Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                

Free Electron Theory

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 26

08-12-2023

The free electron theory of metals The Drude theory of metals The basic assumptions of the Drude model

Paul Drude (1900): theory of electrical and thermal conduction in a metal application of  Between collisions the interaction of a given electron with
the kinetic theory of gases to a metal, which is considered as a gas of electrons in a metal
the other electrons is neglected , called independent
Mmobile negatively charged electrons are confined in a metal by attraction to immobile
electron approximation.
positively charged ions isolated atom nucleus charge eZa Similarly the interaction between electron with the ions is
neglected, called Free electron approximation.
i.e. . Attraction between free electrons and the ion core; and
repulsion between electrons is neglected.

 The electric potential due to ionic core is taken to be


Z valence electrons are weakly bound to the nucleus (participate in chemical reactions)
essentially constant throughout the metal.
Za – Z core electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus (play much less of a role in chemical
reactions)
 The free electrons are considerd as equivalent to gas
in a metal – the core electrons remain bound to the nucleus to form the metallic ion
molecules and obey law of kinetic theory of gasses, i.e.
the valence electrons wander far away from their parent atoms
called conduction electrons or free electrons

1
08-12-2023

Few definitions: Expression for Drift velocity

2
08-12-2023

Expression for conductivity:


Few equations:
Mobility of the Electron (µ) : defined as Drift velocity per unit field
(E).
Consider the conductor of cross-sectional area A shown in the
As
figure. We assume that the current in the conductor consists
of positive charges. The total charge q within a length L is Relationship between conductivity (σ) and mobility (µ) We

given by q  nAL  e. ( as the charge moves across the area A) have and

𝒏𝑨𝑳𝒆 𝑳
Therefore the current i= = 𝒏𝑨𝒆. =nAeVd Relationship between conductivity (σ) drift velocity (vd) and
𝒕 𝒕
𝒊 𝒏𝑨𝑳𝒆
Therefore current density 𝐉 = = =neVd
𝑨 𝑨

B𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐉 =E, and 𝐉 =neVd

𝝈𝑬 =neVd

3
08-12-2023

Failure of classical theory of free electrons


• Ohm's Law: V= IR 1.
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)

• Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry surface area
𝜌= of current flow

current flow
path length
• Conductivity, 

𝜎= =
7

4
08-12-2023

2. 3. Electronic conductivity σ is not proportional to


number of free electrons

4. The thermal conductivity analysis is based on


Kinetic theory is found to be 3/2nkB for the electronic
specific heat. Measurements gave no evidence for a
contribution of this size.

5
08-12-2023

Classical and Quantum Distributions The distribution of electrons among the levels is described by
function f (E), probability of an electron occupying an energy level
‘E’.

If the level is certainly empty, then f(E) = 0.


Generally the f(E) has a value in between zero and unity.

 When E< EF (i.e.,) for energy levels lying below EF,


(E –EF) is a negative quantity and hence,

1 1
f (E)  
 1
1e 10

That means all the levels below EF are occupied by the electrons.
Here  is 1/KT and E can be taken as energy/ energy difference
lie E-EF

6
08-12-2023

Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T  0 K

 When E > EF (i.e.) for energy levels lying above EF, For E > EF :
1
f (E  E F)   0
(E – EF) is a positive quantity 1 exp ()
1 1
f(E)    0 1
1e 1 For E < EF : f (E  E F)  1
1 exp ()
This equation indicates all the levels above EF arevacant.
E
At absolute zero, all levels below EF are completely filled
and all levels above EF are completely empty.This level, which
divides the filled and vacant states, is known as the Fermi energy EF
level.

14
0 1 f(E)

7
08-12-2023

 When E = EF , 1 1 1
f(E)   , at all temperatures
1  e0 1  1 2

The probability of finding an electron with energy equal to


the Fermi energy in a metal is ½ at any temperature.

At T = 0 K all the energy level upto EF are occupied and all


the energy levels above EF are empty .

When T > 0 K, some levels above EF are partially filled


while some levels below EF are partially empty.

16

8
08-12-2023

• Assume N electrons that are non-interacting


(identical) fermions Free Electron Model
• Assume they are confined to a box of V=L3
– by equation of energy for a particle confined in 1D box, • Consider a number space to help count the
energy levels of the 3D infinite potential can be written as number of states

– Note as L grows large the discrete energy spectrum


becomes continuous
– What is the ground state when N is large?

9
08-12-2023

• Assume T=0 to start with, the top most energy state is, EF

kz
Fermi Surface
E = EF
kF
ky

kx

10
08-12-2023

Distribution of carriers = DOS  probability of occupancy Equilibrium distribution of carriers


= g(E) f(E)
Distribution of carriers = DOS  probability of occupancy
fFD(E,T) = g(E) f(E)

(where DOS = Density of states)


0.5 Total number of electrons in CB (conduction band) =
E Etop
n0   g C (E) f (E) dE
E<EF EF E>EF EC

n(E,T) g(E)
Total number of holes in VB (valence band) =
T=0 EV
T>0 p0   g (E) 1 f (E) dE
E Bottom V

22

E E

11
08-12-2023

Band Theory of Solids


• Every atom is associated with Energy level splitting in a solid
its own energy level.

• When two atoms are placed (a)Energy band structure of the


apart then, they do not interact. solid corresponding to the
actual spacing of atoms in the
• Two atoms close together body.
causes particular energy level
to split into two energy levels. (b) Energy level splitting as a
function of distance.
• Band Theory of Solid explain
how energy bands are formed (c) Discrete energy levels in an
within solid. isolated atom.

12
08-12-2023

Valence Band: Energy Bands in Metals- Case 1:


• “The band formed by series of energy levels containing valence electron is Half filled valance band, in which conduction takeplace
called Valence Band”.
• It may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons.
Conduction Band:
• “The Band formed by energy values of free electron that have broken their
covalent bonds is called Conduction band”.
• Conduction band is the next permitted energy band. It may be empty or partially
filled with electrons.
Forbidden energy Gap
• The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is called the
Forbidden energy gap or Forbidden Band or Band gap.
• This band is formed by series of non permitted energy levels above the top of
valence band and below the bottom of conduction band. (a) Energy levels in a Li atom are discrete.

• Energy gap is denoted by Eg and it is the amount of energy supplied, to excite (b) The energy levels corresponding to outer shells of isolated Li atoms form an energy band inside
the electron from valence band to conduction band. It is measured in eV. the crystal, for example the 2s level forms a 2s band.

13
08-12-2023

Energy Bands in Metals- Case 2:


Completely filled valance band, overlapping conduction 4p
band
Example Calcium with electronic configuration
Although topmost filled level is completely fully, the band
overlaps with 4p as shown. Thus it forms partially filled band.

Half filled valance band, but 3s and 3p are not overlapping


Thus energy band gap in metals is zero at )K. leading to Eg

14
08-12-2023

Energy Bands in Metals

(a) Above 0 K, due to thermal excitation, some of the electrons are at energies above EF.
(b) The density of states, g(E) vs. E in the band.
(c) The probability of occupancy of a state at an energy E is f(E). The product g(E)f(E) is the
number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume or electron concentration per unit energy.
The area under the curve with the energy axis is the concentration of electrons in the band, n.

15
08-12-2023

Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor(Si/ Ge):

• Materials which have conductivity lies between


insulator and conductor are called Semiconductor.
• Energy gap is small and it is of the order of 0.25 eV-
3eV.
Two dimensional representation of Si crystal
The Band Structure View

16
08-12-2023

N-type Semiconductor: P-type Semiconductor:

Two dimensional representation The Band Structure • Semiconductors doped with trivalent impurity (Al, B) are
called P-type semiconductor.
• Semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurity (P,As)
are called N-type semiconductor. • As trivalent impurity accept free electrons, so we call them
Acceptors.
• As pentavalent impurity atom donate free electrons it is
called Donor impurity. • Acceptor impurities “create” discrete energy level, close to
the valence band & represented by EA .
• Donor impurities “create” an energy level, close to the
conduction band & represented by ED .

17
08-12-2023

Concept of Holes:
• Hole is nothing but the absence of electron.
• “Deficiency” of negative charge can be treated as a
positive charge. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
• Holes are positive charge carriers. Movement of
electrons from nearby sites gives rise to movement of
holes in apposite direction.
• Hole is just like a bubble in liquid.

18
08-12-2023

pn junction diode Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn
• The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor diode. junction, then there is a tendency for the free electrons from
n-type to diffuse over to the p-side and holes from p-type to
• The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having
the n-side . This process is called diffusion.
–ve acceptor ions and +vely charged holes. The right
The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –ve
side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor
acceptor ions and +vely charged holes. The right side
ions and free electrons
material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and
free electrons.

A p-n junction diode is a device formed from a p-type


semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor. The p-n junction
between the two materials is of fundamental importance to the
operation of diodes and transistors.

19
08-12-2023

• When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is


uncovered, further diffusion is prevented.
• Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of
charge carriers. This is called potential barrier or
junction barrier Vo. The potential barrier is of the order
of 0.1 to 0.3V.

For every electron that diffuses across the junction and • Outside this barrier on each side of the junction, the
combines with a hole, a positive charge is left in the n region and a material is still neutral. Only inside the barrier, there is a
+ve charge on n-side and –ve charge on p-side. This
negative charge is created in the p region, forming a barrier
region is called depletion layer.
potential.
This action continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further
diffusion. The blue arrows between the positive and negative
charges in the depletion region reprecent the electricfield.

20
08-12-2023

Forward Bias Reverse Bias


 Forward bias is a condition that allows current through pn
junction. Reverse bias is a condition that prevents
current through junction.
A dc voltage (Vbais) is applied to bias a diode. Positive side of Vbias is connected to the n-
Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and region whereas the negative side is connected
negative side is connected with n-region. with p-region.
Vbais must be greater than ‘barrier potential’  Depletion region get wider with this
configuration.

I F (mA) The positive side of bias


VBIAS VR
VBR 0 voltage attracts the majority
VF 0
As more electrons flow into the – + carriers of n-type creating
+ – depletion region reducing the
Knee
more positive ions at the
number of positive ions and similarly I=0A junction.
IF C more holes move in reducing the

R positive ions. R This widens the depletion
Current limiting region.
resistance + VBIAS This reduces the width of depletion
VBIAS
region. – +
+ –
B Knee IR
A
0 VF
0 0.7 V
42

21
08-12-2023

Reverse Current Reverse Breakdown

A small amount current is generated due to the minority


carriers in p and n regions. If the external bias voltage is increased to a value call
These minority carriers are produced due to thermally breakdown voltage the reverse current can increase drastically.
generated hole-electron pairs. Free minority electrons get enough energy to knock valance
Minority electrons in p-region pushed towards +ve bias electron into the conduction band.
voltage, cross junction and then fall in the holes in n-region and The newly released electron can further strike with other
still travel in valance band generating a hole current. atoms.
The process is called avalanche effect.

22
08-12-2023

I-V characteristics of a typical p-n Diode current equation


junction diode I

23
08-12-2023

Diode equivalent circuit Zener Diode


 A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction that is designed for
It is generally profitable to replace a device or system operation in reverse-breakdown region. It is a highly doped pn
by its equivalent circuit. Once the device is replaced junction diode.
by its equivalent circuit, the resulting network can be
 When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, its voltage remains
solved by traditional circuit analysis technique. almost constant even though the current changes drastically,
Forward bias- Closed switch and this is key to the Zener diode operation.
Reverse bias- Open switch  Ideally, the reverse breakdown has a constant breakdown
voltage. This makes it useful as a voltage reference, which is its
Cathode (K)
primary application.

VF switch rf

Anode (A)
Vo
VF

24
08-12-2023

Zener Breakdown Characteristic Zener Breakdown Characteristic


As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the
reverse current(IR) remains extremely small up to reverse current(IR) remains extremely small up to
the knee of the curve. the knee of the curve.

Reverse current is also called Zener current(Iz). Reverse current is also called Zener current(Iz).
Large variation in current. Voltage almost Large variation in current. Voltage almost
constant. constant.

At knee point the breakdown effect begins, the At knee point the breakdown effect begins, the
internal Zener resistance (ZZ) begins to decrease. internal Zener resistance (ZZ) begins to decrease.

The reverse current increase rapidly. The reverse current increase rapidly.

The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage remains The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage remains
nearly constant. nearly constant.

25
08-12-2023

oWhen the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn


LED- Light-Emitting Diode junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material.
The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes
corresponds to the energy of visible light.

• The Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a common light


source used in electronic circuits.
• LED is a semiconductor diode that emits light when
current passes through it.
• The characteristics of the LED are similar to other
semiconductor diodes except the operating voltage is
higher.
• A typical LED has an operating voltage of 2.0V ( forward)
and a maximum current of 30mA. 52

26

You might also like