JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MINING LANDS MANAGEMENT

ISSN: 2339-076X, Volume 1, Number 1 (October 2013): 43-50

Review

Mining waste contaminated lands: an uphill battle for improving crop

productivity
B. M. Kumar
College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, KAU P.O., Thrissur, Kerala 680 656, India; Fax +91 4872371040;
Phone +91 4872370050.
email : bmkumar.kau@gmail.com

Abstract: Mining drastically alters the physico-chemical and biological environment of the landscape. Low
organic matter content, unfavourable pH, low water holding capacity, salinity, coarse texture, compaction,
siltation of water bodies due to wash off of mineral overburden dumps, inadequate supply of plant nutrients,
accelerated erosion, acid generating materials, and mobilization of contaminated sediments into the aquatic
environment are the principal constraints experienced in mining contaminated sites. A variety of approaches
have been considered for reclaiming mine wastes including direct revegetation of amended waste materials, top
soiling, and the use of capillary barriers. The simplest technology to improve crop productivity is the addition of
organic amendments. Biosolids and animal manure can support revegetation, but its rapid decomposition
especially in the wet tropics, necessitates repeated applications. Recalcitrant materials such as “biochars”, which
improve soil properties on a long term basis as well as promote soil carbon sequestration, hold enormous
promise. An eco-friendly and cost-effective Microbe Assisted Phytoremediation system has been proposed to
increase biological productivity and fertility of mine spoil dumps. Agroforestry practices may enhance the
nutrient status of degraded mine spoil lands (facilitation). N-fixing trees are important in this respect. Metal
tolerant ecotypes of grasses and calcium-loving plants help restore lead, zinc, and copper mine tailings and
gypsum mine spoils, respectively. Overall, an integrated strategy of introduction of metal tolerant plants, genetic
engineering for enhanced synthesis and exudation of natural chelators into the rhizosphere, improvement of
rhizosphere, and integrated management including agroforestry will be appropriate for reclaiming mining
contaminated lands.

Keywords: agroforestry, biochars, mining sites, organic amendments, phytoremediation, revegetation

Introduction associated with mining (Banda, 1995). Mining

conflicts related to discharges of suspended solids
Mining generates considerable waste materials and rich in mercury, and cyanide from the artisanal gold
tailings, which are deposited on the surface as mine- mining areas into rivers are a major concern in Africa
spoil dumps. Removal of fertile topsoil, formation of and South America. In the Ecuadorian artisanal gold
unstable slopes prone to sliding and erosion, and mine environment, for instance it has been noticed
siltation of water bodies due to wash off of mineral that, when the river overflows, the mercury reaches
overburden dumps are also major negative effects of the downstream banana plantations and shrimp ponds
mining. The metals released from mining, smelting, (UNIDO, 2007). The hazards of surface and
forging, and other sources would accumulate in the groundwater pollution increases significantly when
soil (Khan et al., 2009), altering its chemistry. Metal the mine waste materials contain reactive sulphide
contamination is not restricted to the mining site only minerals such as pyrite (Liao et al., 2007). Pyrite-
because considerable release of metals occurs through bearing mine tailings disposed at neutral or slightly
acid mine drainage and erosion of waste dumps and alkaline conditions also can weather within a
tailing deposits (Salomons, 1995). Land use conflicts relatively short period of time to produce extreme
owing to operations close to the dwellings and acidity and lead to acid mine drainage (Robb and
farmlands as well as disposal of mine wastes on land Robinson, 1995). Acid mine drainage usually
intended for other uses, air and noise pollution, contains a high load of heavy metals, in addition to
siltation of rivers by leachate and runoff from waste having a low pH, which poses a major risk to
dumps, and degradation of land are also commonly surrounding water and soil systems (Achterberg et al.,

www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id 43
Mining waste contaminated lands:an uphill battle for improving crop productivity

2003; Braungardt et al., 2003). Chemical problems Amelioration

associated with surface mining, such as acid
generating materials, are thus significant (Darmody et Topsoiling
al., 2002) and in mine spoils, the geomorphic system Although a variety of approaches has been employed
is in disequilibrium (Dutta and Agarwal, 2001). for reclaiming acid mine wastes including direct
Unfavourable soil chemistry and poor structure also revegetation (no soil cover) of amended waste
deprive soil microbe and plant growth (Pederson et materials, application of topsoil is often the most
al., 1988). effective method. Experimental studies have shown
Although mining-contaminated lands constitute that topsoiling improved the water holding capacity
a relatively small proportion of the total extent of and nutrient status of the mine wastes (e.g., Trlica et
degraded lands in the world, the scale of mining is al., 1995), and provided a source of propagules and
increasing and the impacts are generally more severe soil microorganisms (Schuman and Power 1980).
than most other kinds of disturbances (Walker and Bowen et al. (2002) assessed the long-term (after 24
Willig, 1999). Surface mined areas and mine spoil years) effects of different topsoil replacement depths
dumps are also nutritionally deprived habitats (0, 20, 40, and 60 cm) on plant community cover,
characterized by infertile soils having extreme pH production, and diversity in south-central Wyoming,
values, low cation exchange capacity, low water USA. Plant species richness was highest (7.5) at the
holding capacity, low nutrient availability, and poor zero topsoil depth and lowest (5.6) at the 60 cm
organic matter status (Gonzalez-Sangregorio et al., topsoil depth. Total canopy cover was greatest
1991). (average 26.7%) at 40 and 60 cm of topsoil and least
Given the growing food insecure populations of (21.5%) at the zero topsoil depth. Merril et al. (1998)
the world (835.2 million undernourished people in the noted that the productivity of soil reconstructed by
developing world according to FAO 2010), it is topsoil-subsoil placement on sodic mine spoil),
important to raise agricultural productivity on all however, would be influenced by the subsoil
types of lands including the mine-contaminated ones. characteristics. Redente and Sydnor (2005) evaluated
In this paper, I will address the issues related to mine long-term plant community development on study
contaminated sites from the perspective of sustaining plots in which 60 cm of retorted oil shale was covered
agricultural productivity. by various depths of topsoil. Data over 20 years
showed that native species were as productive as
Mine-spoil reclamation: problems and approaches introduced species on deeper topsoil depths, implying
Reclamation of mine dumps and abandoned mine the need for thick topsoiling. Excavated sediment of
lands (AML) is a complex multi-step process. The ponds and tanks is an effective indigenous soil
first step in transforming the mine contaminated lands amendment practice in India. Pond silt, rich in
into productive agricultural lands is restoring its organic material, has been used for preparation of a
ecological integrity (Sheoran and Sheoran, 2009; topsoil layer of about 30–50 cm over the mine waste
Juwarkar and Singh, 2010). Most AML sites and and levelled pits in some case studies (Singh et al.,
many active mining or re-mining sites, however, lack 2000; Wong, 2003). Silt layer also increased the
any true topsoil and it consists primarily of mine spoil productivity of the land and helped ground water
or overburden whose properties can range from loose, recharge.
coarse textured material with many rock fragments, to
highly compacted clay material. Broadly two types of Capillary barriers
effects are plausible: excesses (supra-optimal levels Despite potential benefits of amending mine waste
of chemical elements including metal ions) and and/or topsoiling, problems may arise such as
deficiencies (suboptimal concentrations of essential acidification (or reacidification) of surface layers
elements). (Boon, 1986), excessive plant uptake of trace
Mine contaminated soils thus represent a very elements (Paschke et al., 2000), and/or capillary rise
harsh environment for crop production (e.g., of soluble salts (McFarland et al., 1994). Therefore,
phytotoxicity and high acid production potentials of some researchers have investigated the use of
waste materials, low fertility, and limited topsoil capillary barriers between overlying topsoil and
availability). The principal restoration options are, underlying wastes as a reclamation option to reduce
therefore, ameliorative (improving the physical and capillary rise of salts and trace elements and direct
chemical nature of the site) and adaptive (careful contact of plant roots with untreated waste materials.
selection of species, cultivars, or ecotypes), both to be For instance, Molson et al. (2008) used covers with
used in juxtaposition with one another (Johnson et al., capillary barrier effects (CCBEs) for reducing acid
1994). mine drainage (AMD) from sulphidic mine tailings
and found that capillary barrier covers significantly
reduced sulphide oxidation and AMD. A CCBE

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 44

Mining waste contaminated lands:an uphill battle for improving crop productivity

basically involves the placement of a relatively fine- suitable plant species (preferably multispecies), and
grained soil, which acts as a water-retention layer, the use of organic amendments. This approach
over a coarser capillary break material. Aubertin et al. restored the productivity, fertility, and stability of
(2009) showed that increasing the thickness of the zinc mine spoil leading to the development of
cover may improve efficiency, but only up to a sustainable ecosystems (Juwarkar and Singh 2010).
certain maximum beyond which the gain becomes Other beneficial microbes, which accumulates heavy
minimal. One promising option is to combine metals, and decrease crop uptake include
different types of soil to create a layered CCBE. Piriformospora indica, a root-colonizing endophytic
fungus (Oelmüller et al., 2009). Rhizobacteria,
Phytoremediation besides their role in metal detoxification/removal,
also promote plant growth through production of
Recently, the potential of bioremediation, particularly
growth promoting substances and siderophores (Khan
the role of higher terrestrial plants (phytoremediation)
et al., 2009). Choice of appropriate plant varieties,
in reclamation of metal-polluted soils has been which are tolerant to the specific metals, is another
studied (Ghosh and Singh, 2005a), particularly for design criterion for reclaiming mine overburdens.
clean-up of diffusely polluted soils (Ginneken et al.,
Among the tree species evaluated, Eucalyptus
2007). Generally, decontamination of metal-
tereticornis, Acacia auriculiformis, and Casuarina
contaminated soils requires the removal of toxic
equisetifolia were the most suitable for modification
metals, as they cannot be degraded. Phytoextraction
of spoil characteristics during the revegetation
thus has emerged as a cost-effective, environment- process (Dutta and Agrawal, 2002). Juwarkar et al.
friendly clean-up alternative. One of the directions in (2009) reported that tree species such as Tectona
which research is currently evolving, is the use of oil-
grandis, Senna siamea, Dalbergia sissoo,
producing plant species, such as rape seed (Brassica
Dendrocalamus strictus and Acacia nilotica
napus) for phytoextraction purposes (Ginneken et al.,
generated large biomass and soil organic matter,
2007). Phytoremediation of metal contaminated soils
implying the need for site-specific selection of the
thus is a ‘win-win’ situation: the biomass produced tree and crop components.
could be economically valorised in the form of
bioenergy, e.g., Brassica spp. grown on metal
Mixed species stands and agroforestry
contaminated sites can yield biodiesel, besides having
the potential to accumulate high levels of heavy In recognition of the role of trees to improve soil
metals including Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn under fertility (Nair et al., 2010), agroforestry systems
certain conditions (Ebbs et al., 1997 and many (growing trees and crops in an integrated manner) are
others). A variety of factors, such as climatic believed to have a great potential to reclaim the mine
conditions, soil properties, and site hydro-geology, contaminated sites. This conjecture is based on the
however, may impact its efficiency (Lasat, 2000). notion that tree incorporation would result in greater
Short rotation coppice crops (SRC) consisting of export of pollutants, improve site fertility, and render
fast growing trees such as willow (Salix spp.), poplar the sites productive. Since nutrient availability
(Populus spp.), or black locust (Robinia especially nitrogen commonly limits site productivity
pseudoacacia) are also promising as they can be used of mine spoils, the development of systems with
for bioenergy production and C sequestration nitrogen-fixing species—the so-called ‘fertilizer
(Quinkenstein et al., 2011), apart from trees’ and cover crops—are important. Leguminous
phytoremediation. Experiments on reclamation sites cover crops (e.g., Centrosema, Calapogonium, and
have reported growth rates between 1 to 6 Mg/ha/ yr Pueraria) are particularly important in this respect.
for poplar and willow (Bungart and Hüttl, 2004; Kimaro and Salifu (2011) also screened several grass
Grünewald et al., 2007). For black locust plantations species to identify appropriate cover crops for nursing
established on reclamation sites in the mining district newly planted tree seedlings and reported better
of Lower Lusatia, Germany, average aboveground survival and growth for trees grown in association
biomass production ranged from 0.04 to with cover crops. Kumar et al. (1998) reported that in
9.5 Mg/ha/ yr for 1 to 14 years of growth intercropping trials with teak (Tectona grandis) +
(Quinkenstein et al., 2011). Leucaena leucocephala, teak growth increased
Juwarkar and Singh (2010) suggested an eco- linearly as the proportion of Leucaena in the mixture
friendly and cost-effective microbe-assisted increased. At 44 months after planting, teak in the 1:3
phytoremediation (MAP) approach for restoring zinc teak-Leucaena mixture was 45% taller and 71%
mine spoil dumps. This approach involves isolation larger in diameter at breast height than those in pure
and inoculation of site-specific specialised nitrogen- stands. Likewise, Parrotta (1999) found that at
fixing strains of Bradyrhizobium and Azotobacter, harvest age of 4 years, total aboveground biomass
nutrient mobilising vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal ranged from 63 Mg/ha/yr in the Eucalyptus
spores of Glomus and Gigaspora sp., selection of monoculture to 124 Mg/ha/y in the

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 45

Mining waste contaminated lands:an uphill battle for improving crop productivity

Casuarina+Leucaena mixture (50:50). Kaye et al. increased aboveground biomass, with mushroom
(2000) compared N2-fixers and non-N2-fixers and compost being more effective than biosolids (Redente
found 20 to 100% more soil C under N2fixers. and Sydnor, 2005). Various sources of organic
Overall, species mixtures especially those involving resources and by-products are used as mine-spoil
fertilizer trees may be useful in the ecorestroration of amendments. Recent research on these aspects is
contaminated mine sites, where the soils are low in summarised below.
nitrogen. o Surface applications of municipal sewage sludge
(Oyler 1988), fly ash (Moffat et al., 2001) and
press mud (Juwarkar et al., 1992) were
Soil Enhancement Applications successful in promoting plant growth.
Organic matter and synthetic amerliorants o Mine tailings amended with yardwaste compost
(i.e., the end product of decomposing leaves and
Many studies have illustrated numerous benefits of
grass clippings) showed greater porosity, water-
adding organic matter (OM), in addition to lime and
holding capacity (WHC), and saturated
fertilizer, to acidic mine wastes (Bellitto et al., 1999).
hydraulic conductivity of soil (KSat) and lower
Mine reclamation research and practices have also
mechanical resistance, and bulk density than un-
demonstrated that organic amendments such as
amended tailings (Stolt et al., 2001).
biosolids can support revegetation of mine spoil
materials (Stehouwer, 1997). Most surface-mining o Because of the dominance of silt-size particles,
reclamation operations also stockpile the A horizon fly ash may often be substituted for topsoil in
and then redistribute these materials over the tailings surface mine lands, thereby enhancing physical
and overburden to offset the problems of low water- conditions of soil, especially WHC (Adriano
holding capacity and compaction. Constructing an A and Weber, 2001). Certain fly ashes are able to
horizon from tailing materials, however, requires provide essential nutrients for plant nutrition.
additions of organic matter. By extension, o ‘Wastes’ from mining and mineral-related
productivity can be increased by adding various industries are useful for low-input agriculture.
natural amendments such as saw dust, wood residues, Examples include: waste from incomplete
sewage sludge, animal manures, and organic carbon calcining in lime operations, calcium carbonate
to soil, which stimulates the microbial activity and wastes from cement and other industries using
augments nutrient (N, P) availability. CaCO3, wastes from ‘black granite’ operations,
Synthetic and natural zeolites have been used as phosphate mining / processing, steel production
chelators for rapid mobility and uptake of metals (e.g., basic slag, and calcium silicate slag), coal
from contaminated soils by plants (Prasad and burning operations (fly ash, bottom ash, the by-
Freitas, 1999). Use of synthetic chelators significantly products of fluidized bed combustion), and
increased Pb and Cd uptake and translocation from materials from flue gas desulphurization
roots to shoots facilitating phytoextraction of the scrubbers are rich in micronutrients, with
metals from low grade ores. Cross-linked potential for application to the crop fields (van
polyacrylates, hydrogels, to metal-contaminated soils Straaten, 2002).
are used extensively (Prasad and Freitas, 1999) to o Mine tailings containing biotite has the potential
increase the nutrient efficiency and alleviate the to be used as a slow-release K fertilizer and has
detrimental effects of the heavy metals (Prasad and been evaluated on pasture lands in Norway
Hagemeyer, 1999). (Bakken et al., 2000). Likewise, calcium silicate
Hyper-accumulation can be induced in some slags increased sugarcane yield, specifically on
plant species by soil amendment using EDTA on an low Si soils (Anderson et al., 1991).
insoluble target metal complex such as lead ore,
rendering insoluble elements soluble (Anderson et al., o Phosphogypsum as a soil amendment on sodic
1998). Contrastingly, synthetic cross linked soils and for groundnut fertilization has been
polyacrylates (hydrogels) have protected plant roots tested (van Straaten, 2002). Pyrites and pyritic
from heavy metal toxicity and prevented the entry of mill tailings with low to heavy metal contents
metals into roots (Prasad and Hagemeyer, 1999). have also been tested as inexpensive Fe-sources
However, large scale application of such synthetics for sodic and Fe-deficient soils.
may not be cost effective. o Particle size and shape, alkalinity, and
Organic matter inputs have the potential to availability of several micronutrients in coal
improve the properties of mine tailings and spoils by combustion by-products (CCBs) have been used
increasing water-holding capacity, cation exchange to amend soil texture for increased water
capacity, buffering capacity, and by promoting soil infiltration and acidity, and to supply some of
structure and reducing bulk density (Smith et al., the nutrient needs of the agricultural soils
1987). Incorporation of organic matter significantly (Chugh et al., 2000). Alfalfa yields increased

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 46

Mining waste contaminated lands:an uphill battle for improving crop productivity

significantly by application of the CCB to the Introduction of metal tolerant wild plants to
soil compared to the untreated control. metalliferous soils, genetic engineering of plants for
o Magnesium-containing fluidized bed enhanced synthesis and exudation of natural chelators
combustion by-products have proved to be into the rhizosphere, improvement of the rhizosphere
effective liming materials with a high with the help of mycorrhiza and integrated
effectiveness to ameliorate subsoil Al management of the metalliferous ecosystem
phytotoxicity (Stehouwer et al., 1999). following the principles of phytoremediation are
important. The efficiency of phytoremediation can be
o Use of effluent treatment plant sludge, as an
enhanced by the judicious and careful application of
organic amendment, biofertilizers, and
appropriate heavy-metal tolerant, plant growth
mycorrihzal fungi along with suitable plant
promoting rhizobacteria including symbiotic
species improved the physico-chemical
nitrogen-fixing organisms.
properties of coal mine spoil (Juwarkar and
Jambhulkar 2008).
Conclusions
Charcoal and biochar application
Future challenges in crop productivity of the mining
Considering the fact that soil organic matter in and mineral industries include the increasing scale of
degraded land is very low, the simplest technology to operations with large mining companies seeking to
improve soil productivity and stabilize crop yield is exploit large reserves in more remote wilderness
the addition of organic amendments, as outlined in environments, greater innovation in new technologies
the preceding section. The main limitation of organic such as the in situ extraction of metals through
matter addition, especially in the wet tropical leaching, the increasing need to regulate and develop
condition, however, is its rapid decomposition, environmental management in the artisanal and small
necessitating repeated additions during every planting mining sector, and the imperative to incorporate
season, which is impractical in view of the difficulty policies of sustainable development as far as possible.
to source enough organic manures. Most of the new mining initiatives currently are in
Some workers have therefore evaluated developing countries, and this will extend to mining
recalcitrant organic materials such as “biochars” for ore deposits in more remote and fragile ecosystems.
their ability to improve soil properties, carbon The time has arrived for a rethinking on the way mine
sequestration (e.g. Glaser et al., 2002; Lehman et al., contaminated site development programs are planned
2003; Liang et al., 2006), and to increase crop yields and implemented around the world.
(Yamato et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2008). Islami et al. We need to encourage the “remarriage of trees,
(2011) tested the hypothesis that the beneficial effects tolerant crops and microbes” on these landscapes and
of biochar as organic amendments in cassava based exploit the time-tested benefits of such practices to
cropping system would last longer compared to that address some of the major threats of increasing extent
of the conventional organic manure such as farm yard of mine spoils and contamination. If we are to meet
manure and would promote soil carbon sequestration. society’s needs and aspirations, we must find novel
The beneficial effects of biochar on soil properties ways of utilizing mine contaminated lands.
also have been reported by many and includes While it is creditable that considerable progress
chemical (Yamato et al., 2006), physical (Chan et al., has been achieved during the past three decades in
2008), and biological changes in the soil (Rondon et transforming mine-contaminated lands into
al., 2007). By extension, incorporation of biochar in agriculturally productive sites, several knowledge
mine contaminated sites may improve its nutrient gaps exist even in areas that have received research
retention power and productivity. attention in the past. There are also several potentially
promising areas that have not yet been explored. For
Metal tolerant cultivars example, substantial efforts are needed to domesticate
metal tolerant species and breed new cultivars with
The use of metal tolerant ecotypes is a proven
higher yield potential. In our obsession with “grain
reclamation technology for lead, zinc, and copper
crops” in modern agriculture, we have ignored the
mine tailings (Tordoff et al., 2000). Metal tolerance is
tree component which has considerable potential for
a genetically heritable character, and some cultivars
“phytoremediation”.
too have been bred incorporating this trait (e.g.,
The exploitation of these species, and the
Festuca rubra cv. “Merlin”) (Johnson et al., 1994).
agroforestry practices involving their use, has wide
Direct seeding of tolerant cultivars is a promising
implications in food security and environmental
area of further development. Results of some long
protection, as well as conservation and use of genetic
term trials for exploiting biodiversity for dealing with
resources.
difficult man-made substrates are available (e.g.,
Nicks and Chambers, 1995; Ginocchio, 1998).

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 47

Mining waste contaminated lands:an uphill battle for improving crop productivity

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