Early Embryogenesis

Embryogenesis:
— formation of body structures & organs (organogenesis)
— requires cell division (proliferation) and cell differentiation (specialization)
— produces the great variety of cell types and extracellular products found in the body.

Cell specialization:
— selective gene expression (and resultant protein production) is the ultimate explanation for
the cell differentiation process during embryogenesis.
— genetic expression by a particular cell depends on the cell’s previous genetic history (com-
mitment lineage) and its current cellular environment (intercellular communications).

Cell Differentiation
stem cell committed cells specialized cell
pyramidal neuron
e.g., neuroblast
ectoderm neural epithelium stellate neuron, etc.
astrocyte
glioblast
oligodendrocyte

Cell differentiation is the result of cells expressing some genes and suppressing others
within a common genome. Cells differ because they produced different proteins/peptides.
Proteins & peptides are:
— structural components (cytoskeleton or extracellular structures)
— enzymes (controlling cell metabolism)
— secretory products (e.g., hormones; digestive enzymes; etc.)
— channels & pumps (passage of molecules across membranes)
— receptors (communication, etc.)

Periods:
Embryonic Period — defined as the time from fertilization to the earliest (primordial) stages
of organ development (about 30 days in dog, cat, sheep, pig; almost 60 days in horse, cattle, human).
Fetal Period — the time between the embryonic period and parturition (the end of gesta-
tion), during which organs grow and begin to function.

Fertilization:
— union of a haploid oocyte and a haploid spermatozoon, producing a diploid zygote
(a pleuripotent cell capable of developing into a new individual)
— fertilization begins with gamete fusion (zygote formation)
— fertilization ends with the initiation of zygote cell division (the start of cleavage)
Fertilization related details:
— fusion of a spermatozoon with an oocyte takes place in the uterine tube, near the ovary
— the spermatozoon must bind to a specific glycoprotein on the zona pellucida surrounding
the oocyte [this species recognition process prevents union with foreign sperm];
3
 — then the spermatozoon releases degradative enzymes (acrosomal reaction) [the enzymes
denature the zona pellucida, allowing the sperm cell to penetrate the barrier]
— spermatozoon and oocyte plasma membranes fuse (secondary oocyte completes meiosis)
— the oocyte immediately cancels its membrane potential (via Ca++ influx) and then
denatures its zona pellucida (via enzymes are released by exocytosis from oocyte
cytoplasmic granules) [this prevents fusion by additional sperm]
— male & female haploid pronuclei make contact, lose their nuclear membranes, and begin
mitosis (mitosis begins 12 hours after sperm fusion; DNA synthesis takes place before mitosis)
Oocyte (enveloped by a zona pellucida (glycoprotein membrane) and corona radiata (granulosa cells) at ovulation)
— selective follicles mature at each cycle (in response to circulating FSH hormone from the pituitary)
— oogonia (germ cells) give rise to primary oocytes by mitosis within the embryo
— primary oocytes initiate Meiosis I (reduction division) within the embryo and only resume Meiosis I
following ovulation (being suspended in Meiosis I by inhibitory secretion of follicle granulosa cells)
— secondary oocytes complete meiosis (Meiosis II) following fertilization (if unfertilized they degenerate),
producing a fertilized oocyte (ovum).
Spermatozoa (several hundred million per ejaculate)
— propelled from vagina to uterine tube by contraction of female genital tract
— spermatogonia (germ cells) give rise to primary spermatocytes by mitosis repetitively following puberty
— primary spermatocytes undergo Meiosis I (reduction division) producing secondary spermatocytes
— secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis (Meiosis II), producing spermatids that undergo
transformation into spermatozoa (spermiogenesis)
— subsequently, spermatozoa undergo capacitation (removal of surface proteins that would impede contact
with an oocyte)

Cleavage:
— refers to the initial series of mitotic divisions by which the large zygote is fractionated into
numerous “normal size” cells.
— each daughter cell of the cleavage process is termed a blastomere.
— cleavage begins with a zygote, progresses through compaction to a morula stage and
terminates at the start of the blastocyst (blastula) stage
— the first eight blastomeres are undifferentiated and have identical potential in mammals;
thereafter, blastomeres differentiate into inner & outer cells with different missions
First Second
Cleavage Cleavage Blastula
Division Division Morula (Blastocyst) inner
outer cell
zona blastomeres mass
pellucida

blastocoele

blastomeres
inner
blastomeres trophoblasts
Note: The first cleavage division occurs 1 to 5 days following ovulation (depending on species),
thereafter cells divide about once every 12 hours;
As many as eight generations of mitoses may occur without intervening cell growth (cytoplasmic
increase). Thus, e.g., one 150 micron diameter zygote can becomes a collection of 256
cells, each about 7 microns in diameter.

4
Morula [L.= small mulberry]
— a solid ball of blastomeres within a zona pellucida (typically consisting of 16 to 64 blastomeres)
— blastomeres become compacted; cells on the inside differentiate from those along the
surface of the morula:
— outer blastomeres become flattened and form tight junctions (reducing fluid permeability);
they develop the capacity to secrete fluid (internally); they are destined to become
trophoblasts which form the chorion & amnion (fetal membranes) of the conceptus;
— inner blastomeres form gap junctions to maximize intercellular communication; they are
destined to become inner cell mass which forms the embryo itself (plus two
fetal membranes).
Note: • As few as three inner blastomeres are sufficient to produce an entire embryo (and adult).
• When a morula leaves the uterine tube and enters the uterus (uterine horn) it is at about
the 16-cell stage, around 4 to 7 days after fertilization (depending on species).
• The 32-cell stage morula (5-7 days post ovulation) is ideal for embryo transfer in cattle.

Blastocyst (or Blastula)

— develops during the second week, after the zona pellucida ruptures
— consists of a large number of blastomeres arranged to form a hollow, fluid-filled, spherical
or cylindrical structure
— contains an inner cell mass (embryoblast), evident as a collection of cells localized inside
one polar end of the blastula
— surface cells of the blastocyst are designated trophoblasts (future chorion of the conceptus)
— the cavity of the blastocyst is called a blastocoele
— eventually the blastocyst attaches to or implants within the uterine wall (pending species).
Cleavage in fish, reptiles, and birds:
Large quantities of yolk impede cell division during cleavage. Thus a blastodisc
(rather than a spherical or elliptical blastocyst) is formed at the animal pole of the egg.
A telolecithal ovum (egg with large amounts of asymmetrically distributed yolk) has an animal
pole where the nucleus is located and an opposite vegetal pole where yolk is concentrated. Cleavage is par-
tial (meroblastic): cells divide more rapidly at the animal pole than at the vegetal pole, resulting in many,
small blastomeres at the animal pole and a few, large macromeres at the vegetal pole.
In contrast, mammalian ovum has meager amounts of yolk (oligolecithal ovum) which is uni-
formly distributed (isolecithal). Cleavage is holoblastic (total) and each blastomere division produces two
equal-size daughter cells. Thus animal and vegetal poles are not evident in mammalian ova.

Twins
Monozygotic: identical (same genetic composition) twins can result from either:
1] separation of early blastomeres (up to the 8-cell stage)—each of the separate
blastomere(s) develops into an independent conceptus; or
2] separation of inner blastomeres within a single morula—each of the separate
blastomere(s) develops into an independent embryo and both embryos share a
common placenta (this is less common than the first possibility).
Note: Separations later in embryonic development result in conjoined twins
(diplopagus; Siamese twins), or double heads, etc. types of anomalies.
Dizygotic: fraternal twins result when two zygotes develop “independently” during the
same pregnancy (independence can be compromised by fusion of fetal membranes and
blood supplies). It is possible for fraternal blastomeres to merge and produce a single
conceptus with two different genotypes (a chimera).
5
 GERM LAYERS
Ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are designated primary germ layers because
origins of all organs can be traced back to these three layers.
Ectoderm forms epidermis of the skin, epithelium of the oral and nasal cavities, and
the nervous system and sense organs.
Mesoderm forms muscle and connective tissue, including bone, and components of
the circulatory, urinary and genital systems.
Endoderm forms mucosal epithelium and glands of respiratory and digestive systems.

Gastrulation:
The morphogenic process that gives rise to three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm. (In some species, evidence of primitive gut formation can be seen [gastrula Gr.= little stomach] .)
Gastrulation includes the following sequence, beginning with a blastocyst:
— A thickened embryonic disc becomes evident at the blastocyst surface, due to cell prolifera-
tion of the inner cell mass cells. Trophoblast cells overlaying the inner cell mass degenerate in
domestic mammals (in the mouse and human, trophoblast cells overlaying the inner cell mass separate and,
instead of degenerating, become amnionic wall.)
— From the inner cell mass, cells proliferate, break loose (delaminate), and migrate to form a
new cell layer inside the trophoblast layer. The new layer of cells, called the hypoblast, will
form a yolk sac. The remaining inner cell mass may be called the epiblast.
— On the epiblast surface, a primitive streak forms as differential cell growth generates a pair of
ridges separated by a depression. [NOTE: The primitive streak defines the longitudinal axis
of the embryo and indicates the start of germ layer formation.]

Hypoblast Formation (three stages)

embryonic disc
embryonic disc
magnified degenerating
trophoblast

blastocoele
inner
cell mass delaminating
trophoblast hypoblast cells
layer

hypoblast
layer

epiblast epiblast

coelom trophoblast
layer

yolk sac
(primitive gut)
coelom hypoblast
layer

yolk sac
(primitive gut)
6
— Deep to the primitive streak, a Dorsal View of Embryonic Disc
space (coelom/celom) becomes
evident between the hypoblast notochord
layer and epiblast. Subsequently,
the coelom is filled by mesoderm
that undergoes cavitation and primitive
gives rise to body cavities. node
— Epiblast cells proliferate along primitive
primitive streak margins and mi- streak
grate through the streak into the
coelom. The migrating cells form primary
mesenchyme
endoderm & mesoderm layers.
— Initial migrating cells join the
NOTE: Arrows indicate the spread of primary
hypoblast layer, forming embry- mesenchyme through the primitive streak
onic endoderm (hypoblast cells and between the epiblast and hypoblast
constitutes yolk sac endoderm).
— The majority of migrating cells enter the coelom as primary mesenchyme and become meso-
derm. The primary mesenchyme migrates laterally and cranially (but not along the midline
region directly cranial to the primitive streak where notochord will form). Note: Mesoderm
divides into: paraxial, intermediate, and lateral mesodermal regions.

primitive streak
epiblast (ectoderm)

hypoblast endoderm primary mesenchyme (mesoderm)

— Within the lateral mesoderm, cavitation re-establishes a coelom (hoseshoe-shaped). The

mesoderm splits into two layers bordering the coelom—somatic mesoderm is attached to the
ectoderm and splanchnic mesoderm is joined to endoderm.
— The remaining epiblast becomes ectoderm which forms skin epidermis & nervous system.

7
 NOTE:
Mesoderm can exist in two morphologic forms: mesenchyme and epithelioid:
Mesenchyme features aggregates of stellate cells within an abundant extracel-
lular matrix composed of fluid and macromolecules (polymers).
Epithelioid refers to organized cells having distinct apical and basal surfaces;
the latter commonly rests on a basal lamina produced by epithelioid secretion.
Mesoderm can transform from a mesenchyme to epithelioid and vice versa: The
mesoderm that streams through the primitive streak is primary mesenchyme.
Somatic, splanchnic, and somite mesoderm can be temporarily epithelioid.
The temporary epithelioid transforms to a secondary mesenchyme which ulti-
mately forms muscle and connective tissue (including cartilage, bone, liga-
ments, tendons, dermis, fascia, and adipose tissue).
Thus, the term “mesenchyme” refers to the morphologic appearance of embryonic tis-
sue. Although most mesenchyme is mesoderm, the other germ layers can also
form mesenchyme, e.g., ectomesenchyme from neural crest ectoderm.

Formation of the Notochord:

• The notochord is a rod-shaped aggregate of cells located between ectoderm and endoderm
anterior to the primitive streak of the embryo. It occupies the midline coelomic space that was
not invaded by migrating primary mesenchyme.
• The notochord is important because it induces:
formation of the head process,
development of the nervous system, and
formation of somites
• The notochord marks the future location of the vertebral column and the base of the cranium.
• The ultimate fate of the notochord is to become nucleus pulposus of intervertebral discs.
Note: The notochord develops from the primitive node located at the cranial end of the primitive streak. From the
node, mesoderm-forming cells proliferate and migrate forward into the future head region where they become
the rod-shaped notochord.

8
 Note: Each organ system has a critical period during development when it is most
sensitive to external agents (teratogens) that produce birth defects.

Early Formation of the Nervous System (Neurulation):

Neurulation refers to notochord-induced transformation of ectoderm into nervous tissue. The
process begins during the third week in the region of the future brain and then progresses caudally
into the region of the future spinal cord.
The neurulation process involves the following steps:
— ectodermal cells overlaying the
notochord become tall columnar
Neurulation
(neuroectoderm); they form a paraxial mesoderm
neuroectoderm intermediate mesoderm
thickened area designated the
neural plate. The other ectodermal
epithelium is flattened. lateral mesoderm

— a neural groove is formed as somatic

notochord splanchnic
edges of the neural plate be- endoderm
come raised on each side of a
neural groove coelom
midline depression. (Apical ends ectoderm
of individual neuroectodermal cells
constrict.)
somite
— a neural tube is then formed as
the neural groove undergoes
midline merger of its dorsal
edges. The tube separates from
neural tube neural crest
non-neural ectoderm which
unites dorsal to it. (Tube formation
begins in the cranial cervical region
of the central nervous system and
progresses cranially and caudally until
anterior and posterior neuropores, the
last openings, finally close.)

— bilaterally, where the neural

groove is joined to non-neural ectoderm, cells detach as the neural groove closes; the cells
proliferate and assume a position dorsolateral to the neural tube—forming neural crest.

NOTE:
Neural tube becomes the central nervous system, i.e., the brain and spinal cord.

Neural crest cells are remarkable for the range of structures they form. Some cells mi-
grate dorsally and become pigment cells in skin. Other cells migrate ventrally and be-
come neurons and glial cells of the peripheral nervous system, or adrenal medulla cells.
In the head, neural crest forms mesenchyme (ectomesenchyme) which becomes menin-
ges, bone, fascia, and teeth.

9
Somites:
• Mesoderm blocks located just lateral to the notochord, which induced somite development.
• A pair of somites develops for every vertebra, plus a half dozen somite pairs in the head.
• Number of somites in an embryo is indicative of age, individual somites develop
chronologically, in craniocaudal order.

Somites develop as follows:

— mesoderm, designated paraxial mesoderm, accumulates on each side of the notochord
— progressing from rostral to caudal over time, transverse fissures divide the paraxial mesoderm
into blocks
— each block becomes a somite (epithelioid cells within a somite block re-orient 90°, from transverse to the
notochord to longitudinal)
otic placode
— head (occipital) somites develop
from proliferation of local mes-
enchyme lateral to the cranial end
of the notochord
— rostral to the notochord, mes- optic
enchyme forms less-developed placode
somites, called somitomeres;
these migrate into pharyngeal pharyngeal
arches and form muscles of the arches
jaw, face, pharynx, & larynx.
heart

NOTE: umbilical
Each somite differentiates into three stalk
regions:
Sclerotome (ventromedial region) gives rise
to vertebrae, ribs, and endochondral
bones at the base of the skull.
Dermatome (lateral region) gives rise to the
dermis of skin somites
Myotome (intermediate region) gives rise to
skeletal muscles of the body

10
Development of a Cylindrical Body:
The early embryo is flat, but the vertebrate body plan features a cylindrical theme—various
cylindrical structures (derivatives of the gut, neural tube, notochord, etc.) enclosed within a cylindri-
cal body. Transition from a flat embryo to a cylindrical one involves the following developments:

Head Process Formation: Three Stages of

• The cranial end of the embryo grows dorsal- Head Process Formation
ly and forward so that it projects above the region (longitudinal views)
originally in front of the embryo.
• The cylindrical head process elongates by ectoderm
additional growth from its base (located in front mesoderm
of the primitive node). Consequently, the most anterior endoderm
part of the embryo is the oldest. The elongation incorporates yolk sac
the most anterior half-dozen somites into the future head.
• Within the head process, endoderm is reflect-
ed ventrally upon itself, forming a blind-ended head
foregut (future pharynx). process

Tail Fold Formation:

• At the caudal end of the embryo, a
cylindrical tail fold is formed in a manner similar
oral plate
to that of the head process.
• Folded endoderm encloses a blind hindgut .

Lateral Body Folds:

head
• As the head process elongates upward &
process
forward, a subcephalic pocket (space) is formed
ventral to the head process, between the head subcephalic
process and extra-embryonic tissue. The bilateral pocket
margins of this pocket are lateral body folds—
pharynx
which constitute the
Dorsal
View elevated continuity between
head the elevated embryo
process and the relatively
flat extra-embryonic
lateral
body
tissue. yolk sac
pericardium
fold • Similar folds exist
caudally in association with the tail process.
• As the embryo grows and is elevated dorsally, lateral body folds ad-
primitive duct and join together ventrally, establishing a tubular embryo sepa-
node rated from flattened extra-embryonic tissue.
primitive • Progressing caudally from the head process and cranially from the
streak tail fold, ventral fusion of lateral body folds stops at the umbilicus—
leaving a ventral opening in the body wall that allows vessels and the
yolk sac and allantois to enter the embryo (and communicate with the gut).
11
 • Ventral fusion of lateral body folds Mesoderm
distinguishes the embryo from extra-em- = somite neural tube
bryonic tissue (fetal membranes): = intermediate notochord
— embryonic coelom (future body = lateral foregut
cavities of the trunk) is distinguished from Lateral
extra-embryonic coelom within fetal mem- Body
branes. Folds
— somatopleure (somatic mesoderm + embryonic
coelom
ectoderm) that forms body wall is distin-
mesentery
guished from that forming fetal membranes
(chorion and amnion).
— splanchnopleure (splanchnic me-
soderm + endoderm) merges bilaterally to somatopleure extra-embryonic
splanchnopleure yolk coelom
form gut and mesentery, differentiated from
sac
extra-embryonic yolk sac (and allantois).

Pharyngeal Arches:
In the head region, dorso-ventral arches demarcated by grooves (clefts) appear. The arches
are called pharyngeal arches and they are bounded internally by pharyngeal pouches.
Each arch contains a vessel (aortic arch). Within each arch, ectomes-
enchyme (derived from neural crest) gives rise to bone and fascia. Myotomes
of somitomeres migrate to pharyngeal arches to provide skeletal musculature.
Each arch is innervated by one cranial nerve.
Only the first three pharyngeal arches are externally evi-
dent in mammals. The first arch develops into upper and lower
jaws and muscles of mastication. The second gives rise to hyoid
bones and muscles of the face. The remaining pharyngeal arches
form hyoid bones, larynx and associated muscles. Each arch is
innervated by a particular cranial nerve.
The pharynx (foregut) develops five bilateral diverticula that internally demarcate the pharyn-
geal arches. These pharyngeal pouches develop into auditory tube, parathyroid glands, thymus, etc.
NOTE: In fish, five or six branchial [Gr. = gill] arches are well developed. Cells degenerate where
branchial clefts and pharyngeal pouches meet so that the pharynx communicates with the
outside (this occurs only temporarily between the first two arches in mammals). The first arch
forms the jaw apparatus and the rest form gill arches separated by gill slits.
12
Flexures:
The tube-shaped embryo undergoes three flexures that make it C-shaped. The first occurs in the
future midbrain region, the second in the future neck region, and the third occurs in the tail region.

Cardiovascular system:
• The cardiovascular system develops early (in the third week after the start of the nervous
system), as the embryo enlarges and diffusion alone becomes inadequate for tissue preservation.
• Angiogenesis (formation of blood vessels) begins in splanchnic mesoderm of the yolk sac,
in the form of blood islands composed of mesenchyme and hemocytoblasts. The latter forms blood
cells and the mesenchyme forms vesicles lined by endothelium. The vesicles coalesce to form vascu-
lar channels and then blood vessels (the latter are formed by budding, fusion, & enlargement).
• Vessels are formed first in extra-embryonic tissue: vitelline (yolk sac) and umbilical (allan-
toic) vessels appear first.
• Ventral to the pharynx, bilateral vessels merge to form a tubular heart; dorsal and ventral aortae are connected
by aortic arches. Also, cranial and caudal cardinal veins return embryonic blood to the heart and umbilical veins return
placental blood to the heart. None of these vessels will persist as such in the adult.

Placentation
Placenta = region(s) of apposition between uterine lining and fetal membranes
where metabolites are exchanged for sustaining pregnancy.
• Chorion forms the surface fetal membrane. Apposition areas (placental types) may be: dif-
fuse (pig), zonary (carnivore), discoid (primates & rodents), or involve placentomes.
• A placentome is a discrete area of interdigitation between a maternal caruncle and a fetal
cotyledon. Equine placentas are microcotyledonary (microplacentomes are distributed diffusely).
Ruminant placentas consist of rows of relatively large placentomes.
• Placentas (placentae) may also be classified according to the tissue layers separating fetal and maternal blood.
Uterine epithelium, uterine connective tissue and uterine endothelium may be eroded, giving rise to four placental types:
epitheliochorial (swine, equine, cattle); synepitheliochorial, formerly called syndesmochorial, (sheep, goats); endothelial
chorial (carnivore); and hemochorial (primates & rodents).

13
 Fetal Components of Placentae

Porcine Chorionic Surface

(folds; diffuse placental contact)
(chorion without allantois)
necrotic tip

cervical star
(region over cervix)

Equine Chorionic Surface

(microcotyledons)
Bovine Chorionic Surface
(rows of cotyledons)

Carnivore Chorionic Surface

(zonary placental contact)

Human/Rodent Chorionic Surface

(discoid placental contact)
marginal
hematoma
marginal
hematoma

14
Fetal membranes:
Four fetal membranes develop in a conceptus. Two arise from the trophoblast layer of the
blastocyst (and are continuous with the somatopleure of the embryo). Two arise from the inner cell
mass of the blastocyst (and are continuous with splanchnopleure of the embryo); these two splanch-
nopleure membranes are vascular. The four fetal membranes are:
chorion
allantois
embryo amnion

somatopleure coelom
gut

splanchnopleure yolk sac

1. Chorion — forms the outer boundary of the entire conceptus (from trophoblast)
2. Amnion — encloses the embryo within a fluid-filled amnionic cavity; formed by folds of
chorion in domestic mammals (in humans, amnion forms by cavitation deep to a persistent trophoblast).
3. Allantois — develops as an outgrowth of hindgut splanchnopleure (originates from inner
cell mass). Allantois grows to fill the entire extra-embryonic coelom, with fluid-filled allantoic cavity
in domestic mammals. The outer surface of allantois binds to the inner surface of chorion (and the
outer surface of amnion). The allantois is highly vascular and provides the functional vessels of the
placenta, via umbilical vessels.
4. Yolk sac — continuous with midgut splanchnopleure (develops early with hypoblast for-
mation from inner cell mass). Supplied by vitelline vessels, it forms an early temporary placenta in
the horse and dog. Yolk sac is most important in egg laying vertebrates.
Note: The term conceptus refers to the embryo or fetus plus its fetal membranes.

Implantation
The blastocyst is initially free in the uterine lumen (nourished by uterine glands). Im-
plantation of the blastocyct is a gradual process, beginning with apposition, leading to
adhesion (or invasion in the case of the human & Guinea Pig).
Approximate implantation times are: one week (human); two weeks (dog, cat, sheep), 3-5 weeks
(cattle), 3-8 weeks horse; or delayed up to 4 mons (deer, bears).
15