World Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences

WRJAS
Vol. 5(1), pp. 141-146, March, 2018. ©www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: XXXX-XXXX

Case Study

Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from

Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda
*Imanirareba Dative1, Naramabuye François Xavier2
1
Faculty of Agriculture, Uganda Martyrs University P.O. Box 5498 Kampala, Uganda
2
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Animal and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda- P.O.
Box: 117 Huye, Rwanda

Different soil properties from Gatumba Mining Area were assessed to characterize them and
contribute in setting up practices for soil restoration. The present study was conducted to assess
the soil status in degraded soils from tantalum mining in Gatumba. Nine soil profiles which were
prepared in 2009 during dry season were sharpened and soils from all visible horizons were
sampled. Soil analysis was performed in the soil laboratory at National University of Rwanda.
Results showed that the active soil pH was lower in technosol developed on schist (4.8) and
higher in technosol composed by pegmatite dump (5.61) and ranged from slightly acid (5.61) to
acidic (4.73). Acid saturation was lower in strongly disturbed fluvisol (3.4%) and higher in
technosol composed by pegmatite (10.78%) while base saturation was lower in cambic-fluvisol
(37.5%) and higher in technosol composed by pegmatite (89.3%). However, a significant difference
(p=0.012) only observed in base saturation between soil profiles. In general, soils affected by
mining had low base saturation and higher acid saturation than unaffected. Therefore,
recommendation of more soluble amendment such as lime and dolomite would improve the soil
pH and provide macronutrients like Ca2+ and Mg2+.

Key words: Acid saturation, Base saturation, Gatumba mining area, Rwanda and Soil pH

INTRODUCTION

Since many decades, soil acidity has been a major topsoil’s which are rich in soil nutrients and replaced either
growing-limiting factor for plants in many parts of the world by invaluable cropland or bare wasteland. Soil acidity is a
(Mc Lean, 1976; Kamprath; 1978; Adams, 1978, 1981). major limiting factor of soil productivity (Mc Lean, 1976;
Estimates of the total area of the top soils affected by Kamprath, 1978; Adams, 1978; 1981). Most of Rwandan
acidity throughout the world vary from 3.777.109 to soils are acid with pH levels below 5 and low base
3.950.10 9 ha, representing approximately 30% of the total saturation of about <35% as confirmed by Mutuyimana
land area of the world. The total area affected by subsoil (2011).
acidity is estimated as 2.918.109 ha, meaning that
approximately 75% of the acid soils of the world suffer from
subsoil limitations due to acidity (Zdenko, 2003). Rwanda,
most arable soils are acidic and poor in vital
macronutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) for
plant growth. The lack of these elements leads to *Corresponding Author: Imanirareba Dative, Faculty of
continuous decline of agricultural production Agriculture, Uganda Martyrs University P.O. Box 5498
(Mutwewingabo et al, 1987). Many factors have Kampala, Uganda: E-mail: dirareba@gmail.com Tel:
contributed to soil acidity include erosion, overcultivation, +250788271026 Co-Author E-mail:
anthropogenic activities such as mining which deteriorate naramabuyefrancois@gmail.com Tel: +250788874486
soil fertility through soil degradation by removing the
Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda
Imanirareba and Naramabuye 142

In addition, soils become acidic during geological evolution MATERIALS AND METHODS
and when their parent materials were acid and poor in
base cation (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) or because these Site description
elements have been removed from the soil profile by
normal rainfall or the harvesting of crops (Kamprath and The study was conducted in 2012 in Gatumba mining
Foy; 1972). In addition, soil acidification is frequently District (GMD) (figure 1) Western Province of Rwanda and
inevitable in agriculture. Soils of Gatumba mining area is located next to the Nyabarongo River between the
are not only influenced by parent material, climate, relief longitudes 29°37’ and 29°40’ E and the latitudes 1°53’ and
and cultivation, coltan mining activities but also climate 1°56’S. With an average altitude of 1,700 m above sea
that may cause several changes in physical and chemical level (ASL), the highest hilltops are about 1,900 m ASL
properties of soils leading to soil degradation or soil fertility while the Nyabarongo River reaches an altitude of about
depletion through erosion and leaching of basic cation. 1,370 m ASL in the area (Reetsch, 2008). The natural soils
Soil developed on mine spoils are shallow and in early (soils which have developed outside of the mining areas)
stages of the development characterized by the of the GMD are representative for the tropical highlands of
deficiencies of soil organic matter and nutrients as other Rwanda. Typical Soil Reference Groups found in GMD
reclamation area. The most cultivated annual crops in include Lixisols, Nitisols, Cambisols, Gleysols and
mine spoils includes cassava and sweet potato (Anika, Umbrisols (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006).
2008). it has also shown that mining affects both the living
and non-living things through the physical modification of In Gatumba, the open cast mining has disturbed large
the soil environment (Adewole and Adesina, 2011). areas of land and has formed entire landscapes with deep
escarpments owing to the high price of tantalum and the
The present study was designed to assess the soil status increasing demand in the world market. The annual rainfall
in degraded soils from tantalum mining in Gatumba during in Gatumba varies between 1,300 and 1,500 mm. This
the rainy season. The assessment of different soil abundant rainfall has totally leached the soils that have
properties helped us to generally characterize the soils developed from poor parent materials such as sandstone,
from that study area and contribute in setting up practices quartzite, quartzophyllite and granite. The average annual
for soil restoration. temperature of the area is between 15 and 18°C mainly
due to high altitude (2,100 m above sea level).

Figure 1: Location of the investigation area Gatumba Mining District (red circle), Rwanda (Paulmann, 2012)

Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda
 World Res. J. Agric. Sci. 143

The vegetation of the study area is mainly derived The soil samples were air-dried and passed through a 2-
savannah with some reforested patches on the top of the mm sized sieve. The following soil characteristics were
hills (Ndabaneze et al., 2007). Three agricultural seasons determined: (i) pH water (1:2.5 soil/water ratio) and pH KCl
have been developed. Two correspond with the rainy (1:2.5, soil/1N KCl solution ratio); (ii) Exchangeable
seasons. The third season (from June to September) cations (Ca, Mg, K, and Na) extracted with 1M NH4OAc
allows a third harvest of crops cultivated in poorly drained buffered to pH 7 (Jones, 2001) and the elements
valleys (Verdoot and van Ranst, 2003). determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(AAS) and exchangeable aluminum was obtained
Geographically, Rwanda is divided into two parts: the according to 1N KCl extraction (Cottenie et al., 1982).
western and the eastern part. The mountainous Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was calculated
topography of western Rwanda where GMD located, as the sum of basic cations in addition to exchangeable Al
originates from the eastern rim of the Albertine Rift Valley using the laboratory methods of soil and plant analysis as
which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley described by Okalebo et al., (2002).
escarpment also forms the watershed between the Congo
River and the Nile in the highlands of Rwanda (Reetsch, Data analysis
2008). At the western border the largest freshwater body
of the country, the Kivu Lake, is located and Nyabarongo The data collected from field samples was entered in
River flows through the tropical highlands of Rwanda. Microsoft Excel and analyzed using GenStat (5 th edition)
While, the Eastern Rwanda is characterized by less software at 5% level of significance. Soil data parameters
mountainous landscapes. Swamps and small lakes are were subjected to “one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
spread over the eastern regions and along the border to in Randomized blocks". The results were presented in the
Tanzania. The Akagera River marks the border to form of table.
Tanzania.

Soil Sampling and Analyses RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Forty-four soil samples were collected from Gatumba Results

mining area in 9 soil profiles which were prepared in 2009
during dry season were sharpened and soils from all The mean values for soil pH, A.S, B.S, ECEC, and
visible horizons were sampled. (P1) Technosol on mine exchangeable bases are presented in Table 1. These
spoil, (P2) Technosol on schist, (P3) Technosol overlaying results from the laboratory analyses showed that the active
Gleysol on pegmatite material, (P4) Technosol without soil soil pH was statistically lower in technosol developed on
development (pegmatite dump from coltan mining), (P5) schist (4.8) and statistically higher in technosol composed
Cambic fluvisol, (P6) cambic Fluvisol, (P7) Fluvisol, (P8) by pegmatite dump (5.61). Acid saturation was statistically
Fluvisol covered by colluvium and (P9) strongly disturbed lower in strongly disturbed fluvisol (3.4%) and statistically
Fluvisol. These samples were taken during rainy season higher in technosol composed by pegmatite (10.78%)
from nine soil profiles; all soils were wet during the while base saturation was statistically lower in cambic-
sampling process. Soil samples were taken by auger, from fluvisol (37.5%) and statistically higher in technosol
nine profiles. composed by pegmatite (89.3%).
Table 1: Table of mean values for the pH, A.S, B.S, ECEC, Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+
Profile pH A. S B. S ECEC Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+
No water (%) (%) (Cmol/kg) (Cmol/kg) (Cmol/kg) (Cmol/kg) (Cmol/kg)
P1 5.06 10.78 45.91 3.62 0.15 0.33 1.88 0.58
P2 4.83 6.51 65.12 4.09 0.49 0.36 2.04 0.81
P3 5.03 4.33 54.11 6.16 0.16 0.41 3.35 1.32
P4 5.61 3.33 89.33 2.78 0.12 0.25 1.78 0.53
P5 4.98 5.33 37.91 5.10 0.20 0.26 3.02 0.94
P6 5.36 4.80 51.63 5.22 0.16 0.32 3.19 1.28
P7 5.47 6.83 54.77 6.62 0.29 0.36 3.36 2.14
P8 5.14 6.55 75.41 4.42 0.22 0.28 2.61 0.98
P9 5.15 3.42 80.30 5.22 0.16 0.62 2.71 1.56
Fpr 0.12 0.36 0.01 0.35 0.71 0.19 0.62 0.01
CV (%) 6.90 64.20 33.50 37.80 144.70 49.00 50.60 43.10
LSD 0.55 5.87 30.71 2.89 0.54 0.26 2.17 0.73
A.S: Acid saturation; B.S: Base saturation; ECEC: Effective cation exchange capacity

Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda
Imanirareba and Naramabuye 144

DISCUSSION For Fluvisol, the content of Ca2+ ranges between 1.23 to

5.6 cmol /kg of soil, the content of K+ ranges between 0.25
Soil pH to 1.28 cmol /kg of soil, the content of Mg2+ ranges
between 0.6 to 2.68 cmol /kg of soil and the content of Na+
Values for pH water varied in the range of 4.73 to 5.61 for ranges between 0.1 to 0.36 cmol /kg of soil. Based on the
Technosols and between 4.67 to 5.57 for Fluvisols. By norms of Mutwewingabo and Rutunga (1987) for the soils
using the standard norms of Landon (1991) for tropical of Rwanda, the contents of calcium are low to moderate,
soils and those of Mutwewingabo and Rutunga (1987) for whereas the contents Mg2+ are very low to moderate. The
the soil of Rwanda, these soils’ pH ranges from slightly content of Na+ is very low, whereas the content of K+ is
acid to acidic soils. Normally, Tropical soils are generally classified as low to very high. The low content of Mg2+ is
acidic except soils formed under the influence of volcanic explained by the low pH of the tropical soils. The base
eruption which have a medium basic pH except in saturation percentage is the ratio of the sum of basic
cultivated soils and mining site, the pH begins to decrease cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+) and the total CEC times
from alkaline to weakly acid if the soil is strongly affected 100. The base saturation percentage has an important
by those activities. significance compared to the acid saturation. It is
frequently used as an indicator of soil fertility status, and
The low pH observed in the study area is a result of criteria for soil classification (Brady and Weil, 2002).
different factors including the presence of high
precipitation over long period, high weathering intensity in In addition, according to Brady and Weil (2001), the base
the tropical highlands of Rwanda, the acid parent material saturation of the soil is defined as the percentage of the
(sericite schist or sandstone) of the soils and, the soil is soil’s CEC (on a charge equivalent basis) that is occupied
also washed during mining activities so that many base by these cations. A high base saturation (>50%) enhances
cations are carried away by water leaving hydrogen Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ availability and prevents soil pH
cations on soil colloids Ndoli A., (2013). decline. Low base saturation (<25%) is indicative of a
strongly acid soil that may maintain Al3+ activity high
A low pH is responsible for the mobilization of Al and Fe enough to cause phytotoxicity. The base saturation ranged
which promotes the immobilization of P through the between 43.18 to 89.33% for Technosol and between
formation of stable Fe and Al phosphates. This may further 18.36 to 93.52% for Fluvisol. Based on the norms of
increase P deficiency in crops (Scheffer and interpretation cited by Mutwewingabo and Rutunga (1987)
Schachtschabel, 2002). In addition, according to Landon base saturations were classified as strongly low to very
(1991), the low soil pH enhances un-favorable chemical high. In acid soils the BS may vary between 24 and 92 %
reactions like denitrification, aluminium and manganese (Igwe et al., 2004). Consequently, BS values of the
toxicity and P deficiency. The direct effects of H + ion on investigated soils of the Gatumba Mining District were
plant growth are difficult to determine in acids soils (Moore, typical for acid soils.
1974). In addition, acidity in the soil damage plant root and
color (Islam et al., 1980). Once the roots are prolonged Exchangeable Ca
exposed to low pH (<4), their capacities for nutrients
absorption are reduced (Adams, 1984). Exchangeable calcium ranges from 1.23 to 5.6cmol/kg.
The proposed critical level of Ca2+ for most crops was 5.0
cmol/100g (Marx et al., 1996). The mean of all those
Therefore, liming could be an important measure for collected samples contained lower levels of calcium than
increasing soil fertility in the respective soils. Significance required.
of pH lies in its influence on availability of soil nutrients
solubility, of toxic nutrients elements in the soil physical Exchangeable Mg2+ and K+
breakdown of roots cells, CEC soils whose colloids
(clay/humus) are pH dependent, and on biological activity. Exchangeable Mg2+ ranged from 0.53 to 2.68cmol/kg. The
When the pH rises from acid to nearly neutral, P becomes proposed critical value in most crops was 2cmol/kg
more available (Moore, 1974). (Schwartz and Coralles, 1989). About 87% of all horizons
has less Mg2+ than required and these could limit the crop
Exchangeable cations and base saturation growth. Therefore, to have maximum crop yields,
supplemental Mg2+ is needed where necessary. The
The amounts of exchangeable cations in soil are an results showed that soils from the study area are not
indication of the nutrient status or the level of soil fertility. deficient in exchangeable K+as their values were ranged
The result of exchangeable cations analyses (Table 1) from 0.25 to 1.28 cmol/kg which were higher than required.
show that for Technosol, the content of Ca2+ ranges It has been confirmed by Anderson, 1973, who said that
between 1.78 to 3.48 cmol /kg of soil, the content of K+ most plants grown in East Africa requires 0.20 cmol/kg of
ranges between 0.25 to 0.5 cmol/kg of soil, the content of K+ in soils for their optimal growth. The application of K +
Mg2+ ranges between 0.53 to 1.29 cmol /kg of soil and the fertilizers should only be recommended to maintain the K+
content of Na ranges between 0.11 to 0.73 cmol /kg of soil. level in the continuously cropped soils.
Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda
 World Res. J. Agric. Sci. 145

Acid saturation each horizon analyzed to assess the soil status in

degraded soils from tantalum mining in Gatumba. Results
The acid saturation ranged from 10.3 to 18.36%, the showed that all samples are strongly to moderately acidic.
analysis of variance showed a non-significant difference The pH obtained in most of the plough horizons were not
among treatments at level of probability of 0.360 due to very favorable for crops since the ideal pH for many crops
homogeneous change among those samples. The acid range approximately between 6.2 to 7.5. In most cases if
saturation is a good indicator of soil infertility status in acid not all, pH is below 5.5, the range in which Al toxicity had
soils and can help to assess the level of concentration and risen. The Al levels found might not be high enough to
probably the activity of Al and H+ cation compared with the make a significant negative effect to plant growth. Thus,
activity of base saturation. Soil acidity may result from the applications of both liming materials and organic
parent materials that were acidic and naturally low in basic manure to increase soil pH and enhance nutrients
cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+) or because these availability are inevitable. This will also help in the
elements have been leached from the soil profile by heavy improvement of soil structure, water holding capacity,
rains (Fageria et al., 1990a). The exchangeable and cation exchange capacity, provide a slow-release fertilizer
soluble Al3+ ions play two critical roles in the soil acidity and serve as microbial inoculums. Alternatively, OM
story. First, aluminium is highly toxic to most organisms addition can be used to reduce Al3+ toxicity by binding the
and is responsible for much of deleterious impact of soil Al3+ ions in OM complexes. Due to the removal of base
acidity on plants. Second, Al3+ ions react with water cation (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) from the soil profile by normal
(hydrolyze) to form H+ ions. For this reason, Al3+ and H+ rainfall or the harvesting of crops, about 87% of all
together are considered acid cations. Soil acidity may also horizons has less Mg2+ than required and it could be a
develop from exposure to the air of mine spoils containing limiting factor for plants growth. While, exchangeable K+
iron pyrite (FeS2) or other sulfides, (Brady and Weil, 2002). was high in soils due to high weathering of minerals rich in
Crop fertilization with ammonia or ammonium fertilizers K+ (feldspar, mica) accompanied by continuous release of
can result in soil acidification. In addition, acidity may also K+. The immediate attention to replenish the already
be produced by the decomposition of plant residues or depleted soils was recommended. Results showed no
organic wastes into organic acids. Acidification is a natural significant difference in soil pH and acid saturation
process involved in soil formation and is higher in humid between soil profiles. However, a significant difference
tropical regions and a major constraint for crop production (p=0.012) in base saturation was found between soil
in that region. By constraint, in drier regions, soil retains profiles. In general, soils affected by mining had higher
enough basic cations and prevents the solubility, attraction base and acid saturation than the ones unaffected.
of acid cations and is an alkaline soil (pH >7) (Donahue et Technosol substrates, especially pegmatite coming from
al., 1983). mining activities had higher pH compared to the soils
which were not affected by mining. Therefore, agricultural
Effective Cation Exchange Capacity planning must consider the assessment of soil status to
come-up with realistic decision on the present land use
ECEC higher than 4 cmol/kg in soils are known to be good and fertility management.
to counter the leaching of cations (Brady and Weil, 2002),
and the 69.6% of the investigated soils were susceptible to
lose their bases by leaching. Fluvisols present a relatively ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
high content of ECEC due to their neutral pH condition
which doesn’t impair the availability of nutrients, (Driessen The authors are thankful for the financial support provided
and Dudal, 1989) and the low ECEC content was observed by Coltan Environmental Project and technical assistance
in Technosol which is highly lixiviated soil. The lack of soil received from University of Rwanda (UR).
profile formation of Technosol didn’t facilitate the cations
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Investigation of Soil Status in Degraded Soils from Tantalum Mining in Gatumba, Rwanda