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Basic Operation On Text File In C++

File I/O is a five-step process:
1. Include the header file fstream in the program.
2. Declare file stream object.
3. Open the file with the file stream object.
4. Use the file stream object with >>, <<, or other input/output functions.
5. Close the files.

Following program shows how the steps might appear in program.

Program to write in a text file

#include <fstream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ofstream fout;
fout.open("out.txt");

char str[300] = "Time is a great teacher but

unfortunately it kills all its pupils. Berlioz";

//Write string to the file.

fout << str;

fout.close();
return 0;
}

Program to read from text file and display it

#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
 ifstream fin;
fin.open("out.txt");

char ch;

while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.get(ch);
cout << ch;
}

fin.close();
return 0;
}

Program to count number of characters.

#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ifstream fin;
fin.open("out.txt");

int count = 0;
char ch;

while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.get(ch);
count++;
}

cout << "Number of characters in file are " << count;

fin.close();
return 0;
}
Program to count number of words
#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ifstream fin;
fin.open("out.txt");

int count = 0;
char word[30];

while(!fin.eof())
{
fin >> word;
count++;
}

cout << "Number of words in file are " << count;

fin.close();
return 0;
}

Program to count number of lines

#include<fstream>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ifstream fin;
fin.open("out.txt");

int count = 0;
char str[80];

while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.getline(str,80);
count++;
}

cout << "Number of lines in file are " << count;

 fin.close();
return 0;
}

Program to copy contents of file to another file.

#include<fstream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
ifstream fin;
fin.open("out.txt");

ofstream fout;
fout.open("sample.txt");

char ch;

while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.get(ch);
fout << ch;
}

fin.close();
return 0;
}

Basic Operation on Binary File In C++

When data is stored in a file in the binary format, reading and writing
data is faster because no time is lost in converting the data from one format to
another format. Such files are called binary files. This following program
explains how to create binary files and also how to read, write, search, delete
and modify data from binary files.

#include<iostream>
#include<fstream>
#include<cstdio>
using namespace std;

class Student
{
int admno;
char name[50];
public:
void setData()
{
cout << "\nEnter admission no. ";
cin >> admno;
cout << "Enter name of student ";
cin.getline(name,50);
}

void showData()
{
cout << "\nAdmission no. : " << admno;
cout << "\nStudent Name : " << name;
}

int retAdmno()
{
return admno;
}
};

/*
* function to write in a binary file.
*/

void write_record()
{
ofstream outFile;
outFile.open("student.dat", ios::binary | ios::app);

Student obj;
obj.setData();

outFile.write((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj));

outFile.close();
}

/*
* function to display records of file
*/
void display()
{
ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("student.dat", ios::binary);

Student obj;

while(inFile.read((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj)))
{
obj.showData();
}

inFile.close();
}

/*
* function to search and display from binary file
*/

void search(int n)
{
ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("student.dat", ios::binary);

Student obj;

while(inFile.read((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj)))
{
if(obj.retAdmno() == n)
{
obj.showData();
}
}

inFile.close();
}

/*
* function to delete a record
*/

void delete_record(int n)
{
Student obj;
ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("student.dat", ios::binary);

ofstream outFile;
 outFile.open("temp.dat", ios::out | ios::binary);

while(inFile.read((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj)))
{
if(obj.retAdmno() != n)
{
outFile.write((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj));
}
}

inFile.close();
outFile.close();

remove("student.dat");
rename("temp.dat", "student.dat");
}

/*
* function to modify a record
*/

void modify_record(int n)
{
fstream file;
file.open("student.dat",ios::in | ios::out);

Student obj;

while(file.read((char*)&obj,sizeof(obj)))
{
if(obj.retAdmno() == n)
{
cout << "\nEnter the new details of student";
obj.setData();

int pos = -1 * sizeof(obj);

file.seekp(pos, ios::cur);

file.write((char*)&obj, sizeof(obj));
}
}

file.close();
}

int main()
{
//Store 4 records in file
for(int i = 1; i <= 4; i++)
 write_record();

//Display all records

cout << "\nList of records";
display();

//Search record
cout << "\nSearch result";
search(100);

//Delete record
delete_record(100);
cout << "\nRecord Deleted";

//Modify record
cout << "\nModify Record 101 ";
modify_record(101);

return 0;
}
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Getting Started

A computer cannot understand our language that we use in our day to day
conversations, and likewise, we cannot understand the binary language that the
computer uses to do it’s tasks. It is therefore necessary for us to write
instructions in some specially defined language like C++ which is like natural
language and after converting with the help of compiler the computer can
understand it.

C++ Compiler

A C++ compiler is itself a computer program which’s only job is to convert the
C++ program from our form to a form the computer can read and execute. The
original C++ program is called the “source code”, and the resulting compiled
code produced by the compiler is usually called an “object file”.

Before compilation the preprocessor performs preliminary operations on C++

source files. Preprocessed form of the source code is sent to compiler.

After compilation stage object files are combined with predefined libraries by a
linker, sometimes called a binder, to produce the final complete file that can be
executed by the computer. A library is a collection of pre-compiled “object code”
that provides operations that are done repeatedly by many computer programs.
Integrated Development Environment

Above Figure illustrates the process of translating a C++ source file into an
executable file. You can perform entire process of invoking the preprocessor,
compiler, and linker with a single action by using Integrated Development
environment. These environments consist of a text editor, compiler, debugger,
and other utilities integrated into a package with a single set of menus.
Preprocessing, compiling, linking, and even executing a program is done by
selecting a single item from a menu.

Following Figure shows a screen from the Microsoft Visual C++ IDE.

Read Creating and running a program using Microsoft Visual C++ Express
Edition

The best way to start learning a programming language is by writing a program.

In next section, we'll discuss a program that displays message on monitor.
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First program is C++

// This is my first program is C++
/* this program will illustrate different components of
a simple program in C++ */

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

When the above program is compiled, linked and executed, the following
output is displayed on the VDU screen.

Hello World!

Various components of this program are discussed below:

Comments

First three lines of the above program are comments and are ignored by the
compiler. Comments are included in a program to make it more readable. If a
comment is short and can be accommodated in a single line, then it is started
with double slash sequence in the first line of the program. However, if there
are multiple lines in a comment, it is enclosed between the two symbols /* and
*/

#include <iostream>
The line in the above program that start with # symbol are called directives and
are instructions to the compiler. The word include with '#' tells the compiler to
include the file iostream into the file of the above program. File iostream is a
header file needed for input/ output requirements of the program. Therefore,
this file has been included at the top of the program.
using namespace std;
All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared within std. This line is
very frequent in C++ programs that use the standard library.

int main ( )

The word main is a function name. The brackets ( ) with main tells that main ( )
is a function. The word int before main ( ) indicates that integer value is being
returned by the function main (). When program is loaded in the memory, the
control is handed over to function main ( ) and it is the first function to be
executed.

Curly bracket and body of the function main ( )

A C++ program starts with function called main(). The body of the function is
enclosed between curly braces. The program statements are written within the
brackets. Each statement must end by a semicolon, without which an error
message in generated.

cout<<"Hello World!";

This statement prints our "Hello World!" message on the screen. cout
understands that anything sent to it via the << operator should be printed on
the screen.

return 0;

This is a new type of statement, called a return statement. When a program

finishes running, it sends a value to the operating system. This particular return
statement returns the value of 0 to the operating system, which means
“everything went okay!”.

Printing Multiple Lines of Text with a Single Statement

/* This program illustrates how to print multiple lines of text
with a single statement */

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
 cout << "Welcome\nto\nC++";
return 0;
}

Output:

Welcome
to
C++

The characters print exactly as they appear between the double quotes.
However, if we type \n, the characters \n are not printed on the screen. The
backslash (\) is called an escape character. It indicates that a "special"
character is to be output. When a backslash is encountered in a string of
characters, the next character is combined with the backslash to form an
escape sequence. The escape sequence \n means newline. It causes the
cursor to move to the beginning of the next line on the screen.

The following table gives a listing of common escape sequences.

Escape Sequence Description

\n Newline

\t Horizontal tab

\a Bell (beep)

\\ Backslash

\' Single quote

\'' Double quote

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Variable : Memory Concept

Programs shown in the previous section print text on the screen. This section
will introduce the concept of variable so that our program can perform
calculation on data.

Program : Adding two numbers

We'll solve this problem in C++ with the following steps:

STEP 1 : Allocate memory for storing three numbers
STEP 2 : Store first number in computer memory
STEP 3 : Store second number in computer memory
STEP 4 : Add these two numbers together and store the result of the addition
in a third memory location
STEP 5 : Print the result

STEP 1 : Now first we'll allocate memory for storing numbers.

Location of the computer memory which is used to store data and is given a
symbolic name for reference is known as variable. We need three variables, two
for storing input and third for storing result. Before a variable is used in a
program, we must declare it. This activity enables the compiler to make
available the appropriate type of location in the memory.

Following statements declare three variables of type integer to store whole

numbers.
int x;
int y;
int z;

You can declare more than one variable of same type in a single statement like :

int x, y, z;

STEP 2 : Following statement stores value in first variable

x = 25;

STEP 3 : Following statement stores value in second variable

y = 10;

STEP 4 : Now, add these two numbers together and store the result of the
addition in third variable
z = x + y;

STEP 5 : Print the result

cout << "The sum is ";
cout << sum;

You can combine above two statements in one statement

cout << "The sum is " << sum;

here, is the complete program

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
//declare variables of integer type
int x;
int y;
int z;

//storing value in variables

x = 25;
y = 10;

//adding numbers and store the result in sum

z = x + y;

//print the result

cout << "The sum is ";
cout << z;

return 0;
}
Output : The sum is 35
Identifiers
Symbolic names can be used in C++ for various data items used by a
programmer in his program. A symbolic name is generally known as an
identifier. The identifier is a sequence of characters taken from C++ character
set. In previous program x, y and z are identifiers of variables. The rule for the
formation of an identifier are:

 An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or underscores.

 It must not start with a digit
 C++ is case sensitive that is upper case and lower case letters are
considered different from each other.
 It should not be a reserved word.

Keywords
There are some reserved words in C++ which have predefined meaning to
compiler called keywords. These words may not be used as identifiers. Some
commonly used Keywords are given below:

asm auto bool break case

catch char class const const_cast
continue default delete do double
dynamic_cast else enum explicit export
extern false float for friend
goto if inline int long
mutable namespace new operator private
protected public register reinterpret_cast return
short signed sizeof static static_cast
struct switch template this throw
true try typedef typeid typename
union unsigned using virtual void
volatile wchar_t while
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C++ Basic Elements

Programming language is a set of rules, symbols, and special words used to
construct programs. There are certain elements that are common to all
programming languages. Now, we will discuss these elements in brief:

C++ Character Set

Character set is a set of valid characters that a language can recognize.

Letters A-Z, a-z

Digits 0-9

Space + - * / ^ \ () [] {} = !=
Special
<> ‘ “ $ , ; : % ! & ? _ # <= >=
Characters
@

Formatting backspace, horizontal tab, vertical tab,

characters form feed, and carriage return

Tokens
A token is a group of characters that logically belong together. The programmer
can write a program by using tokens. C++ uses the following types of tokens.
Keywords, Identifiers, Literals, Punctuators, Operators.

1. Keywords
These are some reserved words in C++ which have predefined meaning to
compiler called keywords. It is discussed in previous section.
2. Identifiers
Symbolic names can be used in C++ for various data items used by a
programmer in his program. A symbolic name is generally known as an
identifier. The identifier is a sequence of characters taken from C++ character
set. The rule for the formation of an identifier are:

 An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or underscores.

 It must not start with a digit
 C++ is case sensitive that is upper case and lower case letters are
considered different from each other.
 It should not be a reserved word.

3. Literals
Literals (often referred to as constants) are data items that never change their
value during the execution of the program. The following types of literals are
available in C++.

 Integer-Constants
 Character-constants
 Floating-constants
 Strings-constants

Integer Constants

Integer constants are whole number without any fractional part. C++ allows
three types of integer constants.
Decimal integer constants : It consists of sequence of digits and should not
begin with 0 (zero). For example 124, - 179, +108.
Octal integer constants: It consists of sequence of digits starting with 0
(zero). For example. 014, 012.
Hexadecimal integer constant: It consists of sequence of digits preceded by
ox or OX.
Character constants

A character constant in C++ must contain one or more characters and must be
enclosed in single quotation marks. For example 'A', '9', etc. C++ allows
nongraphic characters which cannot be typed directly from keyboard, e.g.,
backspace, tab, carriage return etc. These characters can be represented by
using an escape sequence. An escape sequence represents a single character.

Floating constants

They are also called real constants. They are numbers having fractional parts.
They may be written in fractional form or exponent form. A real constant in
fractional form consists of signed or unsigned digits including a decimal point
between digits. For example 3.0, -17.0, -0.627 etc.

String Literals

A sequence of character enclosed within double quotes is called a string literal.

String literal is by default (automatically) added with a special character ‘\0'
which denotes the end of the string. Therefore the size of the string is increased
by one character. For example "COMPUTER" will re represented as
"COMPUTER\0" in the memory and its size is 9 characters.

4. Punctuators
The following characters are used as punctuators in C++.

Opening and closing brackets indicate single

Brackets [ ]
and multidimensional array subscript.

Opening and closing brackets indicate functions

Parentheses
calls,; function parameters for grouping
( )
expressions etc.

Opening and closing braces indicate the start

Braces { }
and end of a compound statement.

It is used as a separator in a function

Comma ,
argument list.
 Semicolon ; It is used as a statement terminator.

It indicates a labeled statement or conditional

Colon :
operator symbol.

It is used in pointer declaration or as

Asterisk *
multiplication operator.

Equal sign = It is used as an assignment operator.

Pound sign # It is used as pre-processor directive.

5. Operators
Operators are special symbols used for specific purposes. C++ provides six
types of operators. Arithmetical operators, Relational operators, Logical
operators, Unary operators, Assignment operators, Conditional operators,
Comma operator
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Operators
Operators are special symbols used for specific purposes. C++ provides six
types of operators.
Arithmetical operators, Relational operators, Logical operators, Unary operators,
Assignment operators, Conditional operators, Comma operator

Arithmetical operators
Arithmetical operators +, -, *, /, and % are used to performs an arithmetic
(numeric) operation. You can use the operators +, -, *, and / with both integral
and floating-point data types. Modulus or remainder % operator is used only
with the integral data type.
Operators that have two operands are called binary operators.

Relational operators
The relational operators are used to test the relation between two values. All
relational operators are binary operators and therefore require two operands. A
relational expression returns zero when the relation is false and a non-zero
when it is true. The following table shows the relational operators.

Relational Operators Meaning

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

== Equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

!= Not equal to
Logical operators
The logical operators are used to combine one or more relational expression.
The logical operators are

Operators Meaning

|| OR

&& AND

! NOT

Unary operators
C++ provides two unary operators for which only one variable is required.
For Example
a = - 50;
a = + 50;

Here plus sign (+) and minus sign (-) are unary because they are not used
between two variables.

Assignment operator
The assignment operator '=' is used for assigning a variable to a value. This
operator takes the expression on its right-hand-side and places it into the
variable on its left-hand-side. For example:
m = 5;

The operator takes the expression on the right, 5, and stores it in the variable
on the left, m.
x = y = z = 32;

This code stores the value 32 in each of the three variables x, y, and z.
in addition to standard assignment operator shown above, C++ also support
compound assignment operators.

Compound Assignment Operators

Operator Example Equivalent to

+= A+=2 A=A+2

-= A-=2 A=A-2

%= A%=2 A=A%2

/= A/ = 2 A=A/2

*= A*=2 A=A*2

Increment and Decrement Operators

C++ provides two special operators viz '++' and '--' for incrementing and
decrementing the value of a variable by 1. The increment/decrement operator
can be used with any type of variable but it cannot be used with any constant.
Increment and decrement operators each have two forms, pre and post.

The syntax of the increment operator is:

Pre-increment: ++variable
Post-increment: variable++
The syntax of the decrement operator is:
Pre-decrement: ––variable
Post-decrement: variable––

In Prefix form first variable is first incremented/decremented, then evaluated

In Postfix form first variable is first evaluated, then incremented/decremented
int x, y;
int i = 10, j = 10;
x = ++i; //add one to i, store the result back in x
y = j++; //store the value of j to y then add one to j
cout << x; //11
cout << y; //10
Conditional operator
The conditional operator ?: is called ternary operator as it requires three
operands. The format of the conditional operator is:
Conditional_ expression ? expression1 : expression2;
If the value of conditional expression is true then the expression1 is evaluated,
otherwise expression2 is evaluated.
int a = 5, b = 6;
big = (a > b) ? a : b;

The condition evaluates to false, therefore biggets the value from b and it
becomes 6.

The comma operator

The comma operator gives left to right evaluation of expressions. When the set
of expressions has to be evaluated for a value, only the rightmost expression is
considered.
int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, i; // comma acts as separator, not as an
operator
i = (a, b); // stores b into i

Would first assign the value of a to i, and then assign value of b to variable i.
So, at the end, variable i would contain the value 2.

The sizeof operator

As we know that different types of Variables, constant, etc. require different
amounts of memory to store them The sizeof operator can be used to find how
many bytes are required for an object to store in memory. For example
sizeof (char) returns 1
sizeof (float) returns 4

the sizeof operator determines the amount of memory required for an object at
compile time rather than at run time.
The order of Precedence
The order in which the Arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%) are used in a. given
expression is called the order of precedence. The following table shows the
order of precedence.

Order Operators

First ()
Second *, /, %
Third +, -

The following table shows the precedence of operators.

++, --(post increment/decrement)

++ (Pre increment) -- (Pre decrement), sizeof ( ), Highest

!(not), -(unary), +(unary)
To
*,/, %

+, -
Lowest
<, <=, >, >=

==,!=

&&

?:

Comma operator
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Data Handling

Basic Data Types

C++ supports a large number of data types. The built in or basic data types
supported by C++ are integer, floating point and character. C++ also provides
the data type bool for variables that can hold only the values True and false.

Some commonly used data types are summarized in table along with
description.

Type Description

int Small integer number

long int Large integer number

float Small real number

double Double precision real number

long double Long double precision real number

char A Single Character

The exact sizes and ranges of values for the fundamental types are
implementation dependent. The header files <climits> (for the integral types)
and <cfloat> (for the floating-point types) specify the ranges of values
supported on your system.

C++ string Class

Because a char variable can store only one character in its memory location,
another data type is needed for a variable able to hold an entire string. While
C++ does not have a builtin data type able to do this, Standard C++ provides
string class that allows the programmer to create a string type variable.
in order to declare and use objects (variables) of this type we need to include
an additional header file in our source code: <string>
// This program demonstrates the string class.
#include <iostream>
#include <string> // Required for the string class.
using namespace std;

int main ()
{
string mystring = "This is a string";
cout << mystring;
return 0;
}

Variable Initialization
Variable is a location in the computer memory which can store data and is given
a symbolic name for easy reference. The variables can be used to hold different
values at different times during the execution of a program.

Declaration of a variable

Before a variable is used in a program, we must declare it. This activity enables
the compiler to make available the appropriate type of location in the memory.
float total;

You can declare more than one variable of same type in a single single
statement
int x, y;

Initialization of variable

When we declare a variable it's default value is undetermined. We can declare a

variable with some initial value.
int a = 20;
The other way to initialize variables, known as constructor initialization, is done
by enclosing the initial value between parentheses () :
For example:
int a (0);

Both ways of initializing variables are equivalent in C++.

Constants
A variable which does not change its value during execution of a program is
known as a constant variable. Any attempt to change the value of a constant
will result in an error message. A constant in C++ can be of any of the basic
data types, const qualifier can be used to declare constant as shown below:
const float PI = 3.1415;

The above declaration means that PI is a constant of float types having a value
3.1415.
Examples of valid constant declarations are:
const int RATE = 50;
const float PI = 3.1415;
const char CH = 'A';

Type Conversion
The process in which one pre-defined type of expression is converted into
another type is called conversion. There are two types of conversion in C++.

1. Implicit conversion
2. Explicit conversion

Implicit conversion
Data type can be mixed in the expression. For example
double a;
int b = 5;
float c = 8.5;
a = b * c;
When two operands of different type are encountered in the same expression,
the lower type variable is converted to the higher type variable. The following
table shows the order of data types.

Order of data types

order
Data type
long double
(highest)
double
float
long To
int
char (lowest)

The int value of b is converted to type float and stored in a temporary variable
before being multiplied by the float variable c. The result is then converted to
double so that it can be assigned to the double variable a.

Explicit conversion
It is also called type casting. It temporarily changes a variable data type from
its declared data type to a new one. It may be noted here that type casting can
only be done on the right hand side the assignment statement.
totalPay = static_cast<double>(salary) + bonus;

Initially variable salary is defined as float but for the above calculation it is
first converted to double data type and then added to the variable bonus.
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Input/Output (I/O)
The standard C++ library includes the header file iostream, which can be used
to feed new data into the computer or obtain output on an output device such
as: VDU, printer etc. The following C++ stream objects can be used for the
input/output purpose.

cout console output

cin console input

cout object
cout is used to print message on screen in conjunction with the insertion
operator <<
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello world on screen
cout << 250; // prints number 250 on screen
cout << sum; // prints the content of variable sum on screen

To print constant strings of characters we must enclose them between

double quotes (").

If we want to print out a combination of variables and constants, the insertion

operator (<<) may be used more than once in a single statement
cout << "Area of rectangle is " << area << " square meter" ;

If we assume the area variable to contain the value 24 the output of the
previous statement would be:
Area of rectangle is 24 square meter

cin object
cin can be used to input a value entered by the user from the keyboard.
However, the extraction operator >> is also required to get the typed value
from cin and store it in the memory location.
Let us consider the following program segment:
int marks;
cin >> marks;

In the above segment, the user has defined a variable marks of integer type in
the first statement and in the second statement he is trying to read a value
from the keyboard.

// input output example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main ()
{
int length;
int breadth;
int area;

cout << "Please enter length of rectangle: ";

cin >> length;
cout << "Please enter breadth of rectangle: ";
cin >> breadth;

area = length * breadth;

cout << "Area of rectangle is " << area;

return 0;
}

Output :

Please enter length of rectangle: 6

Please enter breadth of rectangle: 4
Area of rectangle is 24

You can also use cin to request more than one input from the user:
cin >> length >> breadth;

is equivalent to:
cin >> length;
cin >> breadth;
cin and strings
We can use cin to get strings with the extraction operator (>>) as we do with
fundamental data type variables:
cin >> mystring;

However, cin extraction stops reading as soon as if finds any blank space
character, so in this case we will be able to get just one word for each
extraction.

for example if we want to get a sentence from the user, this extraction
operation would not be useful. In order to get entire lines, we can use the
function getline, which is the more recommendable way to get user input with
cin:

// cin and strings

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main ()
{
string name;
cout << "Enter your name";
getline (cin, name);
cout << "Hello " << name << "!\n";
return 0;
}

Output

Enter your name : Aniket Rajput

Hello Aniket Rajput!
 www.cppforschool.com

Flow of Control
Statements

Statements are the instructions given to the computer to perform any kind of
action. Action may be in the form of data movement, decision making etc.
Statements form the smallest executable unit within a C++ program.
Statements are always terminated by semicolon.

Compound Statement

A compound statement is a grouping of statements in which each individual

statement ends with a semi-colon. The group of statements is called block.
Compound statements are enclosed between the pair of braces ({}.). The
opening brace ({) signifies the beginning and closing brace (}) signifies the end
of the block.

Null Statement

Writing only a semicolon indicates a null statement. Thus ';' is a null or empty
statement. This is quite useful when the syntax of the language needs to specify
a statement but the logic of the program does not need any statement. This
statement is generally used in for and while looping statements.

Conditional Statements

Sometimes the program needs to be executed depending upon a particular

condition. C++ provides the following statements for implementing the selection
control structure.

 if statement
 if else statement
 nested if statement
 switch statement
if statement

syntax of the if statement

if (condition)
{
statement(s);
}

From the flowchart it is clear that if the if condition is true, statement is executed;
otherwise it is skipped. The statement may either be a single or compound statement.

if else statement
syntax of the if - else statement
if (condition)
statement1;
else
statement2;

From the above flowchart it is clear that the given condition is evaluated first. If the
condition is true, statement1 is executed. If the condition is false, statement2 is
executed. It should be kept in mind that statement and statement2 can be single or
compound statement.

if example if else example

if (x == 100) if (x == 100)
cout << "x is 100"; cout << "x is 100";
else
cout << "x is not 100";
Nested if statement

The if block may be nested in another if or else block. This is called nesting of if
or else block.

syntax of the nested if statement

if(condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
{
statement(s);
}
}

if(condition 1)
statement 1;
else if (condition 2)
statement2;
else
statement3;

if-else-if example

if(percentage>=60)
cout<<"Ist division";
else if(percentage>=50)
cout<<"IInd division";
else if(percentage>=40)
cout<<"IIIrd division";
else
cout<<"Fail" ;

switch statement
The if and if-else statements permit two way branching whereas switch
statement permits multiple branching. The syntax of switch statement is:
switch (var / expression)
{
case constant1 : statement 1;
break;
case constant2 : statement2;
break;
.
.
default: statement3;
break;
}

The execution of switch statement begins with the evaluation of expression. If

the value of expression matches with the constant then the statements
following this statement execute sequentially till it executes break. The break
statement transfers control to the end of the switch statement. If the value of
expression does not match with any constant, the statement with default is
executed.

Some important points about switch statement

 The expression of switch statement must be of type integer or character

type.
 The default case need not to be used at last case. It can be placed at any
place.
 The case values need not to be in specific order.
 www.cppforschool.com

Flow of Control
Looping statement

It is also called a Repetitive control structure. Sometimes we require a set of

statements to be executed a number of times by changing the value of one or more
variables each time to obtain a different result. This type of program execution is
called looping. C++ provides the following construct

 while loop
 do-while loop
 for loop

While loop

Syntax of while loop

while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}

The flow diagram indicates that a condition is first evaluated. If the condition is
true, the loop body is executed and the condition is re-evaluated. Hence, the loop
body is executed repeatedly as long as the condition remains true. As soon as the
condition becomes false, it comes out of the loop and goes to the statement next to
the ‘while’ loop.

do-while loop
Syntax of do-while loop
do
{
statements;
} while (condition);

Note : That the loop body is always executed at least once. One important
difference between the while loop and the do-while loop the relative ordering of
the conditional test and loop body execution. In the while loop, the loop
repetition test is performed before each execution the loop body; the loop body
is not executed at all if the initial test fail. In the do-while loop, the loop
termination test is Performed after each execution of the loop body. hence, the
loop body is always executed least once.

for loop

It is a count controlled loop in the sense that the program knows in advance
how many times the loop is to be executed.

syntax of for loop

for (initialization; decision; increment/decrement)
{
statement(s);
}

The flow diagram indicates that in for loop three operations take place:

 Initialization of loop control variable

 Testing of loop control variable
 Update the loop control variable either by incrementing or decrementing.

Operation (i) is used to initialize the value. On the other hand, operation (ii) is
used to test whether the condition is true or false. If the condition is true, the
program executes the body of the loop and then the value of loop control
variable is updated. Again it checks the condition and so on. If the condition is
false, it gets out of the loop.

Jump Statements

The jump statements unconditionally transfer program control within a function.

 goto statement
 break statement
 continue statement

The goto statement

goto allows to make jump to another point in the program.
goto pqr;
pqr: pqr is known as label. It is a user defined identifier. After the execution of
goto statement, the control transfers to the line after label pqr.

The break statement

The break statement, when executed in a switch structure, provides an
immediate
exit from the switch structure. Similarly, you can use the break statement in
any of the loop. When the break statement executes in a loop, it immediately
exits from the loop.
The continue statement
The continue statement is used in loops and causes a program to skip the rest
of the body of the loop.
while (condition)
{
Statement 1;
If (condition)
continue;
statement;
}
The continue statement skips rest of the loop body and starts a new iteration.

The exit ( ) function

The execution of a program can be stopped at any point with exit ( ) and a
status code can be informed to the calling program. The general format is
exit (code) ;
where code is an integer value. The code has a value 0 for correct execution.
The value of the code varies depending upon the operating system.
 www.cppforschool.com

C++ Standard Library Function

The C++ Standard Library provides a rich collection of functions for performing
common mathematical calculations, string manipulations, character manipulations,
input/output, error checking and many other useful operations. This makes the
programmer's job easier, because these functions provide many of the capabilities
programmers need. The C++ Standard Library functions are provided as part of the
C++ programming environment.

Header file names ending in .h are "old-style" header files that have been
superseded by the C++ Standard Library header files.

C++ Standard
Library header
file Explanation

<iostream> Contains function prototypes for the C++ standard input and
standard output functions. This header file replaces header file
<iostream.h>.

<iomanip> Contains function prototypes for stream manipulators that format

streams of data. This header file replaces header file <iomanip.h>.

<cmath> Contains function prototypes for math library functions. This

header file replaces header file <math.h>.

<cstdlib> Contains function prototypes for conversions of numbers to text,

text to numbers, memory allocation, random numbers and various
other utility functions. This header file replaces header file
<stdlib.h>.
<ctime> Contains function prototypes and types for manipulating the time
and date. This header file replaces header file <time.h>.

<cctype> Contains function prototypes for functions that test characters for
certain properties (such as whether the character is a digit or a
punctuation), and function prototypes for functions that can be
used to convert lowercase letters to uppercase letters and vice
versa. This header file replaces header file <ctype.h>

<cstring> Contains function prototypes for C-style string-processing

functions. This header file replaces header file <string.h>.

<cstdio> Contains function prototypes for the C-style standard input/output

library functions and information used by them. This header file
replaces header file <stdio.h>.

<fstream> Contains function prototypes for functions that perform input from
files on disk and output to files on disk. This header file replaces
header file <fstream.h>.

<climits> Contains the integral size limits of the system. This header file
replaces header file <limits.h>.

<cassert> Contains macros for adding diagnostics that aid program

debugging. This replaces header file <assert.h> from pre-standard
C++.

<cfloat> Contains the floating-point size limits of the system. This header
file replaces header file <float.h>.

<string> Contains the definition of class string from the C++ Standard
Library
 <vector>, These header files contain classes that implement the C++
<list>, Standard Library containers. Containers store data during a
<deque>, program's execution.
<queue>,
<stack>,
<map>,
<set>,
<bitset>

<typeinfo> Contains classes for runtime type identification (determining data

types at execution time).

<exception>, These header files contain classes that are used for exception
<stdexcept> handling.

<memory> Contains classes and functions used by the C++ Standard Library
to allocate memory to the C++ Standard Library containers.

<sstream> Contains function prototypes for functions that perform input from
strings in memory and output to strings in memory.

<functional> Contains classes and functions used by C++ Standard Library

algorithms.

<iterator> Contains classes for accessing data in the C++ Standard Library
containers.

<algorithm> Contains functions for manipulating data in C++ Standard Library

containers.

<locale> Contains classes and functions normally used by stream

processing to process data in the natural form for different
languages (e.g., monetary formats, sorting strings, character
 presentation, etc.).

<limits> Contains classes for defining the numerical data type limits on
each computer platform.

<utility> Contains classes and functions that are used by many C++
Standard Library header files.

Mathematical Functions
Some of the important mathematical functions in header file <cmath> are

Function Meaning

sin(x) Sine of an angle x (measured in radians)

cos(x) Cosine of an angle x (measured in radians)

tan(x) Tangent of an angle x (measured in radians)

asin(x) Sin-1 (x) where x (measured in radians)

acos(x) Cos-1 (x) where x (measured in radians)

exp(x) Exponential function of x (ex)

log(x) logarithm of x

log 10(x) Logarithm of number x to the base 10

sqrt(x) Square root of x

pow(x, y) x raised to the power y

abs(x) Absolute value of integer number x

fabs(x) Absolute value of real number x

Character Functions
All the character functions require <cctype> header file. The following table lists the
function.

Function Meaning

It returns True if C is an uppercase letter and False if c

isalpha(c)
is lowercase.

It returns True if c is a digit (0 through 9) otherwise

isdigit(c)
False.

It returns True if c is a digit from 0 through 9 or an

isalnum(c) alphabetic character (either uppercase or lowercase)
otherwise False.

islower(c) It returns True if C is a lowercase letter otherwise False.

It returns True if C is an uppercase letter otherwise

isupper(c)
False.

toupper(c) It converts c to uppercase letter.

tolower(c) It converts c to lowercase letter.

 www.cppforschool.com

Function
A function is a subprogram that acts on data and often returns a value. A
program written with numerous functions is easier to maintain, update and
debug than one very long program. By programming in a modular (functional)
fashion, several programmers can work independently on separate functions
which can be assembled at a later date to create the entire project. Each
function has its own name. When that name is encountered in a program, the
execution of the program branches to the body of that function. When the
function is finished, execution returns to the area of the program code from
which it was called, and the program continues on to the next line of code.

Creating User-Defined Functions

Declare the function.

The declaration, called the FUNCTION PROTOTYPE, informs the compiler
about the functions to be used in a program, the argument they take and the
type of value they return.

Define the function.

The function definition tells the compiler what task the function will be
performing. The function prototype and the function definition must be same on
the return type, the name, and the parameters. The only difference between
the function prototype and the function header is a semicolon.
The function definition consists of the function header and its body. The header
is EXACTLY like the function prototype, EXCEPT that it contains NO terminating
semicolon.

//Prototyping, defining and calling a function

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void starline(); // prototype the function

int main()
{
starline( ); // function call
cout<< "\t\tBjarne Stroustrup\n";
starline( ); // function call
return 0;
}

// function definition
void starline()
{
int count; // declaring a LOCAL variable
for(count = 1; count <=65; count++)
cout<< "*";
cout<<endl;
}

Argument To A Function

Sometimes the calling function supplies some values to the called function.
These are known as parameters. The variables which supply the values to a
calling function called actual parameters. The variable which receive the value
from called statement are termed formal parameters.

Consider the following example that evaluates the area of a circle.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void area(float);

int main()
{
float radius;
cin>>radius;
area(radius);
return 0;
}
void area(float r)
{
cout<< “the area of the circle is”<<3.14*r*r<<”\n”;
}

Here radius is called actual parameter and r is called formal parameter.

Return Type Of A Function

// Example program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int timesTwo(int num); // function prototype

int main()
{
int number, response;
cout<<"Please enter a number:";
cin>>number;
response = timesTwo(number); //function call
cout<< "The answer is "<<response;
return 0;
}
//timesTwo function
int timesTwo (int num)
{
int answer; //local variable
answer = 2 * num;
return (answer);
}

Calling Of A Function
the function can be called using either of the following methods:
i) call by value
ii) call by reference

Call By Value
In call by value method, the called function creates its own copies of original
values sent to it. Any changes, that are made, occur on the function’s copy of
values and are not reflected back to the calling function.
Call By Reference

In call be reference method, the called function accesses and works with the
original values using their references. Any changes, that occur, take place on
the original values are reflected back to the calling code.

Consider the following program which will swap the value of two variables.

using call by reference using call by value

#include<iostream> #include<iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
void swap(int &, int &); void swap(int , int );
int main() int main()
{ {
int a=10,b=20; int a=10,b=20;
swap(a,b); swap(a,b);
cout<<a<<" "<<b; cout<<a<<" "<< b;
return 0; return 0;
} }
void swap(int &c, int &d) void swap(int c, int d)
{ {
int t; int t;
t=c; t=c;
c=d; c=d;
d=t; d=t;
} }

output: output:
20 10 10 20

Function With Default Arguments

C++ allows to call a function without specifying all its arguments. In such cases,
the function assigns a default value to a parameter which does not have a
mathching arguments in the function call. Default values are specified when the
function is declared. The complier knows from the prototype how many
arguments a function uses for calling.
Example :
float result(int marks1, int marks2, int marks3=75);
a subsequent function call
average = result(60,70);
passes the value 60 to marks1, 70 to marks2 and lets the function use default
value of 75 for marks3.
The function call
average = result(60,70,80);
passes the value 80 to marks3.

Inline Function
Functions save memory space because all the calls to the function cause the
same code to be executed. The functions body need not be duplicated in
memory. When the complier sees a function call, it normally jumps to the
function. At the end of the function. it normally jumps back to the statement
following the call.
While the sequence of events may save memory space, it takes some extra
time. To save execution time in short functions, inline function is used. Each
time there is a function call, the actual code from the function is inserted
instead of a jump to the function. The inline function is used only for shorter
code.
inline int cube(int r)
{
return r*r*r;
}

Some important points to be noted

 Function is made inline by putting a word inline in the beginning.

 Inline function should be declared before main() function.
 It does not have function prototype.
 Only shorter code is used in inline function If longer code is made inline
then compiler ignores the request and it will be executed as normal
function.
Global Variable And Local Variable
Local Variable : a variable declared within the body of a function will be
evaluated only within the function. The portion of the program in which a
variable is retained in memory is known as the scope of the variable. The
scope of the local variable is a function where it is defined. A variable may be
local to function or compound statement.
Global Variable : a variable that is declared outside any function is known as a
global variable. The scope of such a variable extends till the end of the
program. these variables are available to all functions which follow their
declaration. So it should be defined at the beginning, before any function is
defined. See Assignment Solutions

Unary Scope Resolution Operator (::)

It is possible to declare local and global variables of the same name. C++
provides the unary scope resolution operator (::) to access a global variable
when a local variable of the same name is in scope. A global variable can be
accessed directly without the unary scope resolution operator if the name of the
global variable is not the same as that of a local variable in scope.

Variables and storage Class

The storage class of a variable determines which parts of a program can access
it and how long it stays in existence. The storage class can be classified as
automatic register static external
Automatic variable
All variables by default are auto i.e. the declarations int a and auto int a are
equivalent. Auto variables retain their scope till the end of the function in which
they are defined. An automatic variable is not created until the function in which
it defined is called. When the function exits and control is returned to the calling
program, the variables are destroyed and their values are lost. The name
automatic is used because the variables are automatically created when a
function is called and automatically destroyed when it returns.
Register variable
A register declaration is an auto declaration. A register variable has all the
characteristics of an auto variable. The difference is that register variable
provides fast access as they are stored inside CPU registers rather than in
memory.
Static variable
A static variable has the visibility of a local variable but the lifetime of an
external variable. Thus it is visible only inside the function in which it is defined,
but it remains in existence for the life of the program.
External variable
A large program may be written by a number of persons in different files. A
variable declared global in one file will not be available to a function in another
file. Such a variable, if required by functions in both the files, should be
declared global in one file and at the same time declared external in the second
file.
 www.cppforschool.com

Array
An array is a collection of data elements of same data type. It is described by a
single name and each element of an array is referenced by using array name
and its subscript no.

Declaration of Array
Type arrayName[numberOfElements];

For example,
int Age[5] ;
float cost[30];

Initialization of One Dimensional Array

An array can be initialized along with declaration. For array initialization it is
required to place the elements separated by commas enclosed within braces.
int A[5] = {11,2,23,4,15};
It is possible to leave the array size open. The compiler will count the array
size.
int B[] = {6,7,8,9,15,12};

Referring to Array Elements

In any point of a program in which an array is visible, we can access the value
of any of its elements individually as if it was a normal variable, thus being able
to both read and modify its value.
The format is as simple as:
name[index]

Examples:
cout << age[4]; //print an array element
age[4] = 55; // assign value to an array element
cin >> age[4]; //input element 4

Using Loop to input an Array from user

int age [10], i ;
for (i = 0 ; i < 10; i++)
{
cin >> age[i];
}

Arrays as Parameters
At some moment we may need to pass an array to a function as a parameter.
In C++ it is not possible to pass a complete block of memory by value as a
parameter to a function, but we are allowed to pass its address.
For example, the following function:
void print(int A[])
accepts a parameter of type "array of int" called A.
In order to pass to this function an array declared as:
int arr[20];
we need to write a call like this:
print(arr);
Here is a complete example:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void print(int A[], int length)

{
for (int n = 0; n < length; n++)
cout << A[n] << " ";
cout << "\n";
}
 int main ()
{
int arr[] = {5, 10, 15};
print(arr,3);
return 0;
}

Basic Operation On One Dimensional Array

Function to traverse the array A
void display(int A[], int n)
{
cout << "The elements of the array are:\n";
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
cout << A[i];
}

Function to Read elements of the array A

void Input(int A[], int n)
{
cout << "Enter the elements:";
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
cin >> A[i];
}

Function to Search for an element from A by Linear Search

void lsearch(int A[], int n, int data)
{
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
if(A[i] == data)
{
cout << "Data Found at : " << i;
return;
}
}
cout << "Data Not Found in the array" << endl;
}
Function to Search for an element from Array A by Binary
Search

int BsearchAsc(int A[], int n, int data)

{
int Mid, Lbound = 0, Ubound = n-1, Found=0;
while((Lbound <= Ubound) && !(Found))
{
Mid =(Lbound+Ubound)/2; //Searching The Item
if(data > A[Mid])
Lbound = Mid+1;
else if(data < A[Mid])
Ubound = Mid-1;
else
Found++;
}
if(Found)
return(Mid+1); //returning 1ocation, if present
else
return(-1); //returning -1,if not present
}

Function to Sort the array A by Bubble Sort

void BSort(int A[], int n)
{
int I, J, Temp;
for(I = 0; I < n-1; I++) //sorting
{
for(J = 0; J < (n-1-I); J++)
if(A[J] > A[J+1])
{
Temp = A[J]; //swapping
A[J] = A[J+1];
A[J+1] = Temp;
}
}
}
Function to Sort the array ARR by Insertion Sort

void ISort(int A[], int n)

{
int I, J, Temp;
for(I = 1; I < n; I++) //sorting
{
Temp = A[I];
J = I-1;
while((Temp < A[J]) && (J >= 0))
{
A[J+1] = A[J];
J--;
}
A[J+1]=Temp;
}
}

Function to Sort the array by Selection Sort

void SSort(int A[], int n)
{
int I, J, Temp, Small;
for(I = 0; I < n-1; I++)
{
Small = I;
for(J = I+1; J < n; J++) //finding the smallest element
if(A[J] < A[Small])
Small = J;
if(Small != I)
{
Temp = A[I]; //Swapping
A[I] = A[Small];
A[Small] = Temp;
}
}
}
Function to merge A and B arrays of lenghts N and M

void Merge(int A[], int B[], int C[], int N, int M, int &K)
{
int I = 0, J = 0;
K = 0;
while (I < N && J < M)
{
if (A[I] < B[J])
C[K++] = A[I++];
else if (A[I] > B[J])
C[K++] = B[J++];
else
{
C[K++] = A[I++];
J++;
}
}

int T;
for (T = I; T < N; T++)
C[K++] = A[T];
for (T = J; T < M; T++)
C[K++] = B[T];
}
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Two Dimensional Array

It is a collection of data elements of same data type arranged in rows and
columns (that is, in two dimensions).

Declaration of Two-Dimensional Array

Type arrayName[numberOfRows][numberOfColumn];

For example,
int Sales[3][5];

Initialization of Two-Dimensional Array

An two-dimensional array can be initialized along with declaration. For two-

dimensional array initialization, elements of each row are enclosed within curly
braces and separated by commas. All rows are enclosed within curly braces.

int A[4][3] = {{22, 23, 10},

{15, 25, 13},
{20, 74, 67},
{11, 18, 14}};
Referring to Array Elements

To access the elements of a two-dimensional array, we need a pair of indices:

one forthe row position and one for the column position. The format is as simple
as:
name[rowIndex][columnIndex].

Examples:
cout << A[1][2]; //print an array element
A[1][2] = 13; // assign value to an array element
cin >> A[1][2]; //input element

Using Loop to input an Two-Dimensional Array from user

int mat[3][5], row, col ;

for (row = 0; row < 3; row++)
for (col = 0; col < 5; col++)
cin >> mat[row][col];

Arrays as Parameters

Two-dimensional arrays can be passed as parameters to a function, and they

are passed by reference. When declaring a two-dimensional array as a formal
parameter, we can omit the size of the first dimension, but not the second; that
is, we must specify the number of columns. For example:
void print(int A[][3], int N, int M)
In order to pass to this function an array declared as:
int arr[4][3];
we need to write a call like this:
print(arr);
Here is a complete example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void print(int A[][3], int N, int M)

{
for (R = 0; R < N; R++)
for (C = 0; C < M; C++)
cout << A[R][C];
}

int main ()
{
int arr[4][3] ={{12, 29, 11},
{25, 25, 13},
{24, 64, 67},
{11, 18, 14}};
print(arr,4,3);
return 0;
}

Function to read the array A

void Read(int A[][20], int N, int M)

{
for(int R = 0; R < N; R++)
for(int C = 0; C < M; C++)
{
cout << "(R<<','<<")?";
cin >> A[R][C];
}
}
Function to display content of a two dimensional array A

void Display(int A[][20], int N, int M)

{
for(int R = 0;R < N; R++)
{
for(int C = 0; C < M; C++)
cout << setw(10) << A[R][C];
cout << endl;
}
}

Function to find the sum of two dimensional arrays A and B

void Addition(int A[][20], int B[][20], int N, int M)

{
for(int R = 0; R < N; R++)
for(int C = 0;C < M; C++)
C[R][C] = A[R][C] + B[R][C];
}

Function to multiply two dimensional arrays A and B of

order NxL and LxM

void Multiply(int A[][20], int B[][20], int C[][20],int N, int L,

int M)
{
for(int R = 0; R < N; R++)
for(int C = 0; C < M; C++)
{
C[R][C] = 0;
for(int T = 0; T < L; T++)
C[R][C] += A[R][T] * B[T][C];
}
}
Function to find & display sum of rows & sum of cols. of array A

void SumRowCol(int A[][20], int N, int M)

{
for(int R = 0; R < N; R++)
{
int SumR = 0;
for(int C = 0; C < M; C++)
SumR += A[R][C];
cout << "Row("<<R<<")=" << SumR << endl;
}
for(int R = 0;R < N; R++)
{
int SumR = 0;
for(int C = 0; C < M; C++)
SumR += A[R][C];
cout << "Row("<<R<<")=" << SumR << endl;
}
}

Function to find sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix A

void Diagonal(int A[][20], int N, int &Rdiag, int &LDiag)

{
for(int I = 0, Rdiag = 0; I < N; I++)
Rdiag += A[I][I];
for(int I = 0, Ldiag = 0; I < N; I++)
Ldiag += A[N-I-1][I];
}

Function to find out transpose of a two dimensional array A

void Transpose(int A[][20], int B[][20], int N, int M)

{
for(int R = 0; R < N; R++)
for(int C = 0;C < M; C++)
B[R][C] = A[C][R];
}
 www.cppforschool.com

C-Strings (Character Arrays)

STRING: It is an array of type char.

Syntax for declaration

char <array/string name> [max. number of characters to be stored +1];

The number of elements that can be stored in a string is always n-1, if the size
of the array specified is n. This is because 1 byte is reserved for the NULL
character '\0' i.e. backslash zero. A string is always terminated with the NULL
character.

Example:
char str[80];
In the above example, str can be used to store a string with 79 characters.

Initializing a string

A string can be initialized to a constant value when it is declared.

char str[ ] = "Good";
Or
char str[]={'G','o','o','d','\0'};

Here. 'G' will be stored in str[0], 'o' in str[1] and so on.

Note: When the value is assigned to the complete string at once, the computer
automatically inserts the NULL character at the end of the string. But, if it is
done character by character, then we have to insert it at the end of the string.

Reading strings with/without embedded blanks

To read a string without blanks cin can be used
cin>>str;
To read a string with blanks cin.getline() or gets() can be used.
cin.getline(str,80);
-Or-
gets(str);

Printing strings

cout and puts() can be used to print a string.

cout<<str:
Or
puts(str);

Note: For gets( ) and puts(), the header file <cstdio> (formally stdio.h) has to
be included. puts() can be used to display only strings. It takes a line feed after
printing the string.

cin gets()

It can be used to take input of It can be used to take input of

a value of any data type. a string.

It takes the white space i.e. a It does not take the white
blank, a tab, or a new line space i.e. a blank, a tab, or a
character as a string new line character, as a string
terminator. terminator.

It requires header file It requires the header file

<iostream> <cstdio>

Example: Example:
char S[80]; char S[80];
cout << "Enter a string:”; cout << "Enter a string:";
cin>>S; gets(S);
 cout puts()

It can be used to display the It can be used to display the

value of any data type. value of a string.

It does not take a line feed It takes a line feed after

after displaying the string. displaying the string.

It requires the header file It requires the header file

iostream cstdio

Example: Example:
char S[80] = "Computers"; char S[80] = "Computers";
cout<<S<<S; puts(S);
puts(S);
Output:
ComputersComputers Output:
Computers
Computers

Counting the number of characters in a string and printing it

backwards
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main( )
{
char str[80];
cout<<"Enter a string:";
cin.getline(str,80);
for(int l=0; str[l]!='\0';l++); //Loop to find length
cout<<"The length of the string is : "<<l<<endl ;
for(int i=l-1;i>=0;i--) //Loop to display the string backwards
cout<<str[i];
return 0;
}
Function to count the number of words in a string

void count(char S[])

{
int words=0;
for(int i=0;S[i]!='\0';i++)
{
if (S[i]==' ')
words++; //Checking for spaces
}
cout<<"The number of words="<<words+1<<endl;
}

Function to find the length of a string

int length(char S[ ])
{
for(int i=0;S[i]!='\0';i++);
return i;
}

Function to copy the contents of string S2 to S1

void copy(char S1[ ], char S2[ ])

{
for(int i=0;S2[i]!='\0';i++)
S1[i]=S2[i];
S1[i]='\0';
}

Function to concatenate the contents of string S2 to S1

void concat(char S1[ ], char S2[ ])

{
for(int l=0;S1[l]!='\0';l++);
for(int i=0;S2[i]!='\0';i++)
S1[l++]=S2[i];
S1[l]='\0';
}

Function to compare strings STR1 to STR2.

The function returns a value>0 if //STR1>STR2, a value<0 if STR1<STR2, and

value 0 if STR1=STR2
int compare(char STR1[ ],char STR2[])
{
for(int I=0;STR1[I]==STR2[I] && STR1[I]!='\0'&&STR2[I]!='\0'; I++);
return STR1[I]-STR2[I];
}

To reverse the contents of string S and store it in string Rev

void Reverse(char S[], char Rev[])

{
for(int C1=0; S[C1]!='\0'; C1++);
C1--;
for(int C2=0;C1>=0;C2++,C1--)
Rev[C2]=S[C1];
Rev[C2]='\0';
}

Function to check whether a string S is a palindrome or not

int Palin(char S[])

{
for(int L=0;S[L]!='\0';L++); //To find length
for(int C=0;(C<L/2) && (S[C]==S[L-C-1]);C++);
return (C==L/2)?1:0; //Returns 1 if Palindrome else 0
}

Function to change the case of string S to uppercase

void Upper(char S[])

{
for(int i=0;S[i]!='\0';i++)
S[i] = (S[i]>='a' && S[i]<='z')?(S[i]-32):S[i];
}

Function to change the case of string S to lower case

void Lower(char S[])

{
for(int i=0;S[i]!='\0';i++)
S[i] = (S[i]>='A' && S[i]<='Z')?(S[i]+32):S[i];
}
Function to extract n characters from left side of the string and store
it in a different string.

Example: 4 characters from ENVIRONMENT=ENVI

int SLeft(char S[ ], int n, char result[ ])

{
for(int l=0;S[l]!='\0';l++);
if(n<=I) //characters extracted should be <=length
{
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
result[i]=S[i];
result[i]='\0';
return 1;
}
else
return 0;
}

Function to extract n characters from right side of the string and

store it in a different string.

Example: 4 characters from ENVIRONMENT=MENT

int SRight(char S[ ], int n, char result[ ])

{
for(int l=0;S[l]!='\0';l++);
if(n<=I) //characters extracted should be <=length
{
for(int j=0;i=l-n;S[i]!=’/0’;i++,j++)
result[j]=S[i];
result[j]='\0';
return 1;
}
else
return 0;
}
 www.cppforschool.com

Structure
A structure is a collection of variable which can be same or different types. You
can refer to a structure as a single variable and to its parts as members of that
variable by using the dot (.) operator. The power of structures lies in the fact
that once defined, the structure name becomes a user-defined data type and
may be used the same way as other built-in data types, such as int, double,
char.
struct Student
{
int rollno, age;
char name[80];
float marks;
};

int main()
{

// declare two variables of the new type

Student s1, s3;

//accessing of data members

cin >> s1.rollno >> s1.age >> s1.name >> s1.marks;
cout << s1.rollno << s1.age << s1.name << s1.marks;

//initialization of structure variable

Student s2 = {100, 17, "Aniket", 92};
cout << s2.rollno << s2.age << s2.name << s2.marks;

//structure variable in assignment statement

s3 = s2;
cout << s3.rollno << s3.age << s3.name << s3.marks;

return 0;
}
Defining a structure
When dealing with the students in a school, many variables of different types
are needed. It may be necessary to keep track of name, age, Rollno, and
marks point for example.

struct Student
{
int rollno, age;
char name[80];
float marks;
};

Student is called the structure tag, and is your brand new data type, like int,
double or char.

rollno, name, age, and marks are structure members.

Declaring Variables of Type struct

The most efficient method of dealing with structure variables is to define the
structure globally. This tells "the whole world", namely main and any functions
in the program, that a new data type exists. To declare a structure globally,
place it BEFORE void main(). The structure variables can then be defined
locally in main, for example…
struct Student
{
int rollno, age;
char name[80];
float marks;
};

int main()
{
// declare two variables of the new type
Student s1, s3;
………
………
return 0;
}
Alternate method of declaring variables of type struct:
struct Student
{
int rollno, age;
char name[80];
float marks;
} s1, s3;

Accessing of data members

The accessing of data members is done by using the following format:
structure variable.member name
for example

cin >> s1.rollno >> s1.age >> s1.name >> s1.marks;

Initialization of structure variable

Initialization is done at the time of declaration of a variable. For example

Student s2 = {100, 17, "Aniket", 92};

Structure variable in assignment statement

s3 = s2;

The statement assigns the value of each member of s2 to the corresponding

member of s3. Note that one structure variable can be assigned to another only
when they are of the same structure type, otherwise complier will give an error.

Nested structure (Structure within structure)

It is possible to use a structure to define another structure. This is called
nesting of structure. Consider the following program
struct Day
{
int month, date, year;
};

struct Student
{
int rollno, age;
char name[80];
Day date_of_birth;
float marks;
};

Accessing Member variables of Student

To access members of date_of_birth we can write the statements as below :

Student s; // Structure variable of Student

s.date_of_birth.month = 11;
s.date_of_birth.date = 5;
s.date_of_birth.year = 1999;

typedef
It is used to define new data type for an existing data type. It provides and
alternative name for standard data type. It is used for self documenting the
code by allowing descriptive name for the standard data type.

The general format is:

typedef existing datatype new datatype
for example:
typedef float real;
Now, in a program one can use datatype real instead of float.
Therefore, the following statement is valid:
real amount;
Enumerated data type
The enum specifier defines the set of names which are stored internally as
integer constant. The first name was given the integer value 0, the second
value 1 and so on.

for example:

enum months{jan, feb, mar, apr, may} ;

It has the following features:

 It is user defined.
 It works if you know in advance a finite list of values that a data type can
take.
 The list cannot be input by the user or output on the screen.

#define preprocessor directive

The #define preprocessor allows to define symbolic names and constants e.g.
#define pi 3.14159
This statement will translate every occurrence of PI in the program to 3.14159

Macros
Macros are built on the #define preprocessor. Normally a macro would look like:
#define square(x) x*x
Its arguments substituted for replacement text, when the macro is expanded.
 www.cppforschool.com

Pointer

Accessing address of a variable

Computer‟s memory is organized as a linear collection of bytes. Every byte in
the computer‟s memory has an address. Each variable in program is stored at a
unique address. We can use address operator & to get address of a variable:
int num = 23;
cout << &num; // prints address in hexadecimal

POINTER
A pointer is a variable that holds a memory address, usually the location of
another variable in memory.

Defining a Pointer Variable

int *iptr;
iptr can hold the address of an int

Pointer Variables Assignment:

int num = 25;
int *iptr;
iptr = &num;

Memory layout

To access num using iptr and indirection operator *

cout << iptr; // prints 0x4a00
cout << *itptr; // prints 25

Similary, following declaration shows:

char *cptr;
float *fptr;
cptr is a pointer to character and fptr is a pointer to float value.
Pointer Arithmetic
Some arithmetic operators can be used with pointers:
- Increment and decrement operators ++, --
- Integers can be added to or subtracted from
pointers using the operators +, -, +=, and -=

Each time a pointer is incremented by 1, it points to the memory location of the

next element of its base type.
If “p” is a character pointer then “p++” will increment “p” by 1 byte.
If “p” were an integer pointer its value on “p++” would be incremented by 4
bytes.

Pointers and Arrays

Array name is base address of array
int vals[] = {4, 7, 11};
cout << vals; // displays 0x4a00
cout << vals[0]; // displays 4

Lets takes an example:

int arr[]={4,7,11};
int *ptr = arr;
What is ptr + 1?
It means (address in ptr) + (1 * size of an int)
cout << *(ptr+1); // displays 7
cout << *(ptr+2); // displays 11

Array Access
Array notation arr[i] is equivalent to the pointer notation *(arr + i)

Assume the variable definitions

int arr[]={4,7,11};
int *ptr = arr;
Examples of use of ++ and --
ptr++; // points at 7
ptr--; // now points at 4
Character Pointers and Strings
Initialize to a character string.
char* a = “Hello”;
a is pointer to the memory location where „H‟ is stored. Here “a” can be viewed
as a character array of size 6, the only difference being that a can be reassigned
another memory location.
char* a = “Hello”;
a gives address of „H‟
*a gives „H‟
a[0] gives „H‟
a++ gives address of „e‟
*a++ gives „e‟

Pointers as Function Parameters

A pointer can be a parameter. It works like a reference parameter to allow
change to argument from within function

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

void swap(int *, int *);

int main()
{
int a=10,b=20;
swap(&a, &b);
cout<<a<<" "<<b;
return 0;
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int t;
t=*x;
*x=*y;
*y=t;
}

output:
20 10
Pointers to Constants and Constant Pointers

Pointer to a constant: cannot change the value that is pointed at

Constant pointer: address in pointer cannot change once pointer is initialized

Pointers to Structures
We can create pointers to structure variables

struct Student {int rollno; float fees;};

Student stu1;
Student *stuPtr = &stu1;
(*stuPtr).rollno= 104;
-or-
Use the form ptr->member:
stuPtr->rollno = 104;

Static allocation of memory

In the static memory allocation, the amount of memory to be allocated is
predicted and preknown. This memory is allocated during the compilation itself.
All the declared variables declared normally, are allocated memory statically.

Dynamic allocation of memory

In the dynamic memory allocation, the amount of memory to be allocated is not
known. This memory is allocated during run-time as and when required. The
memory is dynamically allocated using new operator.

Free store
Free store is a pool of unallocated heap memory given to a program that is used
by the program for dynamic allocation during execution.

Dynamic Memory Allocation

We can allocate storage for a variable while program is running by using new
operator
To allocate memory of type integer
int *iptr=new int;

To allocate array
double *dptr = new double[25];

To allocate dynamic structure variables or objects

Student sptr = new Student; //Student is tag name of structure

Releasing Dynamic Memory

Use delete to free dynamic memory
delete iptr;
To free dynamic array memory
delete [] dptr;
To free dynamic structure
delete Student;

Memory Leak
If the objects, that are allocated memory dynamically, are not deleted using
delete, the memory block remains occupied even at the end of the program.
Such memory blocks are known as orphaned memory blocks. These orphaned
memory blocks when increase in number, bring adverse effect on the system.
This situation is called memory leak

Self Referential Structure

The self referential structures are structures that include an element that is a
pointer to another structure of the same type.

struct node
{
int data;
node* next;
}
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OOP Concepts
There are two common programming methods: procedural programming and
object-oriented programming (OOP). So far you have been creating procedural
programs.

Procedural Programming
In a procedural program data is typically stored in a collection of variables and
there is a set of functions that perform operations on the data. The data and the
functions are separate entities. Usually the variables are passed to the functions
that perform the desired operations. As you might imagine, the focus of
procedural programming is on creating the functions, or procedures, that
operate on the program’s data. Procedural programming works well. However,
as programs become larger and more complex, the separation of a program’s
data and the code that operates on the data can lead to problems.

Object Oriented programming

The object oriented programming design models the real world well and
overcomes the shortcomings of procedural paradigm. It views a problem in
terms of objects and thus emphasizes on both procedures as well as data.

An object is an entity that combines both data and procedures in a single unit.
An object’s data items, also referred to as its attributes, are stored in member
variables. The procedures that an object performs are called its member
functions. This wrapping of an object’s data and procedures together is called
encapsulation.

Not only objects encapsulate associated data and procedures, they also permit
data hiding. Data hiding refers to an object’s ability to hide its data from code
outside the object. Only the object’s member functions can directly access and
make changes to the object’s data.

Advantages of Object oriented programming.

Software complexity can be easily managed
Object-oriented systems can be easily upgraded
It is quite easy to partition the work in a project based on object.
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Class & Objects

The mechanism that allows you to combine data and the function in a single
unit is called a class. Once a class is defined, you can declare variables of that
type. A class variable is called object or instance. In other words, a class would
be the data type, and an object would be the variable. Classes are generally
declared using the keyword class, with the following format:
class class_name
{
private:
members1;
protected:
members2;
public:
members3;
};

Where class_name is a valid identifier for the class. The body of the declaration
can contain members, that can be either data or function declarations, The
members of a class are classified into three categories: private, public, and
protected. private, protected, and public are reserved words and are called
member access specifiers. These specifiers modify the access rights that the
members following them acquire.

private members of a class are accessible only from within other members of
the same class. You cannot access it outside of the class.
protected members are accessible from members of their same class and also
from members of their derived classes.
Finally, public members are accessible from anywhere where the object is
visible.

By default, all members of a class declared with the class keyword have private
access for all its members. Therefore, any member that is declared before one
other class specifier automatically has private access.

Here is a complete example :

class Circle
{
private:
double radius;
public:
void setRadius(double r)
{
radius = r;
}
double getArea()
{
return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}
};

Object Declaration
Once a class is defined, you can declare objects of that type. The syntax for
declaring a object is the same as that for declaring any other variable. The
following statements declare two objects of type circle:
Circle c1, c2;

Accessing Class Members

Once an object of a class is declared, it can access the public members of the
class.
c1.setRadius(2.5);

Defining Member function of class

You can define Functions inside the class as shown in above example. Member
functions defined inside a class this way are created as inline functions by
default. It is also possible to declare a function within a class but define it
elsewhere. Functions defined outside the class are not normally inline.
When we define a function outside the class we cannot reference them (directly)
outside of the class. In order to reference these, we use the scope resolution
operator, :: (double colon). In this example, we are defining function setRadius
outside the class:
void Circle :: setRadius(double r)
{
radius = r;
}

The following program demonstrates the general feature of classes. Member

functions setRadius() and getArea() defined outside the class.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Circle //specify a class

{
private :
double radius; //class data members
public:
void setRadius(double r);
double getArea(); //member function to return area
};

void Circle :: setRadius(double r)

{
radius = r;
}

double Circle :: getArea()

{
return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}

int main()
{
Circle c1; //define object of class circle
c1.setRadius(2.5); //call member function to initialize radius
cout << c1.getArea(); //display area of circle object
return 0;
}
 www.cppforschool.com

Constructor and Destructor

Constructor
It is a member function having same name as it’s class and which is used to
initialize the objects of that class type with a legal initial value. Constructor is
automatically called when object is created.

Types of Constructor
Default Constructor-: A constructor that accepts no parameters is known as
default constructor. If no constructor is defined then the compiler supplies a
default constructor.
Circle :: Circle()
{
radius = 0;
}

Parameterized Constructor -: A constructor that receives

arguments/parameters, is called parameterized constructor.
Circle :: Circle(double r)
{
radius = r;
}

Copy Constructor-: A constructor that initializes an object using values of

another object passed to it as parameter, is called copy constructor. It creates
the copy of the passed object.
Circle :: Circle(Circle &t)
{
radius = t.radius;
}

There can be multiple constructors of the same class, provided they

have different signatures.
Destructor
A destructor is a member function having sane name as that of its class
preceded by ~(tilde) sign and which is used to destroy the objects that have
been created by a constructor. It gets invoked when an object’s scope is over.
~Circle() {}

Example : In the following program constructors, destructor and other

member functions are defined inside class definitions. Since we are using
multiple constructor in class so this example also illustrates the concept of
constructor overloading
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

class Circle //specify a class

{
private :
double radius; //class data members
public:
Circle() //default constructor
{
radius = 0;
}
Circle(double r) //parameterized constructor
{
radius = r;
}
Circle(Circle &t) //copy constructor
{
radius = t.radius;
}
void setRadius(double r) //function to set data
{
radius = r;
}
double getArea()
{
return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}
~Circle() //destructor
{}
};

int main()
{
 Circle c1; //default constructor invoked
Circle c2(2.5); //parmeterized constructor invoked
Circle c3(c2); //copy constructor invoked
cout << c1.getArea()<<endl;
cout << c2.getArea()<<endl;
cout << c3.getArea()<<endl;
return 0;
}

Another way of Member initialization in constructors

The constructor for this class could be defined, as usual, as:

Circle :: Circle(double r)
{
radius = r;
}

It could also be defined using member initialization as:

Circle :: Circle(double r) : radius(r)
{}
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Time Class Case Study

In the preceding section, we introduced many basic terms and concepts of C++
object oriented programming. In this section, we take a deeper look at classes.
In this Time class case study we will demonstrate several class construction
features. We begin with a Time class that reviews several of the features
presented in the preceding section.

#include<iostream>
#include<iomanip>
using namespace std;

class Time
{
private :
int hour;
int minute;
int second;
public :
//constructor with default value 0
Time(int h = 0, int m = 0, int s = 0);
//setter function
void setTime(int h, int m, int s);
//print description of object in hh:mm:ss
void print();
//compare two time object
bool equals(Time);
};

Time :: Time(int h, int m, int s)

{
hour = h;
minute = m;
second = s;
}

void Time :: setTime(int h, int m, int s)

{
hour = h;
minute = m;
second = s;
}
void Time :: print()
{
cout << setw(2) << setfill('0') << hour << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << minute << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << second << "\n";
}

bool Time :: equals(Time otherTime)

{
if(hour == otherTime.hour &&
minute == otherTime.minute &&
second == otherTime.second)
return true;
else
return false;
}

int main()
{
Time t1(10, 50, 59);
t1.print(); // 10:50:59
Time t2; //object created with default value
t2.print(); // 00:00:00
t2.setTime(6, 39, 9); //set the new time in object
t2.print(); // 06:39:09

if(t1.equals(t2))
cout << "Two objects are equals\n";
else
cout << "Two objects are not equals\n";

return 0;
}

Output :

10:50:59
00:00:00
06:39:09
Two objects are not equals

Let's us discuss our Time class and add some new concepts of programming
Constructors with Default Arguments

In Circle class we have created explicit default constructor and parameterized

constructor. Compiler overloads constructor based on match.

You can combine both statements in one as in Time class example

//constructor with default value

Time(int h = 0, int m = 0, int s = 0);

It works same way just matter of styling code.

Constant Function

In some cases, you will need that the member function should not change any
private member variables of the calling object. You can do this by adding const
to the end of the function declaration (prototype) and in the function definition.

Let’s make member functions in our Time class const if appropriate:

class Time
{
...
...
//print description of object in hh:mm:ss
void print() const;
...
...

};

....
....
void Time :: print() const
{
cout << setw(2) << setfill('0') << hour << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << minute << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << second << "\n";
}

....
Constant Parameters

You can make a parameter in a function as being a const parameter by

preceding its type with const. This tells the compiler to disallow that parameter
changing its value inside that function. This mechanism protects you from
making inadvertent mistakes.

Let’s make parameter constant in our Time class, if appropriate:

class Time
{
.....
//constructor with default value 0
Time(const int h = 0, const int m = 0, const int s = 0);
//setter function
void setTime(const int h, const int m, const int s);
.....
};

Time :: Time(const int h, const int m, const int s)

{
hour = h;
minute = m;
second = s;
}

void Time :: setTime(const int h, const int m, const int s)

{
hour = h;
minute = m;
second = s;
}

......

Passing Objects to Functions

Object can be passed by value, by reference or by pointer. In our Time class we

passed object by value.
bool Time :: equals(Time otherTime)
{
if(hour == otherTime.hour &&
minute == otherTime.minute &&
 second == otherTime.second)
return true;
else
return false;
}

This means that equals() receives a copy of object t2 with name otherTime.
If a function needs to store or change data in an object’s member variables, the
object must be passed to it by reference.

Constant Reference Parameters

Passing by const reference is the preferred way to pass objects as an alternative

to pass-by-value. When you pass by const reference, you take the argument in
by reference, but cannot make any changes to the original object.
//object passing by reference with const parameter
bool equals(const Time&);
 www.cppforschool.com

Separate Header and Implementation Files

In this section, we demonstrate how to make class reusable by separating it
into other files.

Header File

Class declarations are stored in a separate file. A file that contains a class
declaration is called header file. The name of the class is usually the same as
the name of the class, with a .h extension. For example, the Time class would
be declared in the file Time .h.

#ifndef TIME_H
#define TIME_H

class Time
{
private :
int hour;
int minute;
int second;
public :
//with default value
Time(const int h = 0, const int m = 0, const int s = 0);
// setter function
void setTime(const int h, const int m, const int s);
// Print a description of object in " hh:mm:ss"
void print() const;
//compare two time object
bool equals(const Time&);
};

#endif
Implementation File

The member function definitions for a class are stored in a separate .cpp file,
which is called the class implementation file. The file usually has the same name
as the class, with the .cpp extension. For example the Time class member
functions would be defined in the file Time.cpp.

#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include "Time.h"
using namespace std;

Time :: Time(const int h, const int m, const int s)

: hour(h), minute (m), second(s)
{}

void Time :: setTime(const int h, const int m, const int s)

{
hour = h;
minute = m;
second = s;
}

void Time :: print() const

{
cout << setw(2) << setfill('0') << hour << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << minute << ":"
<< setw(2) << setfill('0') << second << "\n";

bool Time :: equals(const Time &otherTime)

{
if(hour == otherTime.hour
&& minute == otherTime.minute
&& second == otherTime.second)
return true;
else
return false;
}
Client Code

Client code, is the one that includes the main function. This file should be stored
by the name main.cpp

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include "Time.h"

int main()
{
Time t1(10, 50, 59);
t1.print(); // 10:50:59
Time t2;
t2.print(); // 06:39:09
t2.setTime(6, 39, 9);
t2.print(); // 06:39:09

if(t1.equals(t2))
cout << "Two objects are equal\n";
else
cout << "Two objects are not equal\n";

return 0;
}

The advantages of storing class definition in separate file are

1. The class is reusable.

2. The clients of the class know what member functions the class provides, how
to call them and what return types to expect.

3. The clients do not know how the class's member functions are implemented.
 www.cppforschool.com

Static Members of a Class

In the previous sections we have shown examples of classes where each object
of a class had its own set of data. Member function could access the object's
own version of the data.

In some situations it may be desirable that one or more common data fields
should exist, which are accessible to all objects of the class. In C++, a static
member is shared by all objects of the class.

Static Data Members

A data member of a class can be declared static; be it in the public or private

part of the class definition. Such a data member is created and initialized only
once. Static data members which are declared public can be accessed by using
class name and the scope resolution operator.

We only include the declaration of static data in the class declaration.

Initialization of a static data-member is done outside the class. This is
illustrated in the following code fragment:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Circle
{
private:
double radius; // Radius of a circle
public:
static int count;
// Constructor definition
Circle(double r = 1.0)
{
radius = r;
// Increase every time object is created
count++;
}
double getArea()
{
return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}
};
// Initialize static member of class Circle
int Circle::count = 0;

int main()
{
Circle c1(3.3); // Declare object c1
Circle c2(4.5); // Declare object c2

// Print total number of objects.

cout << "Total objects: " << Circle::count << endl;

return 0;
}

Output:

Total objects: 2

Static Member Functions

The static functions can access only the static data of a class. Similarly, static
functions cannot call non-static functions of the class.

Functions which are static and which are declared in the public section of a class
can be called without specifying an object of the class. This is illustrated in the
following code fragment:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Circle
{
private:
static int count;
double radius; // Radius of a circle
public:
// Constructor definition
Circle(double r = 1.0)
{
 radius = r;
// Increase every time object is created
count++;
}
double getArea()
{
return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}
static int getCount()
{
return count;
}
};

// Initialize static member of class Circle

int Circle::count = 0;

int main()
{
Circle c1(3.3); // Declare object c1
Circle c2(4.5); // Declare object c2

// Print total number of objects.

cout << "Total objects: " << Circle::getCount() << endl;

return 0;
}

Output:

Total objects: 2
 www.cppforschool.com

Friend Functions
As we have seen in the previous sections, private and protected data or function
members are normally only accessible by the code which is part of same class.
However, situations may arise in which it is desirable to allow the explicit access
to private members of class to other functions.

If we want to declare an external function as friend of a class, thus allowing this

function to have access to the private and protected members of this class, we
do it by declaring a prototype of this external function within the class, and
preceding it with the keyword friend. This is illustrated in the following code
fragment:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Rectangle
{
private :
int length;
int width;
public:

void setData(int len, int wid)

{
length = len;
width = wid;
}

int getArea()
{
return length * width ;
}

friend double getCost(Rectangle); //friend of class Rectangle

};

//friend function getCost can access private member of class

double getCost (Rectangle rect)
{
double cost;
cost = rect.length * rect.width * 5;
return cost;
}
int main ()
{
Rectangle floor;
floor.setData(20,3);
cout << "Expense " << getCost(floor) << endl;
return 0;
}

Output :
Expense 300

The getCost function is a friend of Rectangle. From within that function we have
been able to access the members length and width, which are private members.

Friend Classes
One class member function can access the private and protected members of
other class. We do it by declaring a class as friend of other class. This is
illustrated in the following code fragment:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class CostCalculator;

class Rectangle
{
private :
int length;
int width;
public:
void setData(int len, int wid)
{
length = len;
width = wid;
}

int getArea()
{
return length * width ;
}

friend class CostCalculator; //friend of class Rectangle

};
//friend class costCalculator can access private member of class
Rectangle

class CostCalculator
{
public :
double getCost (Rectangle rect)
{
double cost;
cost = rect.length * rect.width * 5;
return cost;
}
};

int main ()
{
Rectangle floor;
floor.setData(20,3);
CostCalculator calc;
cout << "Expense " << calc.getCost(floor) << endl;
return 0;
}

Output :
Expense 300

Note : An empty declaration of class costCalculator at top is necessary.

 www.cppforschool.com

Operator Overloading in C++

Operator overloading is giving new functionality to an existing operator. It
means the behavior of operators when applied to objects of a class can be
redefined. It is similar to overloading functions except the function name is
replaced by the keyword operator followed by the operator’s symbol. There are
5 operators that are forbidden to overload. They are :: . .* sizeof ?:

In the following code fragment, we will overload binary + operator for Complex
number class object.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Complex
{
private :
double real;
double imag;
public:
Complex () {};
Complex (double, double);
Complex operator + (Complex);
void print();
};

Complex::Complex (double r, double i)

{
real = r;
imag = i;
}

Complex Complex::operator+ (Complex param)

{
Complex temp;
temp.real = real + param.real;
temp.imag = imag + param.imag;
return (temp);
}

void Complex::print()
{
cout << real << " + i" << imag << endl;
}
int main ()
{
Complex c1 (3.1, 1.5);
Complex c2 (1.2, 2.2);
Complex c3;

c3 = c1 + c2; //use overloaded + operator

c1.print();
c2.print();
c3.print();
return 0;
}

Output :
3.1 + i1.5
1.2 + i2.2
4.3 + i3.7

In C++ we can cause an operator to invoke a member function by giving that

member function a special name (of the form: operator<symbol>). Hence for
the sum operation, the special name is: operator+. So, by naming the member
function operator+ we can call the function by statement
c3 = c1 + c2

That is similiar to
c3 = c1.operator+(c2);
 www.cppforschool.com

Inheritance
The mechanism that allows us to extend the definition of a class without making
any physical changes to the existing class is inheritance.

Inheritance lets you create new classes from existing class. Any new class that
you create from an existing class is called derived class; existing class is called
base class.

The inheritance relationship enables a derived class to inherit features from its
base class. Furthermore, the derived class can add new features of its own.
Therefore, rather than create completely new classes from scratch, you can
take advantage of inheritance and reduce software complexity.

Forms of Inheritance

Single Inheritance: It is the inheritance hierarchy wherein one derived class

inherits from one base class.

Multiple Inheritance: It is the inheritance hierarchy wherein one derived class

inherits from multiple base class(es)

Hierarchical Inheritance: It is the inheritance hierarchy wherein multiple

subclasses inherit from one base class.

Multilevel Inheritance: It is the inheritance hierarchy wherein subclass acts

as a base class for other classes.

Hybrid Inheritance: The inheritance hierarchy that reflects any legal

combination of other four types of inheritance.
In order to derive a class from another, we use a colon (:) in the declaration of
the derived class using the following format :

class derived_class: memberAccessSpecifier base_class

{
...
};

Where derived_class is the name of the derived class and base_class is the
name of the class on which it is based. The member Access Specifier may be
public, protected or private. This access specifier describes the access level for
the members that are inherited from the base class.
 Member How Members of the Base Class Appear in the
Access Derived Class
Specifier

Private Private members of the base class are inaccessible

to the derived class.

Protected members of the base class become private

members of the derived class.

Public members of the base class become private

members of the derived class.

Protected Private members of the base class are inaccessible

to the derived class.

Protected members of the base class become

protected members of the derived class.

Public members of the base class become protected

members of the derived class.

Public Private members of the base class are inaccessible

to the derived class.

Protected members of the base class become

protected members of the derived class.

Public members of the base class become public

members of the derived class.

In principle, a derived class inherits every member of a base class except

constructor and destructor. It means private members are also become
members of derived class. But they are inaccessible by the members of
derived class.
Following example further explains concept of inheritance :

class Shape
{
protected:
float width, height;
public:
void set_data (float a, float b)
{
width = a;
height = b;
}
};

class Rectangle: public Shape

{
public:
float area ()
{
return (width * height);
}
};

class Triangle: public Shape

{
public:
float area ()
{
return (width * height / 2);
}
};
int main ()
{
Rectangle rect;
Triangle tri;
rect.set_data (5,3);
tri.set_data (2,5);
cout << rect.area() << endl;
cout << tri.area() << endl;
return 0;
}

output :

15
5

The object of the class Rectangle contains :

width, height inherited from Shape becomes the protected member of
Rectangle.

set_data() inherited from Shape becomes the public member of Rectangle

area is Rectangle’s own public member

The object of the class Triangle contains :

width, height inherited from Shape becomes the protected member of Triangle.
set_data() inherited from Shape becomes the public member of Triangle
area is Triangle’s own public member

set_data () and area() are public members of derived class and can be accessed
from outside class i.e. from main()
 www.cppforschool.com

Constructor and inheritance

The compiler automatically calls a base class constructor before executing the
derived class constructor. The compiler’s default action is to call the default
constructor in the base class. You can specify which of several base class
constructors should be called during the creation of a derived class object.

This is done by specifying the arguments to the selected base class constructor
in the definition of the derived class constructor.

class Rectangle
{
private :
float length;
float width;
public:
Rectangle ()
{
length = 0;
width = 0;
}

Rectangle (float len, float wid)

{
length = len;
width = wid;
}

float area()
{
return length * width ;
}
};

class Box : public Rectangle

{
private :
float height;
public:
Box ()
{
height = 0;
}
 Box (float len, float wid, float ht) : Rectangle(len, wid)
{
height = ht;
}

float volume()
{
return area() * height;
}
};

int main ()
{
Box bx;
Box cx(4,8,5);
cout << bx.volume() << endl;
cout << cx.volume() << endl;
return 0;
}

output :

0
160

Overriding Base Class Functions

A derived class can override a member function of its base class by defining a
derived class member function with the same name and parameter list.
It is often useful for a derived class to define its own version of a member
function inherited from its base class. This may be done to specialize the
member function to the needs of the derived class. When this happens, the
base class member function is said to be overridden by the derived class.
class mother
{
public:
void display ()
{
cout << "mother: display function\n";
}
};

class daughter : public mother

{
public:
void display ()
{
cout << "daughter: display function\n\n";
}
};

int main ()
{
daughter rita;
rita.display();
return 0;
}

output:
daughter: display function

Gaining Access to an Overridden Function

It is occasionally useful to be able to call the overridden version. This is done by

using the scope resolution operator to specify the class of the overridden
member function being accessed.

class daughter : public mother

{
public:
void display ()
{
cout << "daughter: display function\n\n";
mother::display();
}
};
output:

daughter: display function

mother: display function

Virtual Base Class

Multipath inheritance may lead to duplication of inherited members from a

grandparent base class. This may be avoided by making the common base class
a virtual base class. When a class is made a virtual base class, C++ takes
necessary care to see that only one copy of that class is inherited.

class A
{
.....
.....
};

class B1 : virtual public A

{
.....
.....
};

class B2 : virtual public A

{
.....
.....
};

class C : public B1, public B2

{
.....// only one copy of A
.....// will be inherited
};
 www.cppforschool.com

Polymorphism, Virtual Functions and Abstract Class

In C++, a pointer variable of a base class type can point to an object of its derived
class. There are situations when this feature of C++ can be used to develop generic
code for a variety of applications.

Pointer of base class

Consider the following program to understand pointer compatibility property
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Shape
{
protected:
double width, height;
public:
void set_data (double a, double b)
{
width = a;
height = b;
}
};

class Rectangle: public Shape

{
public:
double area ()
{
return (width * height);
}
};

int main ()
{
Shape *sPtr; //declare pointer variables of type Shape
Rectangle Rect; //create the object rect of type Rectangle
sPtr = &Rect; //make sPtr point to the object rect.

sPtr->set_data (5,3); //set length and width of object rect

cout << sPtr -> area() << endl; //Compile Error !!

return 0;
}
 Notice that even though rectPtr is pointing to rect (object of type Rectangle), when
the program executes, the statement sets length and width of rectangle. If you tried
to access area function of class Rectangle with sPtr it will give you compiler error.
sPtr -> area()

is a compiler error !

It means base class pointer can not access the additional member function of
its derived class. If we want to do this we need to type cast the base class pointer.

Using Type Casts with Base Class Pointers

We can use a type cast to get the compiler to accept the statement:
static_cast <Rectangle *> (sPtr)->area()

so we should write the statment

cout << static_cast <Rectangle *> (sPtr) -> area() << endl;

The type cast informs the compiler that sPtr is actually pointing to a Rectangle object
derived from the Shape base class. In general, a pointer to a base class that
actually points to a derived class object must first be appropriately cast
before the additional features of the derived class can be used.

Virtual Function and Polymorphism

Virtual functions are used in C++ to support polymorphic behavior. We are modifing
the above program and will introduce you the concept of virtual function by following
example:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Shape
{
protected:
double width, height;
public:
void set_data (double a, double b)
{
width = a;
height = b;
}
virtual double area()
{return 0;}
};

class Rectangle: public Shape

{
public:
double area ()
{
return (width * height);
}
};

int main ()
{
Shape *sPtr;
Rectangle Rect;
sPtr = &Rect;

sPtr -> set_data (5,3);

cout << sPtr -> area() << endl;

return 0;
}

Output :
15

A member of a class that can be redefined in its derived classes is known as a virtual
member. In order to declare a member of a class as virtual, we must precede its
declaration with the keyword virtual. The member function area() has been declared
as virtual in the base class because it is later redefined in each
derived class. The advantage of having virtual function is that we are able to
access area function of derived class by pointer variable of base class.

Pure Virtual Function and Abstract Class

In above example, base class Shape member function area do not need any
implementation because it is overriding in derived class. If this is the case, the C++
language permits the programmer to declare the function a pure virtual function. The
C++ way of declaring a pure virtual function is to put the expression = 0 in the class
declaration. For example, if a member function double area() is being declared pure
virtual, then its declaration in its class looks like
virtual double area() = 0;
A pure virtual function is sometimes called an abstract function, and a class with at
least one pure virtual function is called an abstract class. The C++ compiler will not
allow you to instantiate an abstract class. Abstract classes can only be subclassed:
that is, you can only use them as base classes from which to derive other classes.

A class derived from an abstract class inherits all functions in the base class, and will
itself be an abstract class unless it overrides all the abstract functions it inherits. The
usefulness of abstract classes lies in the fact that they define an interface that will
then have to be supported by objects of all classes derived from it.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Shape
{
protected:
double width, height;
public:
void set_data (double a, double b)
{
width = a;
height = b;
}
virtual double area() = 0;
};

class Rectangle: public Shape

{
public:
double area ()
{
return (width * height);
}
};

class Triangle: public Shape

{
public:
double area ()
{
return (width * height)/2;
}
};

int main ()
{
 Shape *sPtr;

Rectangle Rect;
sPtr = &Rect;

sPtr -> set_data (5,3);

cout << "Area of Rectangle is " << sPtr -> area() << endl;

Triangle Tri;
sPtr = &Tri;

sPtr -> set_data (4,6);

cout << "Area of Triangle is " << sPtr -> area() << endl;
return 0;
}

Output :
Area of Rectangle is 15
Area of Triangle is 12
 www.cppforschool.com

Data File Handling in C++

File. The information / data stored under a specific name on a storage device, is
called a file.

Stream. It refers to a sequence of bytes.

Text file. It is a file that stores information in ASCII characters. In text files,
each line of text is terminated with a special character known as EOL (End of
Line) character or delimiter character. When this EOL character is read or
written, certain internal translations take place.

Binary file. It is a file that contains information in the same format as it is held
in memory. In binary files, no delimiters are used for a line and no translations
occur here.

Classes for file stream operation

ofstream: Stream class to write on files
ifstream: Stream class to read from files
fstream: Stream class to both read and write from/to files.

Opening a file
OPENING FILE USING CONSTRUCTOR
ofstream outFile("sample.txt"); //output only
ifstream inFile(“sample.txt”); //input only

OPENING FILE USING open()

Stream-object.open(“filename”, mode)

ofstream outFile;
outFile.open("sample.txt");

ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("sample.txt");
 File mode parameter Meaning
ios::app Append to end of file
ios::ate go to end of file on opening
ios::binary file open in binary mode
ios::in open file for reading only
ios::out open file for writing only
ios::nocreate open fails if the file does not exist
ios::noreplace open fails if the file already exist
ios::trunc delete the contents of the file if it exist

All these flags can be combined using the bitwise operator OR (|). For example,
if we want to open the file example.bin in binary mode to add data we could do
it by the following call to member function open():

fstream file;
file.open ("example.bin", ios::out | ios::app | ios::binary);

Closing File
outFile.close();
inFile.close();

INPUT AND OUTPUT OPERATION

put() and get() function

the function put() writes a single character to the associated stream. Similarly,
the function get() reads a single character form the associated stream.
example :
file.get(ch);
file.put(ch);

write() and read() function

write() and read() functions write and read blocks of binary data.
example:
file.read((char *)&obj, sizeof(obj));
file.write((char *)&obj, sizeof(obj));
ERROR HANDLING FUNCTION

FUNCTION RETURN VALUE AND MEANING

returns true (non zero) if end of file is

eof() encountered while reading; otherwise return
false(zero)

return true when an input or output operation

fail()
has failed

returns true if an invalid operation is attempted

bad()
or any unrecoverable error has occurred.

good() returns true if no error has occurred.

File Pointers and Their Manipulation

All i/o streams objects have, at least, one internal stream pointer:
ifstream, like istream, has a pointer known as the get pointer that points to the
element to be read in the next input operation.

ofstream, like ostream, has a pointer known as the put pointer that points to
the location where the next element has to be written.

Finally, fstream, inherits both, the get and the put pointers, from iostream
(which is itself derived from both istream and ostream).

These internal stream pointers that point to the reading or writing locations
within a stream can be manipulated using the following member functions:

seekg() moves get pointer(input) to a specified location

seekp() moves put pointer (output) to a specified location

tellg() gives the current position of the get pointer

tellp() gives the current position of the put pointer

The other prototype for these functions is:

seekg(offset, refposition );
seekp(offset, refposition );

The parameter offset represents the number of bytes the file pointer is to be
moved from the location specified by the parameter refposition. The refposition
takes one of the following three constants defined in the ios class.

ios::beg start of the file

ios::cur current position of the pointer
ios::end end of the file

example:
file.seekg(-10, ios::cur);