ropsychology

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how a

person's cognition and behavior are related to the brain and the rest of the nervous
system. Professionals in this branch of psychology often focus on how injuries or
illnesses of the brain affect cognitive and behavioral functions.[1]
It is both an experimental and clinical field of psychology, thus aiming to understand
how behavior and cognition are influenced by brain function and concerned with
the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological
disorders. Whereas classical neurology focuses on the pathology of the nervous
system and classical psychology is largely divorced from it, neuropsychology seeks to
discover how the brain correlates with the mind through the study of neurological
patients. It thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioral
neurology in general. The term neuropsychology has been applied to lesion studies in
humans and animals. It has also been applied in efforts to record electrical activity from
individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human
patients).[2]
In practice, neuropsychologists tend to work in research settings (universities,
laboratories, or research institutions), clinical settings (medical hospitals or rehabilitation
settings, often involved in assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological
problems), or forensic settings or industry (often as clinical-trial consultants
where CNS function is a concern).[citation needed]

History
Neuropsychology is a relatively new discipline within the field of psychology. The first
textbook defining the field, Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology, was initially
published by Kolb and Whishaw in 1980.[3] However, the history of its development can
be traced back to the Third Dynasty in ancient Egypt, perhaps even earlier.[4] There is
much debate as to when societies started considering the functions of different organs.
For many centuries, the brain was thought useless and was often discarded during
burial processes and autopsies. As the field of medicine developed its understanding of
human anatomy and physiology, different theories were developed as to why the body
functioned the way it did. Many times, bodily functions were approached from a religious
point of view, and abnormalities were blamed on bad spirits and the gods. The brain has
not always been considered the center of the functioning body. It has taken hundreds of
years to develop our understanding of the brain and how it affects our behaviors.
Ancient Egypt[edit]
In ancient Egypt, writings on medicine date from the time of the priest Imhotep.[5] They
took a more scientific approach to medicine and disease, describing the brain, trauma,
abnormalities, and remedies for reference for future physicians. Despite this, Egyptians
saw the heart, not the brain, as the seat of the soul.[6]
Aristotle[edit]
 Senses, percepti
on, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's biology. Impressions are stored in the seat of
perception, linked by his Laws of Association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).
[7]

Aristotle reinforced this focus on the heart which originated in Egypt. He believed the
heart to be in control of mental processes, and looked on the brain, due to its inert
nature, as a mechanism for cooling the heat generated by the heart.[8][9] He drew his
conclusions based on the empirical study of animals. He found that while their brains
were cold to the touch and that such contact did not trigger any movements, the heart
was warm and active, accelerating and slowing dependent on mood.[8][9] Such beliefs
were upheld by many for years to come, persisting through the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance period until they began to falter in the 17th century due to further research.
[9]
The influence of Aristotle in the development of neuropsychology is evident within
language used in modern day, since we "follow our hearts" and "learn by the heart."[9]
Hippocrates
Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat of the soul. He drew a connection between the
brain and behaviors of the body, writing: "The brain exercises the greatest power in the
man."[10] Apart from moving the focus from the heart as the "seat of the soul" to the brain,
Hippocrates did not go into much detail about its actual functioning. However, by
switching the attention of the medical community to the brain, his theory led to more
scientific discovery of the organ responsible for our behaviors. For years to come,
scientists were inspired to explore the functions of the body and to find concrete
explanations for both normal and abnormal behaviors. Scientific discovery led them to
believe that there were natural and organically occurring reasons to explain various
functions of the body, and it could all be traced back to the brain. Hippocrates
introduced the concept of the mind – which was widely seen as a separate function
apart from the actual brain organ.
René Descartes
Philosopher René Descartes expanded upon this idea and is most widely known for his
work on the mind–body problem. Often Descartes's ideas were looked upon as overly
philosophical and lacking in sufficient scientific foundation. Descartes focused much of
his anatomical experimentation on the brain, paying special attention to the pineal gland
– which he argued was the actual "seat of the soul." Still deeply rooted in a spiritual
outlook towards the scientific world, the body was said to be mortal, and the soul
immortal. The pineal gland was then thought to be the very place at which the mind
would interact with the mortal and machine-like body. At the time, Descartes was
convinced the mind had control over the behaviors of the body (controlling the person) –
but also that the body could have influence over the mind, which is referred to
as dualism.[11] This idea that the mind essentially had control over the body, but the body
could resist or even influence other behaviors, was a major turning point in the way
many physiologists would look at the brain. The capabilities of the mind were observed
to do much more than simply react, but also to be rational and function in organized,
thoughtful ways – much more complex than he thought the animal world to be. These
ideas, although disregarded by many and cast aside for years led the medical
community to expand their own ideas of the brain and begin to understand in new ways
just how intricate the workings of the brain really were, and the complete effects it had
on daily life, as well as which treatments would be the most beneficial to helping those
people living with a dysfunctional mind. The mind–body problem, spurred by René
Descartes, continues to this day with many philosophical arguments both for and
against his ideas. However controversial they were and remain today, the fresh and
well-thought-out perspective Descartes presented has had long-lasting effects on the
various disciplines of medicine, psychology, and much more, especially in putting an
emphasis on separating the mind from the body in order to explain observable
behaviors.
Thomas Willis
It was in the mid-17th century that another major contributor to the field of
neuropsychology emerged. Thomas Willis studied at Oxford University and took a
physiological approach to the brain and behavior. It was Willis who coined the words
'hemisphere' and 'lobe' when referring to the brain.[12] He was one of the earliest to use
the words 'neurology' and 'psychology'. Rejecting the idea that humans were the only
beings capable of rational thought, Willis looked at specialized structures of the brain.
[9]
He theorized that higher structures accounted for complex functions, whereas lower
structures were responsible for functions similar to those seen in other animals,
consisting mostly of reactions and automatic responses.[13] He was particularly interested
in people with manic disorders and hysteria.[14][15] His research constituted some of the
first times that psychiatry and neurology came together to study individuals. Through his
in-depth study of the brain and behavior, Willis concluded that automated responses
such as breathing, heartbeats, and other various motor activities were carried out within
the lower region of the brain. Although much of his work has been made obsolete, his
ideas presented the brain as more complex than previously imagined, and led the way
for future pioneers to understand and build upon his theories, especially when it came to
looking at disorders and dysfunctions in the brain.[14]
Franz Joseph Gall
Neuroanatomist and physiologist Franz Joseph Gall made major progress in
understanding the brain. He theorized that personality was directly related to features
and structures within the brain. However, Gall's major contribution within the field of
neuroscience is his invention of phrenology. This new discipline looked at the brain as
an organ of the mind, where the shape of the skull could ultimately determine one's
intelligence and personality.[16] This theory was like many circulating at the time, as many
scientists were taking into account physical features of the face and body, head size,
anatomical structure, and levels of intelligence; only Gall looked primarily at the brain.
There was much debate over the validity of Gall's claims however, because he was
often found to be wrong in his predictions. He was once sent a cast of René Descartes'
skull, and through his method of phrenology claimed the subject must have had a
limited capacity for reasoning and higher cognition.[17] As controversial and false as many
of Gall's claims were, his contributions to understanding cortical regions of the brain and
localized activity continued to advance understanding of the brain, personality, and
behavior. His work is considered crucial to having laid a firm foundation in the field of
neuropsychology, which would flourish over the next few decades.
Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud
Towards the late 19th century, the belief that the size of ones skull could determine their
level of intelligence was discarded as science and medicine moved forward. A physician
by the name of Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud expanded upon the ideas of Gall and took a
closer look at the idea of distinct cortical regions of the brain each having their own
independent function. Bouillaud was specifically interested in speech and wrote many
publications on the anterior region of the brain being responsible for carrying out the act
of ones speech, a discovery that had stemmed from the research of Gall. He was also
one of the first to use larger samples for research although it took many years for that
method to be accepted. By looking at over a hundred different case studies, Bouillaud
came to discover that it was through different areas of the brain that speech is
completed and understood. By observing people with brain damage, his theory was
made more concrete. Bouillaud, along with many other pioneers of the time made great
advances within the field of neurology, especially when it came to localization of
function. There are many arguable debates as to who deserves the most credit for such
discoveries,[18] and often, people remain unmentioned, but Paul Broca is perhaps one of
the most famous and well known contributors to neuropsychology – often referred to as
"the father" of the discipline.
Paul Broca
Inspired by the advances being made in the area of localized function within the
brain, Paul Broca committed much of his study to the phenomena of how speech is
understood and produced. Through his study, it was discovered and expanded upon
that we articulate via the left hemisphere. Broca's observations and methods are widely
considered to be where neuropsychology really takes form as a recognizable and
respected discipline. Armed with the understanding that specific, independent areas of
the brain are responsible for articulation and understanding of speech, the brains
abilities were finally being acknowledged as the complex and highly intricate organ that
it is. Broca was essentially the first to fully break away from the ideas of phrenology and
delve deeper into a more scientific and psychological view of the brain.[19]
Carl Wernicke
Carl Wernicke was an influential nineteenth century neuropsychiatrist specifically
interested in understanding how abnormalities could be localized to specific brain
regions. Previously held theories attributed brain function as one singular process but
Wernicke was one of the first to attribute brain function to different regions of the brain
based on sensory and motor function.[20] In 1873, Wernicke observed a patient
presenting with poor language comprehension despite maintaining intact speech and
hearing following a severe stroke. Post-morbid analysis revealed a lesion near the
auditory region of the brain in the parietal-temporal region of the left hemisphere.
[21]
Originally named sensory aphasia, this region later became known as Wernicke's
area.[21] Individuals with damage to this area present with fluent but receptive aphasia
characterized by the inability to comprehend or express written or spoken language
while maintaining intact speech and auditory processes.[22] Along with Paul Broca,
Wernicke's contributions greatly expanded the present knowledge of language
development and localization of left hemispheric function.
Karl Spencer Lashley
Lashley's works and theories that follow are summarized in his book Brain Mechanisms
and Intelligence.[23] Lashley's theory of the Engram was the driving force for much of his
research. An engram was believed to be a part of the brain where a specific memory
was stored. He continued to use the training/ablation method that Franz had taught him.
He would train a rat to learn a maze and then use systematic lesions and removed
sections of cortical tissue to see if the rat forgot what it had learned.
Through his research with the rats, he learned that forgetting was dependent on the
amount of tissue removed and not where it was removed from. He called this mass
action and he believed that it was a general rule that governed how brain tissue would
respond, independent of the type of learning. But we know now that mass action was a
misinterpretation of his empirical results, because in order to run a maze the rats
required multiple cortical areas. Cutting into small individual parts alone will not impair
the rats' brains much, but taking large sections removes multiple cortical areas at one
time, affecting various functions such as sight, motor coordination, and memory, making
the animal unable to run a maze properly.[24]
Lashley also proposed that a portion of a functional area could carry out the role of the
entire area, even when the rest of the area has been removed. He called this
phenomenon equipotentiality. We know now that he was seeing evidence of plasticity in
the brain: within certain constraints the brain has the ability for certain areas to take over
the functions of other areas if those areas should fail or be removed - although not to
the extent initially argued by Lashley.

Approaches
Experimental neuropsychology is an approach that uses methods from experimental
psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive
function. The majority of work involves studying healthy humans in a laboratory setting,
although a minority of researchers may conduct animal experiments. Human work in
this area often takes advantage of specific features of our nervous system (for example
that visual information presented to a specific visual field is preferentially processed by
the cortical hemisphere on the opposite side) to make links between neuroanatomy and
psychological function.[25]
Clinical neuropsychology is the application of neuropsychological knowledge to the
assessment (see neuropsychological test and neuropsychological assessment),
management, and rehabilitation of people who have experienced illness or injury
(particularly to the brain) which has caused neurocognitive problems. In particular they
bring a psychological viewpoint to treatment, to understand how such illness and injury
may affect and be affected by psychological factors.[26] They also can offer an opinion as
to whether a person is demonstrating difficulties due to brain pathology or as a
consequence of an emotional or another (potentially) reversible cause or both. For
example, a test might show that both patients X and Y are unable to name items that
they have been previously exposed to within the past 20 minutes (indicating possible
dementia). If patient Y can name some of them with further prompting (e.g. given a
categorical clue such as being told that the item they could not name is a fruit), this
allows a more specific diagnosis than simply dementia (Y appears to have the vascular
type which is due to brain pathology but is usually at least somewhat reversible).
Clinical neuropsychologists often work in hospital settings in an interdisciplinary medical
team; others work in private practice and may provide expert input into medico-legal
proceedings.[27] Current research into biological science of memory bridges multiple
scales, from the molecular to the neuropsychological (Moscovitch et al.,2016). Memory
needs specific details on the specifics of synaptic dynamism and also requires an
explanation of the comprehension procedures and memory structures having
neurobiological capabilities
Cognitive neuropsychology is a relatively new development and has emerged as a
distillation of the complementary approaches of both experimental and clinical
neuropsychology. It seeks to understand the mind and brain by studying people with
brain injuries or neurological illnesses. One model of neuropsychological functioning is
known as functional localization.[28] This is based on the principle that if a specific
cognitive problem can be found after an injury to a specific area of the brain, it is
possible that this part of the brain is in some way involved. However, there may be
reason to believe that the link between mental functions and neural regions is not so
simple. An alternative model of the link between mind and brain, such as parallel
processing, may have more explanatory power for the workings and dysfunction of the
human brain. Yet another approach investigates how the pattern of errors produced by
brain-damaged individuals can constrain our understanding of mental representations
and processes without reference to the underlying neural structure. A more recent but
related approach is cognitive neuropsychiatry which seeks to understand the normal
function of mind and brain by studying psychiatric or mental illness.[29]
Connectionism is the use of artificial neural networks to model specific cognitive
processes using what are considered to be simplified but plausible models of how
neurons operate. Once trained to perform a specific cognitive task these networks are
often damaged or 'lesioned' to simulate brain injury or impairment in an attempt to
understand and compare the results to the effects of brain injury in humans.[30]
Functional neuroimaging uses specific neuroimaging technologies to take readings from
the brain, usually when a person is doing a particular task, in an attempt to understand
how the activation of particular brain areas is related to the task. In particular, the
growth of methodologies to employ cognitive testing within established functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques to study brain-behavior relations is
having a notable influence on neuropsychological research.[31]
In practice these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most neuropsychologists
select the best approach or approaches for the task to be completed.

Methods and tools

Standardized neuropsychological tests
These tasks have been designed so the performance on the task can be linked to
specific neurocognitive processes.[32] These tests are typically standardized, meaning
that they have been administered to a specific group (or groups) of individuals before
being used in individual clinical cases. The data resulting from standardization are
known as normative data. After these data have been collected and analyzed, they are
used as the comparative standard against which individual performances can be
compared. Examples of neuropsychological tests include: the Wechsler Memory Scale
(WMS), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Boston Naming Test,
the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Benton Visual Retention Test, and the Controlled
Oral Word Association. When interpreting neuropsychological testing it is important that
the diagnosis is empirically informed in order to determine if the cognitive deficits
presented are legitimate. Successful malingering and symptom exaggeration can result
in substantial benefits for the individual including but not limited to significant financial
compensation, injury litigation, disability claims, and criminal sentencing. Due to the
nature of these potential benefits, it is imperative that malingering is identified in
neuropsychological tests in order to avoid making an invalid diagnosis. The Slick,
Sherman, and Iverson (1999) criteria for Malingered Neurocognitive Dysfunction (MND)
has pioneered the ability to detect malingering in a variety of performance validity tests
(PVT) and symptom validity tests (SVT) across multiple neuropsychological contexts and
disorders.[33] These tests detect malingering by identifying performance that is below the
level of probability for neuropsychological dysfunction.[34]
Brain scans
The use of brain scans to investigate the structure or function of the brain is common,
either as simply a way of better assessing brain injury with high resolution pictures, or by
examining the relative activations of different brain areas. Such technologies may
include fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and positron emission
tomography (PET), which yields data related to functioning, as well as MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging), computed axial tomography (CAT or CT), and diffusion tensor
imaging (DTI)[35] which yields structural data.
Global Brain Project
Brain models based on mouse and monkey have been developed based on theoretical
neuroscience involving working memory and attention, while mapping brain activity
based on time constants validated by measurements of neuronal activity in various
layers of the brain. These methods also map to decision states of behavior in simple
tasks that involve binary outcomes.[36]
Electrophysiology
The use of electrophysiological measures designed to measure the activation of the
brain by measuring the electrical or magnetic field produced by the nervous system. This
may include electroencephalography (EEG) or magneto-encephalography (MEG).
Experimental tasks
The use of designed experimental tasks, often controlled by computer and typically
measuring reaction time and accuracy on a particular tasks thought to be related to a
specific neurocognitive process. An example of this is the Cambridge
Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) or CNS Vital Signs (CNSVS).[37]

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