PP values had a wider distribution. The possible increase in yield strength
sultsbe
could from increased
associated with intermolecular bonding
the higher crystallinity inrecycled
of the the crystalline phasewhich
polypropylene, [45].
results from increased intermolecular bonding in the crystalline phase [45].
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 5 of 11
Recycling 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Recycling 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Figure3.3.Yield
Figure Yieldstrength
strengthof
ofR-PP
R-PPand
andV-PP;
V-PP;for
fordata,
data,see
seeTable
TableS2.
S2.

2.2.3.
2.2.3.Elongation
Figure Elongation at
3. Yield strengthatBreak
Break
of R-PP and V-PP; for data, see Table S2.
The
The median of theelongation
median of the elongationof ofbreak
breakof ofR-PP
R-PPwas waslowerlower than
than that
that of
of V-PP
V-PP(Figure
(Figure4).4).
2.2.3.
The Elongation
Theelongation
elongation at at Break
atbreak
breakisisexpected
expectedto todrop
dropas asthe
themolecular
molecularweightweightdecreases,
decreases,because
because
shorterThechains
shorter medianare of the elongation
easier
easier of breakallowing
totountangle,
untangle, of R-PP was
allowing lower
thethe testtestthan that oftoV-PP
specimen
specimen (Figure
to break
break 4). a lower
at a at
lower elon-
The elongation
elongation at break
percentage.
gation percentage. Alongis expected
Along
with withto drop as
variations
variations the molecular
in thein weight
the molecular
molecular decreases,
weight, weight, because
the increase
the increase of
of crystal-
shorter chainsasare
crystallinity easier to untangle,
a consequence allowing
ofscission
chain the test
scission also specimen
influencesto break at a lower elon-
the elongation atInbreak. In
linity as a consequence of chain also influences the elongation at break. contrast
gation percentage.
contrast tensileAlong with variations incrystallinity
the moleculardecreases
weight, thethe increase
valueofofat
crystal-
to tensiletomodulus, modulus,
increasingincreasing
crystallinity decreases the value of elongation
linity as a consequence of chain scission also influences the elongation at break. In contrast
elongation
break becauseat
break because
thetensile
stiff crystal the stiff
particles crystal particles
are crystallinity are
unable to stretch unable
likethe to
thevalue stretch
amorphous like the
polymer amorphous
chains polymer
[50]. Another
to modulus, increasing decreases of elongation at break because
chains [50]. for
Another explanation forofthe reduced elongation of break of Their
recyclates is
the stiff crystal particles are unable to stretch like the amorphous polymer chains [50]. Another contents
explanation the reduced elongation break of recyclates is impurities [40].
impurities
explanation [40].
in the recyclates Their
for thewere
reduced contents
notelongation in
known and the recyclates
their of
of break impact were
could
recyclates not known and
therefore [40].
is impurities not be their impact
evaluated.
Their contents could
therefore not bewere
in the recyclates evaluated.
not known and their impact could therefore not be evaluated.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Elongation
Elongationatat
break of of
break R-PP andand
R-PP V-PP; for data,
V-PP; see Table
for data, S2. S2.
see Table
Figure 4. Elongation at break of R-PP and V-PP; for data, see Table S2.
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 6 of 11

Recycling 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

2.2.4. Charpy Impact Strength

2.2.4.Figure
Charpy 5 shows
Impact a significant decrease in the median of the charpy impact strength
Strength
for R-PP in comparison to V-PP.
Figure 5 shows a significant In general,
decrease a high
in the median molecular
of the weight
charpy impact [41]forand a narrow
strength
molecular
R-PP in comparison to V-PP. In general, a high molecular weight [41] and a narrow mo- crystallinity
weight distribution enhance impact resistance, whereas increasing
and voids
lecular reduce
weight it. Theenhance
distribution lower charpy impact strength
impact resistance, whereasmakes R-PP
increasing unsuitable for use in
crystallinity
and voids
high reduce it. The
concentrations inlower
new charpy impact strength
car bumpers, becausemakes R-PP unsuitable for medium
the energy-absorbing use in in a good
high concentrations
bumper in new withstand
system should car bumpers,the
because the and
impact energy-absorbing
absorb the medium in a good
crash energy to limit vehicle
bumper system should withstand the impact and absorb the crash energy to limit vehicle
damage. A good bumper system should also have enough resilience and deformability [5].
damage. A good bumper system should also have enough resilience and deformability [5].

Figure 5.5.Charpy
Figure Charpyimpact strength
impact of R-PP
strength of and
R-PPV-PP;
andfor data,for
V-PP; see data,
Table S2.
see Table S2.
2.2.5 Correlation
2.2.5. Correlationof Properties
of Properties
In Figure 6, tensile modulus and MFR are correlated, showing data specifications for
In Figure 6, tensile modulus and MFR are correlated, showing data specifications for
both results. There was no correlation observed between the tensile modulus and MFR.
both results.
However, There
values wasscattered
for V-PP no correlation observed
more than those for between
R-PP. Duethe tensile
to the modulus
fact the exact and MFR.
However, values for V-PP scattered more than those for R-PP. Due to
compositions of the PPs were unknown, results could not be significantly correlated.
Recycling 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW the fact
7 of 11 the exact
compositions of the PPs were unknown, results could not be significantly correlated.

3000

2500
Tensile Modulus / MPa

2000

1500
Recycled

1000 Virgin

500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
MFR / g 10min−1

Figure 6. Tensile modulus and MFR values of R-PP and V-PP.

Figure 6. Tensile modulus and MFR values of R-PP and V-PP.
In Figure 7, tensile modulus and elongation at break are correlated, showing data
specifications for both results. A higher crystallinity correlated with a higher tensile
strength and a lower elongation at break. There was no strong correlation observed be-
tween the tensile modulus and elongation at break. However, values for R-PP scattered
more than those for V-PP. Due to the fact the exact compositions of the PPs were un-
 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
MFR / g 10min−1
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 7 of 11

Figure 6. Tensile modulus and MFR values of R-PP and V-PP.

InInFigure
Figure7,7,tensile
tensile modulus
modulus andand elongation
elongation at break
at break are correlated,
are correlated, showing
showing data data
specifications
specificationsfor forboth
bothresults.
results.A A
higher
highercrystallinity correlated
crystallinity withwith
correlated a higher tensile
a higher tensile
strength and a lower elongation at break. There was no strong correlation
strength and a lower elongation at break. There was no strong correlation observed be- observed
between
tween the thetensile
tensile modulus
modulus and
andelongation
elongationatatbreak. However,
break. However, values for R-PP
values scattered
for R-PP scattered
more than those for V-PP. Due to the fact the exact compositions of the PPs were
more than those for V-PP. Due to the fact the exact compositions of the PPs were un- unknown,
results
known, could not could
results be significantly correlated. correlated.
not be significantly

2500

2000
Tensile Modulus / MPa

1500

Recycled
1000
Virgin

500

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Elongation at break / l.-%

Figure7.7.Tensile
Figure Tensile modulus
modulus and
and elongation
elongation at break
at break values
values of R-PP
of R-PP and V-PP.
and V-PP.

3.3.Materials
Materialsand
andMethods
Methods
InInorder
ordertotogather
gatherinformation
informationononthe
themechanical
mechanicalandandrheological
rheologicalproperties
propertiesofofR-R-PP,
PP, over 570 plastic recycling plants’ websites were visited or directly contacted throughemail
over 570 plastic recycling plants’ websites were visited or directly contacted through
email to get information in the primary research stage. Three percent of the companies
to get information in the primary research stage. Three percent of the companies (i.e., 18
(i.e., 18 plants) had datasheets on their websites or were willing to provide them upon
plants) had datasheets on their websites or were willing to provide them upon request. In
request. In the secondary research, data were mainly collected from research papers and
the secondary research, data were mainly collected from research papers and journal ar-
journal articles. For V-PP, most of the information was obtained from the websites of plastic
ticles. Forwhere
suppliers, V-PP,most
mostsuppliers
of the information was obtained
provided product from the websites of plastic suppli-
datasheets.
ers, To
where most suppliers provided product datasheets.
compare the technical properties of R-PP with those of V-PP, quantitative data were
required. Table 1 displays the data collection matrix.
Table 1. Data collection matrix (see File S1); databases accessed March–July 2021.

Perspective Primary Research Secondary Research

R-PP Datasheets from plastic recycling plants Research papers, journal articles
V-PP Datasheets from plastic suppliers Reference books, publications

Table 2 summarizes the data gathered on V-PP and R-PP, as well as the equivalent
number of values collected.
Table 2. Data and number of values collected.

Property R-PP V-PP

Melt flow rate (MFR) 51 74
Tensile modulus (E) 53 37
Tensile strength at yield (σy ) 40 61
Elongation at break (E b ) 45 20
Notched charpy impact strength 55 48
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 8 of 11

The results of the data collection are given in Table S2. The data for V-PP lacked
information on the molecular weight distribution, conformation, crystallinity, extrusion
process, flexural strength, additives, and the material’s chemical composition. The data
for R-PP lacked, in addition, information about the number of extrusions and impurities.
There was also no information about the grades of PP (homo-polymer, random copolymer,
or block copolymer). These three grades cannot be separated during the recycling sorting
process because the majority of plastic recycling facilities sort plastics using near-infrared
reflection (NIR) spectroscopy [24]; this sorting method can sort the main polymers but not
the grades of the polymers. All types of PP are blended and marketed as a single product
after recycling. To obtain insight into the rheological and mechanical characteristics of
various kinds of V-PP, datasheets were randomly chosen.
There are two widely used testing methods for determining the tensile properties of
resin samples: (1) American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM): the ASTM D638 standard
is primarily used in North America. (2) International Standards Organization (ISO): the
ISO 527 standard is used primarily throughout Europe and Asia. While there are many
variations between the injection molding and analytical testing techniques specified by the
ISO and ASTM standards [42], the findings achieved using each approach are similar for
the majority of tensile tests [43]. Therefore, the outcomes of both methods were evaluated
together. However, there was a considerable variation in the impact resistance recorded for
various resin types using each protocol [15] (ASTM D6110 and ISO 179); thus, only results
from ISO 179 were compared in this study. As for MFI, the two major test standards are
ASTM D1238 and ISO 1133; both standards measure the same property and should deliver
the same result when properly conducted.
To make comparisons easier and to gain a better understanding of the distribution of
the data collected for each property of V-PP and R-PP, Excel box plots were used. In a box
plot, quantitative data are split into quartiles, with a line drawn between the first and third
quartiles to represent the median. Outside the first and third quartiles, the minima and
maxima are depicted with lines. The interquartile range (IQR) is the gap between the third
and first quartiles. Excel classifies a data item as an “outlier” if it is greater than the third
quartile by 1.5 times the IQR or smaller than the first quartile by 1.5 times the IQR.

4. Conclusions
As expected from and in harmony with the general theory of polymer processing and
polymer physics, the findings of our study indicate that the median of market-available
recycled polypropylene is lower for the impact strength and the elongation at break but
slightly higher for the tensile modulus compared to market-available virgin polypropylene.
Even though it was impossible from the available market data to draw a direct
dependency between the properties of virgin and recycled PP, it can be assumed that both
correlate with each other (see Section 1.2). It can be assumed further that recycling causes
changes in the mechanical properties. Interestingly, and as expected, the properties of
virgin PPs scattered widely, reflecting the many PP grades available on the market.
Our results should be considered when making substitutions of virgin material in car
products. The value of the recyclates generated from PP-based automotive parts can be
increased by identifying applications in which the recyclates’ characteristics of a higher
tensile modulus can be uniquely utilized even though the recycled material is more brittle
with a lower elongation at break. It is worth mentioning that, because of the high variability
of results, cases can be found where recycled PP has higher values than virgin PP for a
technical parameter.
The exact composition, molecular weight distribution, and conformity of the R-PP
and V-PP samples were not known. Therefore, it was not possible in this study to attribute
properties and property changes to additives or, in the case of R-PP, to possible impurities.
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 9 of 11

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/

10.3390/recycling6040076/s1. Table S1: Key functional properties of PP for automotive application,
Table S2: Data collected from product data sheets, R: recycled PP, V: virgin PP; PP types and
compositions unknown, File S1: References for polymer properties.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.L., S.S. and H.S.; methodology, A.L.; formal analysis,
A.L.; investigation, A.L.; data curation, A.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.L., S.S.; writing—
review and editing, S.S., E.K. and H.S.; supervision, S.S.; funding acquisition, S.S. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by the Munich University of Applied Sciences HM
and the German Research Foundation (DFG) through the “Open Access Publishing” program.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data sources are listed in the references.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Remark: Results of this work were used previously for the Bachelor thesis of the main author
Abdelhak Ladhari.

References
1. Lattermann, G. From Rubber Tires to Plastic Cars. Kunstst. Int. 2010, 5, 56–61.
2. Feldman, D. Polymer History. Des. Monomers Polym. 2008, 11, 1–15. [CrossRef]
3. Stanic, S.; Koch, T.; Schmid, K.; Knaus, S.; Archodoulaki, V.-M. Improving Rheological and Mechanical Properties of Various
Virgin and Recycled Polypropylenes by Blending with Long-Chain Branched Polypropylene. Polymer 2021, 13, 1137. [CrossRef]
4. McAuley, J.W. Global Sustainability and Key Needs in Future Automotive Design. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37, 5414–5416. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Pradeep, S.A.; Iyer, R.K.; Kazan, H.; Pilla, S. Automotive Applications of Plastics: Past, Present, and Future. In Applied Plastics En-
gineering Handbook. Processing, Materials, and Applications; Kutz, M., Ed.; Elsevier/William Andrew: Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
Boston, MA, USA; Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 651–673.
6. Emilsson, E.; Dahllöf, L.; Ljunggren, M. Plastics in Passenger Cars: A Comparison Over Types and Time; IVL Swedish Environmental
Research Institute Ltd.: Stockholm, Sweden, 2019.
7. The European Recycling Industries’ Confederation. EuRIC Call for Recycled Plastic Content in Cars. Press Release,
24 February 2020, Brussels, Belgium.
8. Toni Gallone, A.Z.-G. Closed-loop polypropylene, an opportunity for the automotive sector. Field Actions Sci. Rep. 2019, 19, 48–53.
9. Mashek, W.; Holmes, K.; Martin, K. Automotive Recycling: Devaluated is Now Revalued; The Plastics Industry Trade Association:
Washington, DC, USA, 2016; p. 48.
10. Jenseit, W.; Stahl, H.; Wollny, V.; Wittlinger, R. Recovery Options for Plastic Parts from End-of-Life Vehicles: An Eco-Efficiency Assessment;
Institute for Applied Ecology: Darmstadt, Germany, 2003; p. 141.
11. da Costa, H.M.; Ramos, V.D.; de Oliveira, M.G. Degradation of polypropylene (PP) during multiple extrusions: Thermal analysis,
mechanical properties and analysis of variance. Polym. Test. 2007, 26, 676–684. [CrossRef]
12. Delva, L.; Ragaert, K.; Degrieck, J.; Cardon, L. The Effect of Multiple Extrusions on the Properties of Montmorillonite Filled
Polypropylene. Polymer 2014, 6, 2912–2927. [CrossRef]
13. Guerrica-Echevarria, G.; Eguiazábal, J.; Nazábal, J. Effects of reprocessing conditions on the properties of unfilled and talc-filled
polypropylene. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 1996, 53, 1–8. [CrossRef]
14. Wang, K.; Addiego, F.; Bahlouli, N.; Ahzi, S.; Remond, Y.; Toniazzo, V.; Muller, R. Analysis of thermomechanical reprocessing
effects on polypropylene/ethylene octene copolymer blends. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2012, 97, 1475–1484. [CrossRef]
15. Aurrekoetxea, J.; Sarrionandia, M.; Urrutibeascoa, I.; Maspoch, M.L. Effects of recycling on the microstructure and the mechanical
properties of isotactic polypropylene. J. Mater. Sci. 2001, 36, 2607–2613. [CrossRef]
16. Jansson, A.; Möller, K.; Gevert, T. Degradation of post-consumer polypropylene materials exposed to simulated recycling—
Mechanical properties. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2003, 82, 37–46. [CrossRef]
17. Strömberg, E.; Karlsson, S. The design of a test protocol to model the degradation of polyolefins during recycling and service life.
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2009, 112, 1835–1844. [CrossRef]
18. Camacho, W.; Karlsson, S. Assessment of thermal and thermo-oxidative stability of multi-extruded recycled PP, HDPE and a
blend thereof. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2002, 78, 385–391. [CrossRef]
19. Sarrionandia, M.; Lopez-Arraiza, A.; Aurrekoetxea, J.; Arostegui, A. Structure and mechanical properties of a talc-filled
polypropylene/ethylene-propylene-diene composite after reprocessing in the melt state. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2009, 114, 1195–1201. [CrossRef]
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 10 of 11

20. Maier, C.; Calafut, T. 9-Recycling, in Polypropylene the Definitive User’s Guide and Databook; William Andrew Publishing:
Norwich, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 75–78.
21. Klitkou, R.; Jensen, E.A.; Christiansen, J.D.C. Effect of multiple extrusions on the impact properties of polypropylene/clay
nanocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2012, 126, 620–630. [CrossRef]
22. Hermanova, S.; Tocháček, J.; Jancar, J.; Kalfus, J. Effect of multiple extrusion on molecular structure of polypropylene impact
copolymer. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2009, 94, 1722–1727. [CrossRef]
23. Tocháček, J.; Jančář, J.; Kalfus, J.; Hermanová, S. Processing stability of polypropylene impact-copolymer during multiple
extrusion—Effect of polymerization technology. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2011, 96, 491–498. [CrossRef]
24. Tocháček, J.; Jančář, J.; Kalfus, J.; Zbořilová, P.; Buráň, Z. Degradation of polypropylene impact-copolymer during processing.
Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2008, 93, 770–775. [CrossRef]
25. da Costa, H.M.; Ramos, V.D.; Rocha, M.C. Rheological properties of polypropylene during multiple extrusion. Polym. Test.
2005, 24, 86–93. [CrossRef]
26. Gonzàlez, V.A.; Neira-Velázquez, G.; Angulo-Sánchez, J.L. Polypropylene chain scissions and molecular weight changes in
multiple extrusion. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 1998, 60, 33–42. [CrossRef]
27. Silvano, J.D.R.; Rodrigues, S.A.; Marini, J.; Bretas, R.E.; Canevarolo, S.; Carvalho, B.D.M.; Pinheiro, L.A. Effect of reprocessing
and clay concentration on the degradation of polypropylene/montmorillonite nanocomposites during twin screw extrusion.
Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98, 801–808. [CrossRef]
28. Hinsken, H.; Moss, S.; Pauquet, J.-R.; Zweifel, H. Degradation of polyolefins during melt processing. Polym. Degrad. Stab.
1991, 34, 279–293. [CrossRef]
29. Hamester, L.S.; Muñoz, P.A.R.; Canevarolo, S.V. A new device for in-line colorimetric quantification of polypropylene degradation
under multiple extrusions. Polym. Test. 2015, 41, 117–123. [CrossRef]
30. Aurrekoetxea, J.; Sarrionandia, M.; Urrutibeascoa, I.; Maspoch, M.L. Fracture behaviour of virgin and recycled isotactic polypropy-
lene. J. Mater. Sci. 2001, 36, 5073–5078. [CrossRef]
31. Wang, K.; Bahlouli, N.; Addiego, F.; Ahzi, S.; Remond, Y.; Ruch, D.; Muller, R. Effect of talc content on the degradation of
re-extruded polypropylene/talc composites. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98, 1275–1286. [CrossRef]
32. Canevarolo, S.V.; Babetto, A.C. Effect of screw element type in degradation of polypropylene upon multiple extrusions.
Adv. Polym. Technol. 2002, 21, 243–249. [CrossRef]
33. Cáceres, C.A.; Zborowski, L.; Canevarolo, S.V. Thermo-mechanical degradation and VOC emission of unstabilized and stabilized
polypropylene copolymer during multiple Extrusions. Mater. Res. 2011, 14, 569–575. [CrossRef]
34. Gahleitner, M.; Paulik, C. Polypropylene. In Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2003; pp. 1–44.
35. Canevarolo, S. Chain scission distribution function for polypropylene degradation during multiple extrusions. Polym. Degrad.
Stab. 2000, 70, 71–76. [CrossRef]
36. Huang, P.-W.; Peng, H.-S. Number of Times Recycled and Its Effect on the Recyclability, Fluidity and Tensile Properties of
Polypropylene Injection Molded Parts. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11085. [CrossRef]
37. Lehner, M.; Schlemmer, D.; Sängerlaub, S. Recycling of blends made of polypropylene and an iron-based oxygen scavenger—
Influence of multiple extrusions on the polymer stability and the oxygen absorption capacity. Polym. Degrad. Stab.
2015, 122, 122–132. [CrossRef]
38. Saikrishnan, S.; Jubinville, D.; Tzoganakis, C.; Mekonnen, T.H. Thermo-mechanical degradation of polypropylene (PP) and
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) blends exposed to simulated recycling. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2020, 182, 109390. [CrossRef]
39. Gall, M.; Steinbichler, G.; Lang, R.W. Learnings about design from recycling by using post-consumer polypropylene as a core
layer in a co-injection molded sandwich structure product. Mater. Des. 2021, 202, 109576. [CrossRef]
40. Tratzi, P.; Giuliani, C.; Torre, M.; Tomassetti, L.; Petrucci, R.; Iannoni, A.; Torre, L.; Genova, S.; Paolini, V.; Petracchini, F.; et al.
Effect of Hard Plastic Waste on the Quality of Recycled Polypropylene Blends. Recycling 2021, 6, 58. [CrossRef]
41. Gahleitner, M. Melt rheology of polyolefins. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2001, 26, 895–944. [CrossRef]
42. Incarnato, L.; Scarfato, P.; Acierno, D. Rheological and mechanical properties of recycled polypropylene. Polym. Eng. Sci.
1999, 39, 749–755. [CrossRef]
43. Ramírez-Vargas, E.; Navarro-Rodríguez, D.; Blanqueto-Menchaca, A.; Huerta-Martínez, B.; Palacios-Mezta, M. Degradation effects
on the rheological and mechanical properties of multi-extruded blends of impact-modified polypropylene and poly(ethylene-co-
vinyl acetate). Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2004, 86, 301–307. [CrossRef]
44. Grand View Research. Automotive Plastics Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report by Product (PP, ABS, PU, PE, PC, PA, PVC,
PMMA), By Application (Powertrain, Interior/Exterior Furnishings, Electrical Components), By Process, By Region, And Segment Forecasts,
2021–2028; Research Inc.: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2021.
45. Balani, K.; Verma, V.; Agarwal, A.; Narayan, R. (Eds.) Physical, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of Polymers, in Biosurfaces;
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 329–344.
46. Sokol, H. Comparison between ISO and ASTM Methods for Polypropylene Injetion Molding and Mechanical Testing. Master’s
Thesis, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA, 2018.
Recycling 2021, 6, 76 11 of 11

47. Várdai, R.; Schäffer, Á.; Ferdinánd, M.; Lummerstorfer, T.; Jerabek, M.; Gahleitner, M.; Faludi, G.; Móczó, J.; Pukánszky, B.
Crystalline structure and reinforcement in hybrid PP composites. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2021, 1–10. [CrossRef]
48. Mileva, D.; Tranchida, D.; Gahleitner, M. Designing polymer crystallinity: An industrial perspective. Polym. Cryst. 2018, 1, e10009. [CrossRef]
49. Housmans, J.-W.; Gahleitner, M.; Peters, G.W.; Meijer, H.E. Structure—Property relations in molded, nucleated isotactic polypropy-
lene. Polymer 2009, 50, 2304–2319. [CrossRef]
50. Der Grüne Punkt Group. Systalen PP-C24000 gr000; Der Grüne Punkt Group: Cologne, Germany, 2021.