Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100142

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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/case-studies-in-chemical-
and-environmental-engineering

Plastic waste and its management strategies for

environmental sustainability
Niyitanga Evode a, Sarmad Ahmad Qamar b, Muhammad Bilal a, **, Damià Barceló c, d, e, ***,
Hafiz M.N. Iqbal f, *
a
School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian, 223003, China
b
Department of Biochemistry University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
c
Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
d
Catalan Institute of Water Research (ICRA-CERCA), Parc Científic I Tecnològic de La Universitat de Girona, C/Emili Grahit, 101, Edifici H2O, 17003, Girona, Spain
e
College of Environmental and Resources Sciences, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, 311300, China
f
Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey, 64849, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The massive consumption of a wide range plastic products has generated a huge amount of plastic waste. There is
Plastic wastes a need to provide awareness of their uses and routine management as a part of our lifestyle. Nowadays, plastics
Thermoplastics are increasingly being used in our daily life activities, including the packaging in different food and brewing
Polymerization
companies, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and other production sectors need to pack their end products for efficient
Recycling
Waste management
and safer product’s delivery to the community. Plastics are produced through the biochemical process of poly­
Bioremediation merization or polycondensation. The post-use of generated plastic waste has many adverse impacts on the
environment if not processed and managed in a proper way. This review aims to discuss the lifecycle of plastic
products according to their different categories, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC–U), polystyrene or styrofoam
(PS), polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), and others.
Herein, we have also discussed the problems caused by the inadequate processing of plastic waste and the
possible solutions that can be provided to ensure a good atmosphere and to reduce the causes of climate changes,
which is challenging to life on this planet.

1. Introduction a plastic that could be changed into various shapes and made to repro­
duce natural substances including linen, horn, and tortoiseshell that
The word plastic had originated from “pliable” that can be defined as could be useful in plastics production [4].
“easily shaped”. Plastics can be conveniently modified from one shape to Due to their remarkable physical and chemical characteristics,
another based on their desired functionality. Plastics are also known as plastics have become a major commodity worldwide and have several
polymers or a “long chains of monomers,” which are bonded to other applications in commercial and industrial products. Due to high com­
identical subunits to form a polymer. Polymers can be of natural origins, munity demand, the large-scale production of fibers and resins has
such as cellulose as the basic subunits that make up plant cell walls and increased worldwide [5]. However, the use of plastics comes with many
helps cells to adapt their functions [1,2]. Cellulose is known as one of the harmful environmental impacts related to their production and poor
most abundant biopolymers on earth. The first synthetic polymer was methods of waste treatment. Around 9% of the generated wastes were
discovered around 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt . It was highly expensive recycled, which was a very minute quantity compared to total produc­
as compared to polymeric materials [3]. By properly treating cellulose tion. Approximately 80% of the generated wastes were reported to
polymer derived from cotton fiber with camphor, John Wesley invented accumulate in landfills or in the natural environment [6]. Under

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
*** Corresponding author. Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18-26,
08034, Barcelona, Spain.
E-mail addresses: bilaluaf@hotmail.com (M. Bilal), dbcqam@cid.csic.es (D. Barceló), hafiz.iqbal@tec.mx (H.M.N. Iqbal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2021.100142
Received 25 August 2021; Received in revised form 22 September 2021; Accepted 26 September 2021
Available online 27 September 2021
2666-0164/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Evode et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100142

different circumstances, ultraviolet light can decompose plastics into source for its growth and expressing a key role as the enzyme responsible
their monomeric constituents, including “microplastics”, which are for the breakdown and biodegradation of PET into its subunits or pre­
highly complicated and almost impossible to recover and disrupting cursors. This catabolic reaction by enzymes might possess a large po­
food chains and disturbing human and environmental health [7,8]. tential for developing biological PET recycling decomposition processes
Bakelite was initially discovered in 1909 as the first fully synthetic and bioremediation approaches of plastic waste treatment for the
plastic which was not natural as cellulose. Scientists had been searching betterment of humans and their surroundings [12].
for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator that High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a thermoplastic polymer pro­
meets the final requirements of the rapidly electrifying system in the duced by the monomers of ethylene. It is sometimes called alkaline or
USA. Bakelite has more use and benefits rather than insulators of electric polyethylene. Polyethylene is synthesized by the polymerization reac­
cables. It was also heat resistant, durable, and unlike celluloid, ideally tion of identical molecules of ethylene. Polyethylene is an unsaturated
suited for mechanical mass production. Commercially it was known as organic alkene made of structured arranged carbon and hydrogen, as
multifunctional material with thousands of applications. Bakelite could shown on this empirical formula (C2H4)n. HDPE is a low-cost thermo­
be molded or shaped into almost everything, providing many possibil­ plastic with a linear structure compared to others, with a low branching
ities due to increased plastic usage [5]. degree. It is produced under low pressure (10–80 bar) and low tem­
Packaging is one of the most important and frequent applications of perature (70–300 ◦ C). Common uses of HDPE include soap containers
plastic materials. About 40% of plastic materials worldwide are used to and cleaning solutions, freezer bags, shopping bags, faux-wood planks,
stock and package finished products from different factories. Plastics food and drink storage, pipes, protective helmets, bottle caps, vehicle
had a significant contribution in creating a sustainable, proper, hygienic, fuel tanks, recycled wood-plastic composites, and insulation [13].
cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly packaging The largest usage of chlorine gas is the formation of PVC worldwide.
system that can keep the environment clean [9]. The versatility of Overall, 16 million tons (40% per year) of chlorine production is used in
plastics has provided an efficient proof of hygienic and cost-effective daily human activities. PVC has the largest production volume of
packaging of food products like bread, rice, snacks, juices, spices, organochlorine, which could be defined as a large class of chemicals that
milk, edible oil, wheat flour, and confectioneries, and various types of have come under scientific and regulatory scrutiny in the past years due
pharmaceutical products. Due to increasingly high applications, these to their global distribution and the serious impacts on the community.
products generate huge post-utilization waste burden on the environ­ Most plastic wastes that do not contain chlorine in their composition
ment. The present review was aimed to summarize the lifecycle of have more adverse effects on the community than the plastic waste
plastics according to their categories including polyvinyl chloride resulting from plastics [14]. Environmentally adverse effects result from
(PVC–U), polystyrene or styrofoam (PS), polypropylene (PP), vinyl production, the formation of toxic chemicals, and over­
high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), consumption of energy and resources in different stages of production.
and others. Moreover, the discussion of resulting problems caused by the Ethylene is natural gas or petroleum and chlorine gas that can be
inadequate processing of plastic waste and the possible solutions that mainly synthesized from sea salt by high-energy electrolysis. These are
can be provided to ensure a good atmosphere have also been discussed the two basic subunits of vinyl production [15]. Ethylene dichloride
followed by the current challenges and perspectives. (EDC), scientifically named as 1,2-dichloroethane is synthesized from
chlorine gas and organic chemical ethylene by chemical processes where
2. Composition and types of plastic materials chlorine and ethylene are combined. This production process is also
known as chlorination. In this process, organic HCl is produced as a
Plastics are primarily composed of binders, fillers, pigments, plasti­ byproduct, and this byproduct is combined with excess ethylene to
cizers, and other additives. The plastic objects from human cultural produce more EDC through the chemical production process known as
heritage are material testimonies of our technology, industrial, and oxychlorination. Simultaneously, the EDC produced is further converted
history. The binder gives plastic its primary properties, and commonly, into chloroethylene (VCM–vinyl chloride monomer) through the
its name is also based on binder molecules. Binders may be both artificial chemical transformation reaction known as pyrolysis. The monomers of
and natural materials like casein or milk protein, cellulose derivatives. VCM produced through the pyrolysis process are joined together to
However, most of the binders are synthetic resins [10]. Polyethylene is make a long chain of PVC commercially named white powder. Pure PVC
widely used in the production of plastic materials. It can also be defined is combined with several other chemicals, including colorants, plasti­
as a polymer of ethylene with this structural formula and empirical cizers, stabilizers, and other necessary additives that can add any spe­
formula respectively CH2– – CH2, (–CH2–CH2–)n and is produced at high cific property of the desired plastic functioning. The pure form of PVC is
temperature and pressure depending on the desired properties of final not particularly useful due to its brittleness, rigidity, and it can gradually
product. Polyethylene is resistant to acids, water, alkali, and most catalyze its decomposition with intensity from ultraviolet light.
organic solvents [11]. Different classes of plastics can be categorized Different additives are added to the polymer to increase its moldability
into thermoplastics and thermosets based on their physical and chemical and flexibility to produce useful PVC [16]. PVC is commonly used in
properties. Thermoplastics are the class of plastics that can be melted cleaning solution containers, water, and sewage pipes, clothing, water
and molded by heating and hardened by cooling. They can be reheated, bottles, medical containers, Signage, furniture, tubing, flooring, electric
reshaped, and hardened repeatedly. This plastic quality also makes them conductors, and other useful cables, cladding, vinyl records [17].
mechanically recyclable, which is a good method of waste management. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is defined as a translucent and
Thermoplastics can be categorized according to their structural orga­ semi-rigid long chain of identical subunits compared to HDPE, which are
nization, like chemical bonds and the level of their properties and highly branched with long-chain and short-chain monomers. LDPE is
functioning. made under specific conditions of high temperature (80–300 ◦ C) and
pressure through free radical polymerization. The LDPE is synthesized
2.1. Thermoplastics by 4000 to 40,000 carbon atoms having several short-branches and sub-
branches. LDPE can be made through two different techniques, such as
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is the type of thermoplastics pro­ tubular routes and stirred autoclaving. Currently, tubular reactors are
duced from fossils feedstocks since 1940. It is currently being used in more used than autoclaving due to their advantages of higher ethylene
textile industries and bottle packaging. It was made for industrial pro­ transformation rate. LDPE is commonly used in containers, drink car­
cesses, and a large amount of PET is still ending up in the environment. tons, bin-garbage, work surfaces, ring drink holders, laundry bags, ma­
In 2016, a study reported Ideonella sakaiensis bacterium, which can chine parts, lids, playground fixtures, protective shells, computer
decompose PET and use the decomposed products as a sole carbon hardwires, trays, bin-bags, and laundry bags.

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N. Evode et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100142

Polypropylene (PP) is the thermoplastic polymer used in different gates, and sprue under controlled pressure [22]. The products processed
applications. Its empirical formula is (C3H6)n. A continuous chain makes through the injection method include automotive parts, buckets,
it of polymerization reaction of propylene to the polymer named poly­ gem-clips, bottle caps, spools, crates, bobbin, and bottle caps. Blow
propylene classified in the group of polyolefins, a half non-polar organic molding is another primary processing method that involves using band
molecule and partially crystalline. PP was invented in 1954 due to its heaters and electricity to heat to the maximum for the plastic melting to
advantages as polyolefins, which has less density than other commod­ allow deformation of raw material used in this process known as plastic
ities. It has several other benefits, e.g., chemical resistance, which allows pellets [23]. The products produced through blow molding processing
PP to be processed through several conversion routes, like extrusion and include air ducts, arms rest, gas tanks, panels, tanks, portable toilets, and
injection molding. Its physical and chemical properties are related to some drinking bottles. Extrusion processing, resins or raw thermoplastic
high-temperature resistance and chemical branching. PP is able and has materials are placed at the top of the mounted hopper and fall into the
a high priority to fabricate different household items, including pails, barrel of an extruder under gravitational attraction force. To complete
instrument jars (it can be frequently cleaned for clinical environment the processing of extruding plastics, additives like ultraviolet inhibitors,
use), funnels, trays, and bottles. Polypropylene is a colorless material colorants, either in pellet or liquid form, are added and can also be
that exhibits excellent mechanical properties, making it favorable to use introduced into the resin before arriving at the hopper [24,25]. The
than polyethylene. Polypropylene is commonly used in packaging tape, materials processed under extrusion include pipe, multilayer films,
lunch boxes, crisp bags, straws, food containers, bottle caps, clothing, strapping, and sheets [24]. Compression molding is another plastic
hobbyist model, supplies, and surgery tools and supplies [18]. processing method in which temperature is involved. During the pro­
cessing of plastic material, a preheated polymer is placed into a hot mold
2.2. 2.2. thermosets cavity. The mold is fully covered or closed with the plug and then
compressed to allow the material to occupy the whole surface of the
Thermosetting or thermoset plastics are synthetic materials that pass cavity [4,26]. This compression molding processing makes it convenient
through a series of physicochemical transformation processes under to make a material with arrangements of complexities, thicknesses, and
different heat treatments, assisting the creating of a three-dimensional lengths. The products made under this process exhibit high strengths,
linkage. This transformation is not a reversible process. After heating hardness, and durability, making these products to make these products
treatment, these thermosets molecules cannot be reformed or re-molten. attract customers from different industries and individuals to use them
Thermosets physical state can be changed from liquid with a low degree [27]. Through compression and molding processing, the produced
of viscosity to solid with a high melting point; this shows that different products include sockets, cisterns, plugs, engine handles, and engine
materials with some specific chemical and physical characteristics can casing switches. Transfer molding is also the plastic primary processing
be formed from thermosets. In general, thermosetting subunits or method that has several ways used by different engineers to make kinds
monomers have low viscosity, which allows them to be modified and of different rubber parts. Throughout processing, the quantity of
make them easy for the consumer; different additives are used on molding should be measured, placed, and inserted into the pot; then the
thermosets to maximize and optimize the performance of thermosets inserted material is subjected to heat and pressure that force the material
and will enable them to be applied in different specific uses like others to move into the mold cavity [28].
[19].
Polyurethanes refer to a polymer made by polymerizing organic 3.2. Secondary methods
monomers known as urethane, commercially named a carbamate. Many
polyurethanes are thermoset are also called thermoplastic poly­ Rotational molding refers to the plastic molding method that is ideal
urethanes [20]. Physical and chemical properties of polyurethane, like for producing hollow items. During this method, pressure is not required
its versatility allow these polymers to be widely used in different ap­ as used in other methods. Casting methods are applied, and this
plications such as coatings, foams, adhesives, paints, upholstery, and advantage makes it less expensive, fast-to-finish processing, and there­
insulators. Like other polymers, polyurethanes also depend on petro­ fore, it has a short production process that is economically beneficial
chemicals as a basic material or subunits in their main constituents [21]. [29]. Thermoforming refers to plastic molding processing that can be
applied to produce various highly useful plastic tools. Heat is applied on
3. Plastics processing methodologies small plastic sheets through processing to allow the easy manipulation
process. After heating the sheets at a pliable temperature to make
Plastic processing refers to the series of steps that transform polymers desired products, the end-product is cooled down for future use [30].
or plastic raw materials into final products that can change the standard Calendaring is also one of the secondary processing methods used to
of human life in different dimensions, including financial, health, and manufacture different high-quality plastic film and sheets, high volume
development. The major use of plastics is directed in beverage and food plastics. It is also mainly applied in the production of PVA and other
processing factories. Some synthetic chemicals known as additives are modified plastics. Pressure and heat are applied to the melted polymer in
added to improve durability, applicability, and modifications of plastics. the extruder and modified into sheets by calendaring rolls [31]. Casting
These additives that can help in the modification processes are bisphe­ is another interesting and useful plastic processing method where the
nols and phthalate plasticizers. There are several methods of processing material in the liquid state is filled into a mold having a whole similar to
polymer to high-quality plastics; these methods are classified into three the shape of desired finished products, then after solidification, the
main categories, e.g., (i) primary processing methods which are transfer poured liquid is in the form of plastic similar to the object needed to
molding, compression, extrusion, and injection, extrusion blow, produce. The solidified part is also known as a broken or removed
compression, and transfer molding; (ii) secondary processing methods casting out of the mold to end the processing.
which are calendaring and fabrication, roto-coating, thermoforming,
coating, and casting; (iii) tertiary processing methods, i.e., welding, 4. Harmful effects of plastic wastes
drilling, and bending and cutting.
Plastics are useful in daily life in different communities, its post-use
3.1. Primary methods can change different parameters of the world if not well managed. Some
of these effects could be harmful to the environment, including human
Thermosets or thermoplastics are produced at the controlled tem­ beings. Before the management of plastic wastes, it is important to
perature inside the screw pump (a barrel and combination of the screw) elaborate on some of the harmful effects which the poor management of
after compression through a nozzle into runners, cavities of molds, plastics can cause after utilization. Non-biodegradability and poor waste

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management can cause series of environmental hazards to safety and degradation of soil and earth surface by indirect and direct methods
choking of the drains in urban cities and other production areas [32]. which come from different artificial causes and daily human activities,
These physicochemical properties of plastics contribute to their useful­ anthropogenic activities that are applied in city development, use of
ness, and their wastes after utilization are thrown away their durability organic fertilizers also as artificial chemicals that are introduced into the
advantage, which supports their usefulness and wastes after utilization. soil can penetrate and change chemical compositions in acidity and
They are thrown away their durability advantage, which supports them alkalinity which highly influence the land [1,37]. Plastic wastes are the
persisting under different environmental conditions [33]. The municipal ones to toxify land due to the chemical degradation of its organic
solid waste counted under 10%–12% of the plastic residue is combusted. decomposition. Plastic wastes also have microplastics of plastics that are
After the combustion process, the gases are released into the environ­ easy to penetrate to find their way into the environment through pri­
ment, which increases air pollution and causes greenhouse effects. The mary and secondary sources. Microplastics in soil, the air in air and
substance released in the atmosphere are furans, mercury, dioxins, and particularly in aquatic environments have become the focus of an
polychlorinated biphenyls. Immediate measures and implementations absence of environmental pollution research. Combined with recent
are needed to address and manage them properly, which can protect the discoveries of microplastics in plates of sea salt, canned fish tap water,
environment. This is also applied in an aqueous environment for aquatic bottled water sugar, and honey, is an emerging concern related to the
and aquaculture protection since many of these contaminants are hy­ potential impacts of this plastic waste on human health and its sur­
drophobic, plastic in the aquatic environment is potentially acting as a roundings [38]. Many health problems have been connected to the toxic
sink for contaminants which make them less accessible to wildlife, that are released by microplastics made of harmful chemicals; these
particularly if they are buried on the seafloor [34]. The poor disposal chemicals are absorbed from the environment or additives used in the
and plastic waste mistreatment effects are categorized under three main plastic production process [39].
classes, including the effects of plastic waste on animals, public health,
and environmental pollution. Fig. 1 provides an illustration of the fate of
plastic materials with harmful impacts on the ecosystem [35]. 4.2. Effects on water and air quality

Water pollution is starting to receive huge scientific attention as the

4.1. Effects on land industrialization requires more consideration due to current plastic
packaging practices, which have an unprecedented impact on water
Pollution refers to unused or harmful items that are rejected into the quality [40]. The world’s ecosystem (70%) is mainly made of water
environment after use. These non-used items which are harmful to the distributed in lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water pollution occurs when
natural or artificial arrangement are also called pollutants; several types harmful substances mainly chemicals and microorganisms, contaminate
of pollutants can be classified as natural pollutants (i.e., volcanic ash, the stream, rivers, lakes, oceans, or other water quality, degrading
plants, and animal secretion etc.) and artificial pollutants from human- quality and rendering toxic to humans or the environment are thrown
made daily activities (i.e., trash or waste and secretions produced by into the water [36]. Degradation of plastic waste due to its chemical
food and beverage industries, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, composition releases different gases that can affect the atmosphere in
textile, and other attached organic production companies. Pollutants different ways; when carbon dioxide and other gases are released can
released by such activities highly influence water quality, kill aquatics cause different problems like climate change, global warming, acidic
animals, pollute the quality of air, and land affects problems that affect rain, and nosocomial infections. It can result in the easy transfer of
agribusiness [36]. Land pollution refers to the destruction and airborne diseases like COVID-19, which is affecting the world nowadays,

Fig. 1. Illustration of the fate of plastic materials with harmful impacts on the eco-system. Reprinted from Ref. [35] with permission from Elsevier B⋅V. License
Number: 5157481196006.

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and tuberculosis and pneumonia [41]. 5.1. Recycling

Recycling refers to the waste management method which collects

4.3. Effects on animal life
waste materials and converts them into raw materials that can be reused
to form other valuable products. It is also be known as “renewing or
Poor waste disposal can affect animals differently as pathogenic and
reusing” to prevent the harmful effect on society and environmental
parasite vectors and chemical toxicity [33]. Plastic residues are
protection. The plastics are non-biodegradable as carbon-based products
considered as the strong complex of different contaminants, including
and other polymers. It contains bottles and other materials that can be
small molecules, such as residual monomers, and ambient chemicals
melted and transformed into other products like plastic tables and
that adsorb to plastics and large molecules like polymeric materials.
chairs. This process is performed in the following six steps: collecting
Contaminants such as brominated flame retardants, phthalates, and
waste plastics, sorting, or arranging plastics into categories, washing to
bisphenol A are the pathogenic agents to the human endocrine system.
remove impurities, shredding and resizing, identifying and separating
As the system monitors the growth and well-functioning of human or­
plastics, and compounding [25]. There are several benefits of plastic
gans, secreting kinds of different hormones. These chemicals are intro­
waste recycling that the world can gain when plastic are reused rather
duced to the human system through inhalation and ingestion.
than disposing of them in non-desirable places, one of the advantages is
Furthermore, water, and airborne hydrophobic pollutants or pathogens
the protection of human life by decreasing carbon dioxide and other
have large plastic water and plastic-air partition coefficients that can be
harmful gases in the atmosphere, which can occur during incineration or
stoichiometrically calculated based on their abundance in the atmo­
combustion of the wastes [48]. Recycling reduces pollution across in
sphere [42]. The plastic wastes, when combined with other antigens or
ecosystem, requires less energy, and helps in natural conservation. It
foreign bodies in animals like cattle, the physiological functioning of
saves fast-depleting landfill space and eases the demand for fossil fuel
animals is influenced in different ways, and animal’s digestive systems
consumption. Moreover, it promotes a sustainable lifestyle and con­
cannot digest the plastics. Anatomically, the cattle are structured in
tributes to the national economy. Although recycling has different
different parts with three non-glandular fore-stomach compartments
benefits to the community, it also has some disadvantages that can be
with reticulum, omasum, and rumen. These compartments help cattle in
managed and controlled. During the recycling process, some chemicals
fermentative digestion of different molecules rather than plastic mate­
are released into the environment. Among these chemicals, some are
rials. The fourth glandular compartment abomasum acts like the true
volatile gases that come from plastic waste compositions and organic
stomach that helps in further digestion where enzymes are needed to
chain of monomers that build up a plastic chain of organic fumes and
catalyze the digestive process [43].
ashes, which kill plant structure and affect wildlife when inhaled by
different animals that live near the recycling zone. As the process re­
4.4. Effects on public health quires heat to melt plastics, it also generates sulfur, carbon, and other
gases emitted to the environment. These gases can cause global warm­
People in modern packaging industries frequently use plastic mate­ ing, greenhouse effect, and acidic rain that harm the environment in
rials. When the wastage of these materials is not well disposed of, it different ways [49]. This can also lead to health issues for the population
causes serious health issues to the public health in both direct and in­ who are crossing the plastics recycling zone. After the plastics down­
direct ways [36]. Plastics as carbon-based compounds have several toxic cycling process, wastes are separated for continuous recycling, which
components, including phthalates, polyfluorinated chemicals, explains how it ends up with plastic is generally unfit for another round
bisphenol-A, brominated flame retardants, and antimony trioxide, of recycling. This means that it ends up in a landfill rather than
which can have harmful effects on environmental and public health. regarding them as a secondary use of unconsumed plastic waste [50].
Electronic waste plastics have become a global environmental and
public health challenge due to their large production volume and 5.2. Incineration
inappropriate management policies in different regions [44]. Through
production processing, harmful chemicals are released and exposed and The waste incineration method refers to the burning of wastes in
contacted to different stored food items while using cutting, plastic oxygen, which is chemically known as complete combustion that re­
packages, and forming plastic toys for children. This contamination or leases water molecules and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere [51].
exposure of chemicals leads to serving both primary adverse effects and The waste produced after incineration is composed of different volatile
secondary adverse effects, including reproductive and genital organs chemicals, ash, and a small amount of hydrochloric acid. Generally, all
disorders for both females and males, malignant cancers, impaired im­ plastic waste is not a good candidate for combustion; some are resistant
munity, birth defects, endocrine disorders, ophthalmologic disorders, to oxygen heating and explosives. It is not an obligation that incineration
leukemia, and another communicable disease because plastic can act as can be used to treat all household waste plastic types properly. To select
vectors to communicate disease from one person to another or from plastics to be incinerated, we must be careful on non-combustible waste
person to animals and vice versa. to avoid these unprepared explosive accidents. The combustion of
organic molecules can also produce energy which is known as fuel. The
5. Management strategies for plastic wastes fuels can be presented in different physical states like liquid, solid, and
gas used by vehicles and airplane propulsion. This method of incinera­
Plastic wastes are rapidly produced and exposed at a high rate due to tion has several different positive impacts on society rather than energy
the world’s industrial development and population growth. Both production. It also has huge contributions in minimizing waste and
biodegradable and non-degradable wastes are highly generated from producing electricity from the waste, which is highly needed in modern
man-made activities (operational sectors and climatic conditions, in­ industrialization [43]. Waste incineration has played a critical part in
dustrial growth, socio-economic development) and the natural processes producing renewable energy from biomass resources. Incineration,
of living creatures. Government municipalities, social communities, and including heat recovery, was used in a different part of the world and
local authorities have established different measures and environmental more than four hundred fifty times in Europe [52]. Despite the
safety legislation rules that can guide the population to dispose of plastic decreasing waste generated from different factories and other produc­
waste after utilization [45]. In these waste management strategies, tion houses, each person in the European Union generally generates 481
several are scientifically based, such as recycling, incineration, biore­ kg of municipal waste. Overall, 26% of wastes were recycled, 15%
mediation, and landfills. These methods are established to have a clean compost, 31% was landfilled, and 26% incinerated. This data shows how
environment and good plastic waste disposal [46,47]. the European government has advanced in using recycling and

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incineration methods in waste treatment compared to the period be­ temperature applied [61,62]. The crude oil derivative plastics are
tween 1995 and 2013, where incinerated and recycled waste counted modified to its monomers and other useful components, e.g., additives
18% and 43%, respectively [53]. There are several benefits of plastic and plasters classified into the first derivative of petroleum refining cuts
waste management through incineration. These include decreased and petrochemicals through catalytic means of chemical treatment or
quantity of waste in the ecosystem, produces heat and power needed in thermal effects [63]. These chemical treatment principles were initiated
different activities, reduces pollution of the atmosphere, saves economy for good management and proper accumulation of plastic wastes in the
on transport fee of the waste, and emilites harmful germs and chemicals. waste management industry. This scientific method is an efficient
Moreover, it can be applied in any season or weather and prevents the manner of waste management even though it may require high capital
production of methane gas. Incineration as a chemical process has cost [58].
benefits and drawbacks like all other biochemical processes or scientific
processes. Some of the disadvantages of the incineration process include 5.5. Bioremediation
expensive setup compared to other waste management methods. It
pollutes the environment and can damage public health. It releases ash It refers to the process where microorganisms decompose wastes [64,
waste that can harm people and the environment [54]. 65]. Bioremediation can also be defined as the branch of biotechnology
that has main principles towards detoxification and decontamination by
5.3. Landfills using microorganisms to biodegrade all-natural compounds that can be
treated under biodegradation of plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria [66].
Plastics disposal post-utilization in different dustbins ends-up in It needs different conditions for culture medium like nutrients, enzymes,
landfill. Landfills refer to all places and areas where we reject all pressure, and temperature, which all need to be settled at an optimum
disposable plastic waste after utilization before being buried under the level to facilitate the growth of microorganisms. In the absence of any of
earth’s face. Through this manual disposal process, many precautionary the mentioned factors or the presence of growth inhibitors, the biore­
measures should be applied to avoid secondary side effects like mediation process will not be well applied [2,9,67]. Plastic polymers can
groundwater contaminants and soil degradation that can result from be separated and biodegraded when it is subjected to heteroatomic
poor processing [50]. The objectives of landfill arrangement are to molecules, e.g., nitrogen or oxygen and the presence of a carbon =
provide a safer area of plastic waste disposal to protect all dimensions of carbon double bond. This facilitates the beginning of biodegradation of
the environment, i.e., aquatics and airspace, to achieve the objectives the waste; also, extracellular enzymes are applied for plastic polymer
mentioned above. It demands a lot of work be done in the community, fragmentation. In the bioremediation process, enzymes as a chemical
like digging a long hole or dumping in high depths and putting waste catalyst work by reducing the activation energy and converting sub­
into it and letting them decompose. This process is completed very strate into the product (Fig. 2) [68]. The enzymes are most likely to be
slowly, as it can take more than a year [42]. During this landfills pro­ used in the process, including microbial oxidoreductase, microbial
cessing, each organic molecule pass through biodegradation and oxygenase, laccases, peroxidases, microbial lignin peroxidases, hydro­
decomposition. Plastic bags and other long polymer wastes can take lases, and microbial manganese peroxidases, microbial lipases [68–71].
around ten to a hundred years to degrade in landfills processing [55]. Plastics like polyvinyl chloride under natural degradation result in
Different plastic wastes can take a long time of degradation due to their monomers of phthalates like vinyl monomers, dioxins, and CFCs. Solid
specific biochemical properties and environmental or climate conditions waste management depends on landfills and incineration. These tech­
like sunlight, wind, and climate change without these main driving niques are harmful to the environmenttherefore, a huge investment is
factors [56]. Therefore, the first selection or choice for disposing of all required to employ the degradation of synthetic compounds by
plastic products must be reused or recycled. Landfills are an excellent enzymes.
energy source due to the carbon dioxide and methane gas produced
during the biodegradation process. It keeps cities clean, hygiene main­ 6. Outlook and recommendations
tenance and segregates hazardous waste from other types of wastes.
Moreover, this is a cost-effective method of plastic waste management. Several synthetic activities are being carried out with the develop­
Although this method can be used to treat plastics wastes, it has some ment and population growth, increasing the need for plastic utilization
disadvantages, including being partially responsible for climate change in packaging and stocking artificial finished products. For instance,
and lighting up methane as combustible gas. It contaminates soil and during December 2019, due to the rise of the COVID-19 pandemic, the
water and affects wildlife [57]. world health organization took different restrictions and preventative
measures, including partial/total lockdown, to prevent the spread of
5.4. Pyrolysis pandemic by contact. In order to continue daily human life, many people
were using plastic bags, take away to deliver food from restaurants, and
Pyrolysis refers to the process of converting gases and fatty oils to the product from the supermarket which were delivering online ser­
recover crude petrochemicals and obtain hydrocarbons. It is even used vices. Up till now, the same methods are still used, and the pandemic is
to recover crude petrochemicals and generate renewable energy from not yet over. People are becoming familiar with using online shopping in
plastic wastes [58]. Pyrolysis process is classified into three main cate­ the coming years that will increase plastic packaging. The use of plastic
gories according to the amount of heat energy needed to destruct plastic will highly uprise in the coming future, but as scientists, we cannot allow
connections. There is high temperature, medium temperature, and low that plastic waste to pollute our environment. The mismanagement and
temperature-based media. Medium and high temperatures are based on poor plastic waste disposal is the main effects of environmental pollu­
the range of temperatures used to destroy the plastic structure [58]. The tion that causes the problems and diseases mentioned above. Plastics
corresponding temperatures defining the pyrolysis states are in the should be used, and the environment should also be protected by
following ranges ≤600 ◦ C, 600–800 ◦ C, and higher than 800 ◦ C, applying some of the methods we have discussed in this article. For
respectively [59]. Thermosets and thermoplastics are the main cate­ example, recycling, incineration, pyrolysis, bioremediation, and
gories of the most used plastics in humans’ daily necessities, where providing education on the world population about the harmfulness of
about 80% of used plastics are all thermoplastics. This is based on their poor plastic waste management. The implementation of these methods
easy ability for molecular reformation under heat treatment and their will help us to have a clean and green environment.
suspensibility to change [60]. The products resulting from the pyrolysis
of plastics, depending on different factors like reactor type, residence
time, plastics, condensation arrangement, feeding arrangement, and the

6
N. Evode et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100142

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram showing the mechanism of microbial degradation of plastic wastes. Reprinted from Ref. [68] with permission from Elsevier B⋅V. License
Number: 5157481347010.

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