J.B.

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
Bhaskar Nagar, Moinabad Mandal, R.R. District, Hyderabad -500075
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTRAL ENGINEERING-I (RCC)

LECTURE NOTESR18

B. TECH
II YEAR – I SEM (Sec- A&B)
Academic Year 2020-21

Prepared & Compiled by

MsR. Dr .A.Krishna Nivedita

PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CE

J.B.I.E.T
Bhaskar Nagar, Yenkapally(V), Moinabad(M),
Ranga Reddy(D), Hyderabad – 500 075, Telangana, India

Pg. 1
 UNIT-1
DESIGN OF BEAMS
1.1 Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support forces (loads). Buildings,
bridges and towers are examples for structures in civil engineering. In buildings, structure
consists of walls floors, roofs and foundation. In bridges, the structure consists of deck,
supporting systems and foundations. In towers the structure consists of vertical, horizontal and
diagonal members along with foundation.
A structure can be broadly classified as (i) sub structure and (ii) super structure. The portion of
building below ground level is known as sub-structure and portion above the ground is called
as super structure. Foundation is sub structure and plinth, walls, columns, floor slabs with or
without beams, stairs, roof slabs with or without beams etc are super-structure. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood, rocks natural fibers are used to construct
buildings. Apart from this many manmade products are in use for building construction.
Bricks, tiles, cement concrete, concrete blocks, plastic, steel & glass etc are manmade building
materials.
1.2 Objectives
1. To understand various design philosophies.
2. To understand the necessity of reinforcement in RC structure.
3. To understand the stress block parameter of RC beam section.
4. To understand the necessity of partial safety in design of RC member.
1.3 Advantages Disadvantages of RC members
Advantages

• It has high tensile and compressive strength.

• It is more durable and may long up to 100 years.

• It imparts ductility.

• Raw materials used for construction of RC buildings are easily available and can be
transported.

• Overall cost for constructing a building using RC proves to be economical compared to steel
and pre-stressed structures.

• RC components can be moulded to any desired shape , if formwork is designed properly.

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• If RC structures are properly designed then it can resist the earthquake forces.
Disadvantage
• Tensile strength of RC member is about 1/10th of its compressive strength 1.4

Materials required for RC member

a. Concrete
Concrete is a product obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of cement, sand, gravel
and water in predetermined proportions. Depending on the quality and proportions of the
ingredients used in the mix the properties of concrete vary almost as widely as different kinds
of stones. Concrete has enough strength in compression, but has little strength in tension. Due
to this, concrete is weak in bending, shear and torsion. Hence the use of plain concrete is
limited applications where great compressive strength and weight are the principal
requirements and where tensile stresses are either totally absent or are extremely low.
Properties of Concrete
1. Grade of concrete
Mild M20

Moderate M25

Severe M30

Very M35
Severe
Extreme M40

2. Tensile strength Fcr

= 0.7* √fck3. Modulus
of elasticity Ec =
5000*√fck

4. Shrinkage of
concrete: Depends on

 Constituents of concrete
 Size of the member
 Environmental conditions
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5. Creep of concrete: Depends on
 Strength of the concrete
 Stress in concrete
 Duration of loading
6. Durability: Mainly depends on
 Type of Environment
 Cement content
 Water cement ratio
 Workmanship
 Cover to the reinforcement
7. Cover to the reinforcement
Nominal cover is essential
 Resist corrosion
 Bonding between steel and concrete
b) Reinforcements
Bamboo, natural fibers (jute, coir etc) and steel are some of the types of reinforcements
Roles of reinforcement in RCC

• To resist Bending moment in case of flexural members

• To reduce the shrinkage of concrete

• To improve the load carrying capacity of the compression member

• To resist the effect of secondary stresses like temperature etc.

• To prevent the development of wider cracks formed due to tensile stress

Advantages of Steel Reinforcement

• It has high tensile and compressive stress

• It is ductile in nature

• It has longer life

• It allows easy fabrication ( easy to cut, bend or weld)

• It is easily available

• It has low co-efficient of thermal expansion same as that of concrete

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Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement

• More prone to corrosion

• Loses its strength when exposed to high temperature.

Classification of Steel bars

1. Mild Steel plain bars
 Cold worked steel bars
 Hot rolled mild steel bars
Eg: Fe250
2. High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) Bars
Eg: Fe415 & Fe500
3. Steel wire Fabric4. Structural Steel 5. CRS and TMT

8mm-10mm size bars are used in Slabs and Stair ups, which serves as a load bearing member
in slab homes.
12mm-25mm size bars are used in Beams & Columns, to make them withstand external loads.
32mm-36mm size bars are used in the construction of very complex projects like dams,
bridges.
Based on the designs also, we go for the sizes. Sometimes, we use different sizes according to
the project specifications.

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Stress-strain curves for reinforcement

Figure1.2: Stress-strain curve for Mild steel (idealised) (Fe 250) with definite yield point

Figure1.3: Stress-strain curve for cold worked deform bar

Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the representative stress-strain curves for steel having definite yield
point and not having definite yield point, respectively. The characteristic yield strength f of
y

steel is assumed as the minimum yield stress or 0.2 per cent of proof stress for steel having no

definite yield point. The modulus of elasticity of steel is taken to be 200000 N/mm .

For mild steel, the stress is proportional to the strain up to the yield point. Thereafter, post yield
strain increases faster while the stress is assumed to remain at constant value of fy.

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For cold-worked bars (Fig. 1.3), the stress is proportional to the strain up to a stress of 0.8 f .
y

Thereafter, the inelastic curve is defined as given below:

Stress Inelastic strain

0.80 f Nil
y
0.85 fy 0.0001
0.90 fy 0.0003
0.95 fy 0.0007
0.975 fy 0.0010
1.00 fy 0.0020
Linear interpolation is to be done for intermediate values. The two grades of cold-worked bars
used as steel reinforcement are Fe 415 and Fe 500 with the values of fy as 415 N/mm2 and 500
N/mm2, respectively.
1.5 Introduction to RCC Design
Objective:-
1. Structure should perform satisfactorily during its life span
2. Structure should take up the forces which are likely and deform within the limit
3. The structure should resist misuse or fire.
Design of RC member involves
1. Deciding the size or dimension of the structural element and amount of reinforcement required.
2. To check whether the adopted size perform satisfactorily during its life span.
1.6 Methods of Design or Design philosophy
1. Working stress method
2. Ultimate or load factor method
3. Limit state method

Working Stress Method – Based on Elastic theory

Assumptions:-
 Plane section remains plane before and after deformation takes place

 Stress –strain relation under working load, is linear for both steel and concrete

 Tensile stress is taken care by reinforcement and none of them by concrete Modular
Ratio between steel and concrete remains constant.
Modular ratio

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Where = is permissible stress
Advantages:
1. Method is simple
2. Method is reliable
3. Stress is very low under working condition , therefore serviceability is automatically satisfied
Limitations:-
1. Stress strain relation for concrete is not linear for concrete
2. It gives an idea that failure load = working load * factor of safety, but it is not true
3. This method gives uneconomical section
. Ultimate load method or Load factor method

• This method uses design load = ultimate load * load factor

• Load factor
•
This method gives slender and thin section which results in excessive deflection and cracks

• This method does not take care of shrinkage of concrete

• This method does not take of serviceability

Limit State Method
Limit state is an acceptable limit for both safety and serviceability before which failure occurs
1. Limit state of collapse
2. Limit state of serviceability
3. Other limit state
Limit state of Collapse The structure may get collapse because of
 Rupture at one or more cross-sections
 Buckling
 Overturning
While designing the structure following ultimate stresses should be considered
1. Flexure
2. Shear
3. Torsion
4. Tension
5. Compression
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Limit state of Serviceability a) Limit state of deflection
 Lack of safety
 Appearance
 Ponding of water
 Misalignment in machines
 Door, window frames, flooring materials undergoes crack Methods for
controlling deflecting

• Empherical formula – span/depth

• Theoretical - dimension
b) Limit state of cracking

 Appearance
 Lack of safety
 Leakage
 Creation of maintenance problem
 Reduction in stiffness with increase in deflection
 corrosion
Other Limit states
a) Vibration
b) Fire resistance
c) Chemical and environmental actions
d) Accidental loads
1.7 Types of Loads on RCC Structures
1. Dead Load IS 875 (Part 1 )1987
2. Live Load IS 875 (Part 2 )1987
3. Wind Load IS 875 (Part 3 )1987
4. Snow Load IS 875 (Part 4 )1987
5. Earthquake Load IS 1893 2002
 Low intensity Zone (IV or less) – Zone II
 Moderate intensity Zone (VII) – Zone III
 Severe intensity Zone (VIII) – Zone IV
 Very Severe intensity Zone (IX and above ) – Zone V

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1.8 Characteristic load
Characteristic load = Mean Load+1.64S

Characteristic Strength
Characteristic Strength = Mean Strength -1.64S

1.9 Partial Safety factor

2. For material

3. For load

Fd= F * γf
1.10 Stress-strain curves for reinforcement

Stress-strain curve for Mild steel (idealized) (Fe 250) with definite yield point

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 Stress-strain curve for cold worked deform bar
Figures show the representative stress-strain curves for steel having definite yield point and not
having definite yield point, respectively. The characteristic yield strength fyof steel is assumed as
the mi Method of RCC design

A reinforced concrete structure should be designed to satisfy the following criteria-

i) Adequate safety, in items stiffness and durability

iii) Reasonable economy.

The following design methods are used for the design of RCC Structures.

a) The working stress method (WSM)

b) The ultimate load method (ULM)

c) The limit state method (LSM)

Working Stress Method (WSM)

This method is based on linear elastic theory or the classical elastic theory. This method ensured
adequate safety by suitably restricting the stress in the materials (i.e. concrete and steel) induced
by the expected working leads on the structures. The assumption of linear elastic behaviour
considered justifiable since the specified permissible stresses are kept well below the ultimate
strength of the material. The ratio of yield stress of the steel reinforcement or the cube strength
of the concrete to the corresponding permissible or working stress is usually called factor of
safety.

The WSM uses a factor of safety of about 3 with respect to the cube strength of concrete and a
factor of safety of about 1.8 with respect to the yield strength of steel.

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Ultimate load method (ULM)

The method is based on the ultimate strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate load is obtained
by enhancing the service load by some factor called as load factor for giving a desired margin
of safety .Hence the method is also referred to as the load factor method or the ultimate strength
method.

In the ULM, stress condition at the state of in pending collapse of the structure is analysed, thus
using, the non-linear stress – strain curves of concrete and steel. The safely measure in the
design is obtained by the use of proper load factor. The satisfactory strength performance at
ultimate loads does not guarantee satisfactory strength performance at ultimate loads does not
guarantee satisfactory serviceability performance at normal service loads.

Limit state method (LSM)

Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements of the
structure before failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will thus ensure that
they will not reach limit states and will not become unfit for the use for which they are
intended. It is worth mentioning that structures will not just fail or collapse by violating
(exceeding) the limit states. Failure, therefore, implies that clearly defined limit states of
structural usefulness has been exceeded.

Limit state are two types

i) Limit state of collapse

ii) Limit state of serviceability.

Limit states of collapse

The limit state of collapse of the structure or part of the structure could be assessed
from rupture of one or more critical sections and from bucking due to elastic bending, shear,
torsion and axial loads at every section shall not be less than the appropriate value at that
section produced by the probable most unfavourable combination of loads on the structure
using the appropriate factor of safely.

Limit state of serviceability

Limit state of serviceability deals with deflection and crocking of structures under service loads,
durability under working environment during their anticipated exposure conditions during service,
stability of structures as a whole, fire resistance etc.

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Characteristic and design values and partial safety factor
1. Characteristic strength of materials.
The term ‗characteristic strength‗ means that value of the strength of material below
which not more than minimum acceptable percentage of test results are expected to fall. IS
456:2000 have accepted the minimum acceptable percentage as 5% for reinforced concrete
structures. This means that there is 5% for probability or chance of the actual strength being less
than the characteristic strength.

Figure 1.4: Frequency distribution curve for strength

Figure shows frequency distribution curve of strength material (concrete or steel). The value of
K corresponding to 5% area of the curve is 1.65.

The design strength should be lower than the mean strength (fm)
Characteristic strength = Mean strength –K x standard deviation or
fk=fm-KSd
Where, fk=characteristic strength of the material
fm=mean strength
K=constant =1.65
Sd=standard deviation for a set of test results.

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The value of standard deviation (Sd) is given by

Sd  
2

n 1
Where, δ=deviation of the individual test strength from the average or mean strength of n
samples.
n= number of test results.

IS 456:2000 has recommended minimum value of n=30.

Characteristic strength of concrete

Characteristic strength of concrete is denoted by fck (N/mm2) and its value is different for
different grades of concrete e.g. M 15, M25 etc. In the symbol ‗M‗ used for designation of
concrete mix, refers to the mix and the number refers to the specified characteristic
compressive strength of 150 mm size cube at 28 days expressed in N/mm2

Characteristic strength of steel

Until the relevant Indian Standard specification for reinforcing steel are modified to include the
concept of characteristic strength, the characteristic value shall be assumed as the minimum
yield stress or 0.2% proof stress specified in the relevant Indian Standard specification. The
characteristic strength of steel designated by symbol fy (N/mm2)

Characteristic loads
The term ‗Characteristic load‗ means that values of load which has a 95% probability of not
being exceeded during that life of the structure.

Figure 1.5: Frequency distribution curve for load

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 The design load should be more than average load obtained from statistic, we have

Fk=Fm+KSd

Where, Fk=characteristic load;

Fm= mean load

K=constant=2.65;

Sd=standard deviation for the load.

Since data are not available to express loads in statistical terms, for the purpose of this
standard, dead loads given in IS 875(Part-1), imposed loads given in IS 875(Part-2), wind loads.
Given in IS 875 (Part-3), snow load as given in IS 875(Part-4) and seismic forces given in IS
1893 shall be assumed as the characteristic loads.

Design strength of materials

The design strength of materials (fd) is given by

fk
fd 
m
Where, fk=characteristic strength of material.
 m =partial safety factor appropriate to the material and the limit state being
considered
Design loads
The design load ( Fd) is given by.
Fd=Fk.  f

 f =partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and the limit state being
considered.
The design load obtained by multi plying the characteristic load by the partial safety factor for
load is also known as factored load.
Partial safety factor (  m) for materials
When assessing the strength of a structure or structural member for the limit state of collapse,
the values of partial safety factor,  m should be taken as 1.15 for steel.

Thus, in the limit state method , the design stress for steel reinforcement is given by fy /  ms =
fy/1.15=0.87fy.

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According to IS 456:2000 for design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the
structure shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength of concrete in cube and
partial safety factor  mc =1.5 shall be applied in addition to this. Thus, the design stress in
concrete is given by

0.67 fck /  mc  0.67 fck /1.5  0.446 fck

Partial safety factor for loads

The partial safety factors for loads, as per IS 456:2000 are given in table below

Load Limit State of collapse Limit State of Serviceability

combination DL LL WL/EL DL LL WL/EL
DL+IL 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
DL+WL 1.5 or 0.9* - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
DL+IL+WL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

(* This value is to be considered when stability against overturning or stress reversal is critical)

Limit state of collapse in flexure

The behaviour of reinforced concrete beam sections at ultimate loads has been explained in
detail in previous section. The basic assumptions involved in the analysis at the ultimate limit
state of flexure (Cl. 38.1 of the Code) are listed here.

a) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane after bending, i.e., in an initially
straight beam, strain varies linearly over the depth of the section.
b) The maximum compressive strain in concrete (at the outermost fibre)  shall be taken as
cu
0.0035 in bending.
c) The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in
concrete may be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape which results
in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of test. An acceptable stress-
strain curve is given below in figure 1.6. For design purposes, the compressive strength of
concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. The
partial safety factor y, = 1.5 shall be applied in addition to this.

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 Figure 1.6 Stress-strain curve for concrete

d) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

e) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress-strain curve for the
type of steel used. Typical curves are given in figure 1.3. For design purposes the partial
safety factor  m equal to 1.15 shall be applied.
f) The minimum yield stress or 0.2 per cent of proof stress for steel having no definite yield
point. The modulus of elasticity of steel is taken to be 200000 N/mm2
g) For mild steel, the stress is proportional to the strain up to the yield point. Thereafter, post
yield strain increases faster while the stress is assumed to remain at constant value of fy
a) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less
fy
Than :  0.002
1.15Es

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1.11 Limit state of collapse in flexure
The behaviour of reinforced concrete beam sections at ultimate loads has been explained in
detail in previous section. The basic assumptions involved in the analysis at the ultimate limit
state of flexure (Cl. 38.1 of the Code) are listed here.
a) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane after bending, i.e., in an initially
straight beam, strain varies linearly over the depth of the section.
b) cu shall be taken
as 0.0035 in bending.
c) The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in
concrete may be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape which
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of test. An
acceptable stress-strain curve is given below in figure 1.6. For design purposes, the
compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the
characteristic strength. The partial safety factor y, = 1.5 shall be applied in addition to this.
d) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
e) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress-strain curve for the
type of steel used. Typical curves are given in figure 1.3. For design purposes the partial
safety factor equal to 1.15 shall be applied.
f) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be

lessthan

1.12 Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis

Rectangular beam under flexure xu<xumax

 Rectangular beam under flexure xu= xu,max

Based on the assumption given above, an expression for the depth of the neutral axis at the
ultimate limit state, xu, can be easily obtained from the strain diagram in Fig
Considering similar triangles,

The values of xu,max for different grades of steel, obtained by applying Eq. (2), are listed in
table.

Limiting depth of neutral axis for different grades of steel

The limiting depth of neutral axis xu,max corresponds to the so-called balanced section, i.e., a
section that is expected to result in a balanced‗ failure at the ultimate limit state in flexure. If
the neutral axis depth xuis less than xu,max , then the section is under-reinforced (resulting in
a tension‗ failure); whereas if xuexceeds xu,max , it is over-reinforced (resulting in a
compression‗ failure).
1.13 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
Analysis of a given reinforced concrete section at the ultimate limit state of flexure implies the
determination of the ultimate moment MR of resistance of the section. This is easily obtained
from the couple resulting from the flexural stresses

Concrete stress-block parameters in compression

MR C *Z T*Z
where C and T are the resultant (ultimate) forces in compression and tension respectively and
z is the lever arm.

T 0.87 fyAst
Concrete Stress Block in Compression
In order to determine the magnitude of Cu and its line of action, it is necessary to analyze the
concrete stress block in compression. As ultimate failure of a reinforced concrete beam in
flexure occurs by the crushing of concrete, for both under- and over-reinforced beams, the
shape of the compressive stress distribution (‗stress block‗) at failure will be, in both cases, as
shown in Fig. The value of Cu can be computed knowing that the compressive stress in
concrete is uniform at 0.447 fck for a depth of 3xu/ 7, and below this it varies parabolically
over a depth of 4xu/ 7 to zero at the neutral axis.
For a rectangular section of width b,

Therefore, Cu = 0.36 * fck * b * xu

Also, the line of action of Cu is determined by the centroid of the stress block, located at a
distance x from the concrete fibres subjected to the maximum compressive strain.

Accordingly, considering moments of compressive forces C u, C1 and C2 about the maximum

compressive strain location,
Depth of Neutral Axis

For any given section, the depth of the neutral axis should be such that Cu = T, satisfying
equilibrium of forces.
Equating C = T,

1.14 Ultimate Moment of Resistance

The ultimate moment of resistance MR of a given beam section is

1.15 Modes of failure: Types of section

A reinforced concrete member is considered to have failed when the strain of concrete in
extreme compression fibre reaches its ultimate value of 0.0035. At this stage, the actual strain
in steel can have the following values:
(a) Equal to failure strain of steel
(b) More than failure strain, corresponding to under reinforced section.
(c) Less than failure strain corresponding to over reinforced section.
Thus for a given section, the actual value of xu / d can be determined from Eq. (7). Three
cases arise.
Case-1: xu /d equal to the limiting value xu,max/d : Balanced section.
Case-2: xu /d less than limiting value: under-reinforced section.
Case-3: xu /d more than limiting value: over-reinforced section.

Balanced Section
In balanced section, the strain in steel and strain in concrete reach their maximum values
simultaneously. The percentage of steel in this section is known as critical or limiting steel
percentage. The depth of neutral axis (NA) is xu= xu,max.
Under-reinforced section
An under-reinforced section is the one in which steel percentage (pt) is less than critical or
limiting percentage (pt,lim ). Due to this the actual NA is above the balanced NA and
xu<xu,max .
Over-reinforced section
In the over reinforced section the steel percentage is more than limiting percentage due to
which NA falls below the balanced NA and xu>xu,max . Because of higher percentage of
steel, yield does not take place in steel and failure occurs when the strain in extreme fibres in
concrete reaches its ultimate value.
1.16 General Aspects of Serviceability:
The members are designed to withstand safely all loads liable to act on it throughout its life
using the limit state of collapse. These members designed should also satisfy the serviceability
limit states. To satisfy the serviceability requirements the deflections and cracking in the
member should not be excessive and shall be less than the permissible values. Apart from this
the other limit states are that of the durability and vibrations. Excessive values beyond this
limit state spoil the appearance of the structure and affect the partition walls, flooring etc. This
will cause the user discomfort and the structure is said to be unfit for use.
The different load combinations and the corresponding partial safety factors to be used for the
limit state of serviceability are given in Table 18 of IS 456:2000.

Limit state of serviceability for flexural members:

Deflection
The check for deflection is done through the following two methods specified by IS 456:2000
(Refer clause 42.1)
1 Empirical Method
In this method, the deflection criteria of the member is said to be satisfied when the actual
value of span to depth ratio of the member is less than the permissible values. The IS code
procedure for calculating the permissible values are as given below

a. Choosing the basic values of span to effective depth ratios (l/d) from the following,
depending on the type of beam.

1. Cantilever = 8
2. Simply supported = 20
3. Continuous = 26
b. Modify the value of basic span to depth ratio to get the allowable span to depth ratio.
Allowable l/d = Basic l/d x Mt x Mcx Mf
Where, Mt = Modification factor obtained from fig 4 IS 456:2000. It depends on the area of
tension reinforcement provided and the type of steel.
Mc = Modification factor obtained from fig 5 IS 456:2000. This depends on the area of
compression steel used.
Mf = Reduction factor got from fig 6 of IS 456:2000
Note: The basic values of l/d mentioned above is valid upto spans of 10m. The basic values
are multiplied by 10 / span in meters except for cantilever. For cantilevers whose span
exceeds 10 m the theoretical method shall be used.
2 Theoretical method of checking deflection
The actual deflections of the members are calculated as per procedure given in annexure ‗C‘
of IS 456:2000. This deflection value shall be limited to the following
i. The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature, creep and
shrinkage shall not exceed span / 250.
ii. The deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring
aftererection of partitions and the application of finishes shall not exceed span/350 or 20 mm
whichever is less.

Cracking in structural members

Cracking of concrete occurs whenever the tensile stress developed is greater than the tensile
strength of concrete. This happens due to large values of the following:
1. Flexural tensile stress because of excessive bending under the applied load
2. Diagonal tension due to shear and torsion.
3. Direct tensile stress under applied loads (for example hoop tension in a circular tank)
4. Lateral tensile strains accompanying high axis compressive strains due to Poisson‘s effect
(as in a compression test)
5. Settlement of supports.

In addition to the above reasons, cracking also occurs because of

1. Restraint against volume changes due to shrinkage, temperature creep and chemical
effects.
2. Bond and anchorage failures.
Cracking spoils the aesthetics of the structure and also adversely affect the durability of the
structure. Presence of wide cracks exposes the reinforcement to the atmosphere due to which
the reinforcements get corroded causing the deterioration of concrete. In some cases, such as
liquid retaining structures and pressure vessels cracks affects the basic functional requirement
itself (such as water tightness in water tank).
Permissible crack width
The permissible crack width in structural concrete members depends on the type of structure
and the exposure conditions. The permissible values are prescribed in clause 35.3.2
IS 456:2000 and are shown in table below

Control of cracking

The check for cracking in beams are done through the following 2 methods specified in
IS 456:2000 clause 43.1

1. By empirical method:
In this method, the cracking is said to be in control if proper detailing (i.e. spacing) of
reinforcements as specified in clause 26.3.2 of IS 456:2000 is followed. These specifications
regarding the spacing have been already discussed under heading general specifications. In
addition, the following specifications shall also be considered
i. In the beams where the depth of the web exceeds 750 mm, side face reinforcement
shall beprovided along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall not be less
than 0.1% of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not
exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less. (Refer clause 25.5.1.3 IS456:2000)
ii. The minimum tension reinforcement in beams to prevent failure in the tension zone by
cracking of concrete is given by the following
As = 0.85 fy / 0.87 fy (Refer clause 26.5.1.1 IS 456:2000)
iii. Provide large number of smaller diameter bars rather than large diameter bars of the
samearea. This will make the bars well distributed in the tension zone and will reduce the
width of the cracks.
2. By crack width computations In the case of special structures and in aggressive
environmental conditions, it is preferred to compute the width of cracks and compare them
Thewith the permissible crack width to ensure the safety of the structure at the limit state of
serviceability.
IS 456-2000 has specified an analytical method for the estimation of surface crack width in
Annexure-F which is based on the British Code (BS : 8110) specifications where the surface
crack width is less than the permissible width, the crack control is said to be satisfied.
Outcome
1. Able to know various design philosophies.
2. Able to know the necessity of reinforcement in RC structure.
3. Able to know the stress block parameter of RC beam section.
4. Able to know the necessity of partial safety in design of RC member.
1.18 Assignment questions
1. What are the modes of failure of singly reinforced beam?
2. What are the methods of design philosophies?
3. What is moment of resistance?
4. What are the loads that are likely to act on the structure?
5. What is singly reinforced beam?
 UNIT-2
SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION

Beam:
Beam is a structural member which is normally placed horizontally. It provides resistance to
bending when loads are applied on it. Most commonly used material for beam is RCC
(Reinforced Cement Concrete). RCC beam can be various types depending on different
criteria.

RCC beam can be various types depending on different criteria. Such as depending on shape,
beam can be rectangular, T-beam etc. Depending on reinforcement placement, beam can be
double reinforced beam, single reinforced beam, etc.

Objective
1. To design singly and doubly reinforced beam

Types of RCC Beams

RCC beams are 4 types depending on their supporting systems.
i. Simply supported beam
ii. Semi-continuous beam
iii. Continuous beam, and
iv. Cantilever beam.
Simply Supported Beam
This type of beam has a single span. It is supported by two supports at both ends. This beam is
also called simple beam.
Semi-Continuous Beam
This beam doesn‘t have more than two spans. And supports are not more than three.
Technically this beam is a continuous beam.
Continuous Beam
This type of beam has more than two spans and has more than three supports along its length.
The supports are in one straight line thus the spans are also in a straight line.
Cantilever Beam
It has only one support in one end, another end is open.
There is another type of beam we can see in the civil engineering world which is called over-
hanging beam. This beam extends beyond its supports. Actually this beam is a combination of
simply supported and cantilever beam

In this chapter, it is intended to learn the method of designing the beams using the principles
developed in previous chapters. Design consists of selecting proper materials, shape and size
of the structural member keeping in view the economy, stability and aesthetics. The design of
beams are done for the limit state of collapse and checked for the other limit states. Normally
the beam is designed for flexure and checked for shear, deflection, cracking and bond.
 Design procedure
The procedure for the design of beam may be summarized as follows:
i. Estimation of loads
ii. Analysis
iii. Design
i. Estimation of loads
The loads that get realized on the beams consist of the following:
a. Self weight of the beam.
b. Weight of the wall constructed on the beam
c. The portion of the slab loads which gets transferred to the beams. These slab loads are due
to live loads that are acting on the slab dead loads such as self weight of the slab, floor
finishes, partitions, false ceiling and some special fixed loads. The economy and safety of the
beams achieved depends on the accuracy with which the loads are estimated.

The dead loads are calculated based on the density whereas the live loads are taken from
IS:875 depending on the functional use of the building.
2. Analysis
For the loads that are acting on the beams, the analysis is done by any standard method to
obtain the shear forces and bending moments.

3. Design
a. Selection of width and depth of the beam.
The width of the beam selected shall satisfy the slenderness limits specified in IS 456 : 2000
clause 23.3 to ensure the lateral stability.
b. Calculation of effective span (le) (Refer clause 22.2, IS 456:2000)
c. Calculation of loads (w)
d. Calculation of critical moments and shears.
e. The moment and shear that exists at the critical sections are considered for the design.
f. Check for the depth based on maximum bending moment.
Considering the section to be nearly balanced section and using the equation
Annexure G, IS 456-2000 obtain the value of the required depth drequired. If the assumed
depth ―d‖ is greater than the ―drequired‖, it satisfies the depth criteria based on flexure. If the
assumed section is less than the‖ drequired‖, revise the section.
g. Calculation of steel.
As the section is under reinforced, use the equation G.1.1.(b) to obtain the steel.
h. Check for shear.
i. Check for developmental length.
j. Check for deflection.
k. Check for Ast min, Ast max and distance between the two bars.

Anchorage of bars or check for development length

In accordance with clause 26.2 IS 456: 2000, the bars shall be extended (or anchored) for a
certain distance on either side of the point of maximum bending moment where there is
maximum stress (Tension or Compression). This distance is known as the development length
and is required in order to prevent the bar from pulling out under tension or pushing in under
compression. The development length (Ld) is given by

Note: Due to the above requirement it can be concluded that no bar can be bent up or curtailed
upto a distance of development length from the point of maximum moment.

Due to practical difficulties if it is not possible to provide the required embedment or

development length, bends hooks and mechanical anchorages are used.
Flexural reinforcement shall not be terminated in a tension zone unless any one of the
following condition is satisfied:

a. The shear at the cut-off points does not exceed two-thirds that permitted, including the
shear strength of web reinforcement provided.
b. Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear and torsion is provided along each
terminated bar over a distance from the cut-off point equal to three-fourths the effective depth
of the member. The excess stirrup area shall be not less than 0.4bs/fy, where b is the breadth
of the beam, s is the spacing and fy is the characteristic strength of reinforcement in N/mm2.
The resulting spacing shall not exceed d/8 where is the ratio of the area of bars cut-off to the
total area of bars at the section, and d is the effective depth.
c. For 36 mm and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for
flexure at the cut-off point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths that permitted.
Positive moment reinforcement:
a. At least one-third the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth
the positive moment reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face
of the member into the support, to a length equal to Ld/3.
b. When a flexural member is part of the primary lateral load resisting system, the positive
reinforcement required to be extended into the support as described in (a) shall be anchored
to develop its design stress in tension at the face of the support.
c. At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall
be limited to a diameter such that Ld computed for fd by 26.2.1 IS 456:2000 does not exceed.

Where, M1 = moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at the section to
be stressed to fd;
fd = 0.87fy in the case of limit state design and the permissible stress in the case of working
stress design;
V = shear force at the section due to the design loads;
L0 = sum of the anchorage beyond the centre of the support and the equivalent anchorage
value of any hook or mechanical anchorage at simple support; and at a point of inflection, L0
is limited to the effective depth of the members or 12 , whichever is greater; and
ɸ= diameter of bar.
The value of M1/V in the above expression may be increased by 30 percent when the ends of
the reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction.

Negative moment reinforcement:

At least one third of the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall
extend beyond the point of inflection for a distance not less than the effective depth of the
member of 12 or one-sixteenth of the clear span whichever is greater. Anchorage of bars
Anchoring of bars is done to provide the development length and maintain the integrity of the
structure.
Anchoring bars in tension:
a. Deformed bars may be used without end anchorages provided development length
requirement is satisfied. Hooks should normally be provided for plain bars in tension.
b. Bends and hooks – shall conform to IS 2502
1. Bends – The anchorage value of bend shall be taken as 4 times the diameter of the bar
for each 450 bend subject to a maximum of 16 times the diameter of the bar.
2. Hooks – The anchorage value of a standard U-type hook shall be equal to 16 times the
diameter of the bar.
Anchoring bars in compression:
The anchorage length of straight bar in compression shall be equal to the development length
of bars in compression as specified in clause 26.2.1 of IS 456:2000. The projected length of
hooks, bends and straight lengths beyond bends if provided for a bar in compression, shall
only be considered for development length.

Mechanical devices for anchorage:

Any mechanical or other device capable of developing the strength of the bar without damage
to concrete may be used as anchorage with the approval of the engineer-in-charge.
Anchoring shear reinforcement:
a. Inclined bars – The development length shall be as for bars in tension; this length shall be
measured as under:
1. In tension zone, from the end of the sloping or inclined portion of the bar, and

2. In the compression zone, from the mid depth of the beam.

b. Stirrups – Not withstanding any of the provisions of this standard, in case of secondary
reinforcement, such as stirrups and transverse ties, complete development lengths and
anchorages shall be deemed to have been provided when the bar is bent through an angle of
at least 900 round a bar of at least its own diameter and is continued beyond the end of the
the bar is bent through an angle of 1800 and is continued beyond the end of the curve for a
length of at least four bar diameters.

Reinforcement requirements
1. Minimum reinforcement:
The minimum area of tension reinforcement shall be not less than that given by the
following:

Where,

Where, As = minimum area of tension reinforcement.

b = breadth of beam or the breadth of the web of T-beam, d = effective depth, and
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement in N/mm2
2. Maximum reinforcement – The maximum area of tension reinforcement shall not
exceed 0.04Bd.
Compression reinforcement:
The maximum area of compression reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04bD.
Compression reinforcement in beams shall be enclosed by stirrups for effective lateral
restraint.

Pitch and diameter of lateral ties:

The pitch of shear reinforcement shall be not more than the least of the following distances:
1. The least lateral dimension of the compression members;
2. Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied; and
3. 300 mm.
The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than one-fourth of the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 16 mm.
Slenderness limits of beams to ensure lateral stability.
A beam is usually a vertical load carrying member. However, if the length of the beam is very
large it may bend laterally. To ensure lateral stability of a beam the following specifications
have been given in the code.
A simply supported or continuous beam shall be so proportioned that the clear distance
between the lateral restraints does not exceed 60b or whichever is less, where d is the
effective depth of the beam and b the breadth of the compression face midway between the
lateral restraints.
For a cantilever, the clear distance from the free end of the cantilever to the lateral restraint
shall not exceed 25b or whichever is less.
 UNIT -3
DESIGN OF SLABS

Introduction to Slabs

A slab is a flat two dimensional planar structural element having thickness small compared to
its other two dimensions. It provides a working flat surface or a covering shelter in buildings.
It primarily transfer the load by bending in one or two directions. Reinforced concrete slabs
are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the decks of bridges. The floor system
of a structure can take many forms such as in situ solid slab, ribbed slab or pre-cast units.
Slabs may be supported on monolithic concrete beam, steel beams, walls or directly over the
columns. Concrete slab behave primarily as flexural members and the design is similar to that
of beams.

Objective

1. To design one-way and two-way slabs

CLASSIFICATION OF SLABS

Slabs are classified based on many aspects

1) Based of shape: Square, rectangular, circular and polygonal in shape.
2) Based on type of support: Slab supported on walls, Slab supported on beams,
Slabsupported on columns (Flat slabs).
3) Based on support or boundary condition: Simply supported, Cantilever
slab,Overhanging slab, Fixed or Continues slab.
4) Based on use: Roof slab, Floor slab, Foundation slab, Water tank slab.
5) Basis of cross section or sectional configuration: Ribbed slab /Grid slab, Solid slab,Filler
slab, Folded plate

6) Basis of spanning directions:

One way slab – Spanning in one direction
Two way slab - Spanning in two direction

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The analysis of slabs is extremely complicated because of the influence of number of factors
stated above. Thus the exact (close form) solutions are not easily available. The various
methods are:
 1) Classical methods – Levy and Naviers solutions (Plate analysis)
2) Yield line analysis – Used for ultimate /limit analysis
3) Numerical techniques – Finite element and Finite difference method.
4) Semi empirical – Prescribed by codes for practical design which uses
coefficients.

One-way and Two-way Slabs

One-way slab (ly/lx>2)

Two-way slab (ly/lx<=2)

a. Effective span of slab :

Effective span of slab shall be lesser of the two

l = clear span + d (effective depth )
l = Center to center distance between the support.
b. Depth of slab:
The depth of slab depends on bending moment and deflection criterion. the trail depth can be
obtained using:
Effective depth d= Span /((l/d)Basic x modification factor)
For obtaining modification factor, the percentage of steel for slab can be assumed from 0.2
to 0.5%
The effective depth d of two way slabs can also be assumed using cl.24.1, IS 456

OR

The following thumb rules can be used

l/22) to (l/28).
Two way simply supported slab d= (l/20) to (l/30)

c. Load on slab:
The load on slab comprises of Dead load, floor finish and live load. The loads are calculated
per unit area (load/m2).
Dead load = D x 25 kN/m2 (Where D is thickness of slab in m)
Floor finish (Assumed as) = 1 to 2 kN/m2
Live load (Assumed as) = 3 to 5 kN/m2 (depending on the occupancy of the building)

DETAILING REQUIREMENTS AS PER IS 456: 2000

a. Nominal Cover:
For Mild exposure – 20 mm
For Moderate exposure – 30 mm
However, if the diameter of bar do not exceed 12 mm, or cover may be reduced by 5 mm.
Thus for main reinforcement up to 12 mm diameter bar and for mild exposure, the nominal
cover is 15 mm.
b. Minimum reinforcement : The reinforcement in either direction in slab shall not be less
than
 0.15% of the total cross sectional area for Fe-250 steel
 0.12% of the total cross sectional area for Fe-415 & Fe-500 steel.
 c. Spacing of bars: – 3d or
300 mm whichever is smaller
 Distribution steel –5d or 450 mm whichever is smaller
Note: The minimum clear spacing of bars is not kept less than 75 mm (Preferably 100 mm)
though code do not recommend any value.
d. Maximum diameter of bar: The maximum diameter of bar in slab, shall not exceed D/8,
where D is the total thickness of slab.

BEHAVIOR OF ONE WAY SLAB

When a slab is supported only on two parallel apposite edges, it spans only in the direction
perpendicular to two supporting edges. Such a slab is called one way slab. Also, if the slab is
supported on all four edges and the ratio of longer span(ly) to shorter span (lx) i.ely/lx > 2,
practically the slab spans across the shorter span. Such a slabs are also designed as one way
slabs. In this case, the main reinforcement is provided along the spanning direction to resist
one way bending.

BEHAVIOR OF TWO WAY SLABS

A rectangular slab supported on four edge supports, which bends in two orthogonal directions
and deflects in the form of dish or a saucer is called two way slabs. For a two way slab the
ratio of ly/lx shall be ≤ 2.0.

Since, the slab rest freely on all sides, due to transverse load the corners tend to curl up and
lift up. The slab looses the contact over some region. This is known as lifting of corner.
These slabs are called two way simply supported slabs. If the slabs are cast monolithic with
the beams, the corners of the slab are restrained from lifting. These slabs are called restrained
slabs. At corner, the rotation occurs in both the direction and causes the corners to lift. If the
corners of slab are restrained from lifting, downward reaction results at corner & the end
strips gets restrained against rotation. However, when the ends are restrained and the rotation
of central strip still occurs and causing rotation at corner (slab is acting as unit) the end strip
is subjected to torsion.
Types of Two Way Slab
Two way slabs are classified into two types based on the support conditions:
a) Simply supported slab
b) Restrained slabs

Two way simply supported slabs

The bending moments Mx and My for a rectangular slabs simply supported on all four edges
with corners free to lift or the slabs do not having adequate provisions to prevent lifting of
corners are obtained using

Mx = αx W lx

My = αy W lx

Where, αx and αy are coefficients given in Table 1 (Table 27,IS 456-2000)

W- Total load /unit area

lx &ly – lengths of shorter and longer span.

Two way restrained slabs

When the two way slabs are supported on beam or when the corners of the slabs are
prevented from lifting the bending moment coefficients are obtained from Table 2 (Table 26,
IS456-2000) depending on the type of panel shown in Fig. 3. These coefficients are obtained
using yield line theory. Since, the slabs are restrained; negative moment arises near the
supports. The bending moments are obtained using;
ONE WAY CONTINUOUS SLAB
The slabs spanning in one direction and continuous over supports are called one way
continuous slabs. These are idealised as continuous beam of unit width. For slabs of uniform
section which support substantially UDL over three or more spans which do not differ by
more than 15% of the longest, the B.M and S.F are obtained using the coefficients available
in Table 12 and Table 13 of IS 456-2000. For moments at supports where two unequal spans
meet or in case where the slabs are not equally loaded, the average of the two values for the
negative moments at supports may be taken.
 UNIT-4
DESIGN OF COLUMNS

Design of axially loaded columns

As we already know, the columns are the members predominantly subjected to direct
compressive force. There can be cases when column sections can be subjected to large
flexural stresses (in frames for instance, as shown in the photograph in Figure 7.19), but such
cases are not being considered here.

A column is said to be subjected to axial load when the line of the resultant of loads
supported by the column coincides with the center of gravity of the column section. Such
loading generates only compressive stresses in the column section and in view of concrete‘s
strength in compression, reinforced concrete is a very useful material that can withstand axial
compressive loads. The other positive factor is based on the architectural requirements or the
amount of the load to be supported. Reinforced concrete columns can be cast in various
shapes like square, rectangular, hexagonal, circular, etc. Columns of L-shape or T-shape are
also sometimes used in various buildings.

Figure 7.19
RCC frame: combination of beams-columns
As concrete itself is quite strong in compression, the longitudinal steel bars in columns
supplement this bearing capacity of the column. In column section, the steel bars are
uniformly spaced along the perimeter of the column as near to the surface as permissible.
The longitudinal bars are held in position by transverse reinforcement, termed lateral
binders. The binders firstly prevent the displacement of the longitudinal bars during concrete
pouring operation and further prevent the tendency of their buckling outwards under loads.
Transverse reinforcement in RCC columns can be of two types. The first type consists of
individual binders made of small diameter bars, bent around the longitudinal bars and spaced
evenly. The diameter, spacing and the profile of such binders depend upon the number and
diameter of longitudinal bars and the overall cross sectional size of the column. In the second
type, reinforcing bars are wound around the longitudinal bars in the form of a closely spaced
continuous helix and are termed as spiral or helical reinforcements. Apart from rendering
support to longitudinal bars against buckling, the helical reinforcement, in addition, also acts
to confine the concrete within it. In effect, it forms a core of concrete that increases the load
carrying capacity of the column. Some of the common arrangements of binders and helical
reinforcements are shown in Figure 7.20.

The behavior of RCC section in columns is quite different from its behavior in beams, as we
will see later. The following points may be useful to help design an economical and cost
effective column section:

 Columns with separate lateral ties work out more economical than columns with
spiral reinforcement.
 While in conformity with all other design norms, the axially loaded column with a
low percentage of steel works out more economical for each ton of load supported,
compared to the column with a higher percentage of steel as the main reinforcement.
 It is better to avoid lean concrete for compression members. The use of rich concrete
mix normally results into economical design.
Types of columns
 On the basis of response to loading, reinforced concrete columns can be broadly
divided into the following categories:
• Columns with longitudinal steel with individual lateral ties or binders
• Columns with longitudinal steel with helical transverse reinforcement
• Composite columns with a steel structural member encased within the concrete
Of all the above types, columns reinforced with longitudinal steel and provided with lateral
ties/spirals are most commonly used. Encased columns are recommended if the load to be
carried is very high and the overall dimension of the column section is required to be
restricted as a result of space or aesthetic consideration.

Effective length
A column is a compression member and, therefore, is prone to buckling under load. In the
case of reinforced concrete, the actual length (L) of a column from practical considerations is
taken as the clear distance from the floor and the underside of the beam of the least depth, at
the next floor level that frames into the column from any direction. As we have seen in the
section on ‗Analysis of Columns‘, the effective length (Leff) of the column would be
dependent on the end restraints.
The theoretically derived effective length for a column and the values adopted for
RCC columns are shown in the Table below.

Effective Length
Nature of End Restraint (Leff)

Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation 0.5 L

at both ends
Effectively held in position at both ends, restrained 0.7L
against rotation at one end
Effectively held in position at both ends but not restrained L
against rotation

Effectively held in position and restrained against

L
rotationat one end and at the other restrained against
rotation butnot held in position.

Effectively held in position at one end but not

2L
restrainedagainst rotation and at the other end restrained
againstrotation but not held in position

Effectively held in position and restrained against 2L

rotationas one end but not held in position nor restrained
againstrotation at the other end.
Permissible stresses in RCC columns

Based on research, the design codes recommend somewhat lower permissible stresses in
concrete and steel in direct compression, compared to the corresponding value in the bending.
The reason for it is that unlike in the case of bending, the value of stress remains uniform
throughout the section and also remains unchanged from section to section. Consequently, no
section gets relief anytime. Hence, there has been no scope to transfer the stress from the
higher stresses fiber to the adjoining lower stresses one.
The permissible stresses for various grades of concrete and for various type of steel
reinforcement, to be considered in the design of column, have been indicated below. The
corresponding value of stress in concrete in bending has also been shown for comparison.

Permissible compressive stress in concrete

In Bending In Direct
Grade of Concrete
Compression Compression

M15 5.0 N/mm2 4.0 N/mm2

M 20 7.0 N/mm2 5.0 N/mm2

M25 8.5 N/mm2 6.0 N/mm2
M30 10.0 N/mm2 8.0 N/mm2

Permissible compressive stresses in steel reinforcement

For steel bars, the values of permissible stress in direct compression are as follows:
• For ordinary Mild Steel = 130 N/mm2
• For High Yield Strength Steel =190 N/mm2

Capacity of columns
While determining the load carrying capacity of the reinforcement concrete column, the
capacity of concrete and steel is determined separately and added to determine the combined
capacity. This is a deviation from the principle followed for the composite section, where the
strain in each of the material remains same and the load distribution is determined
accordingly. The reason for this deviation is, the special deformation characteristic of
concrete under compression. Concrete undergoes the following three types of strain:
• Elastic strain – The strain due to application of load on the member. This is observed
immediately on the application of load.
• Shrinkage strain – Due to chemical reaction, which results into hardening, the
concrete undergoes reduction in its volume. This phenomenon is known as shrinkage.
Shrinkage is not dependent on load and its effect is observed in the medium term.
• Creep – Creep is a phenomenon special to loaded concrete. As per this, concrete
under compression for a substantial period undergoes slow deformation, which is time
dependent. The effect of creep can be observed in the long term only.
Hence, in the RCC column section, concrete observes strain due to shrinkage and creep, in
addition to, the usual elastic strain. The effect of these two, on the composite behavior of
materials, is quite complex. However, research has proved that it is safe to consider
independent load carrying capacity of both materials in the RCC section.
The load carrying capacity of various types of columns can be determined as follow:
Short columns
RCC columns are classified as either long or short, based on the ratio of their length and
sectional dimensions. A column is considered to be short when the ratio of its effective
length, to its least lateral dimensions does not exceed 12. If this ratio exceeds 12, the column
is considered to be a long column. On account of its tendency to buckle, a long column has
less load carrying capacity than a short column of the same sectional area.

The permissible axial load on a short column reinforced with longitudinal bars and lateral ties
is given by the relation,

P = σcc× Ac + σsc× As
Here, σcc = permissible stress in concrete in direct compression
Ac = net cross-sectional area of concrete
permissible compressive stress for reinforcement
σsc = steel bars
As = cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel.
The permissible load for columns with helical reinforcement shall be 1.05 times, the
permissible load for similar members with lateral lies or rings. This provision can be made
applicable only if, the ratio of volume of helical reinforcement, to the volume of core is not
less than, the value given by expression,
0.36×(Ag/Ac – 1)×(fck / fy).
Here, Ag = gross area of the section
Ac = area of the core of the helically reinforced column measured to the
outside diameter of the helix.
Long columns

The principle for the determination of load carrying capacity of a long column is same as for
a short column. However, in the long columns, the maximum permissible values of stresses
in concrete and steel can be brought down by multiplying the respective stresses by a
reduction coefficient Cr, given by the following formula:

Cr = 1.25 – Leff /48b

Where, Leff = effective length of column

b = least lateral dimension of column

For more accurate calculation, the following formula for reduction coefficient
can also be used:

Cr = 1.25 – lef/160 imin

least radius of gyration for the column
Where, imin = section

Column design – common norms

Some of the commonly accepted norms for RCC column design and detailing have been
described below:
Longitudinal reinforcement
 The minimum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must be at least 0.8% of the
gross-sectional area of the column.
 In any column that has a larger cross-sectional area than that required to support the
load, the minimum percentage steel must be derived based on, the area of concrete required
to resist direct stress and not on the actual area provided.
 The maximum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must not exceed 6% of the
gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. Although, it is recommended that the maximum
area of steel should preferably be kept within 4% to avoid difficulties in placing and
compacting of concrete.
 The bar should not be less than 12 mm in diameter, so that it is sufficiently rigid, to
stand up straight in the column form during fixing and concreting.
 The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column must be four, in
rectangular columns and six in circular columns.
 Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of a column should not
exceed 300 mm.
Transverse reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement may be in the form of lateral ties or spirals. The may also be in the
form of polygonal links with internal angles not exceeding 135°. All of the transverse
reinforcement should be properly anchored. The reinforcement should satisfy the following
requirements:
• The minimum diameter of the lateral ties or helical reinforcement shall not be less
than ¼ of the diameter of the largest sized longitudinal bars with a lower limit of 5mm.
• The maximum diameter of the ties should preferably be not more than 12mm as it
requires bending to the desired shape and size..
• The pitch of the ties, which is the longitudinal distance between two adjoining ties,
should not exceed the smallest of the following.
1. The least lateral dimension of the column
2. 16 times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied
3. 48 times the diameter of lateral tie or transverse reinforcement.
• The pitch of the helical turns should not be more than the 1/6 of the core diameter up
to the centre of helix or 75 mm, whichever is lower.
The illustration below would demonstrate the process of RCC column design in accordance
with all the stated norms:

Illustration : A 7.5 m long column is hinged at one of its ends and fixed on the other end.The
total vertical load acting on the column is 600000 N. It is required to design the reinforced
section for this column.

The design data is as follow.

Characteristic strength of concrete = 20 N/mm²
Permissible direct compressive strength in
concrete = 5 N/mm²
Permissible direct compressive stress in steel = 190 N/mm²

For these end condition, the effective length of column would be 0.7 times the actual length.
Hence, Leff = 0.7 × 7.5 = 5.25 m
We make a trial with the section of 300mm × 300mm for this column.
Gross area of the section = 300 × 300 = 90000 mm²
For this section, the ratio Leff / b is as follows:
Leff / b = 5.25 ×1000 / 300 = 17.5
Since the value of Leff / b is more than 12, the column would be classified as a long one.
The stress reduction factor for the section,
Cr = 1.25 – Leff /48b
= 1.25 – 5.25 ×1000/ (48 × 300)
= 0.885
Reduced Permissible Stress in concrete = 0.885 × 5 = 4.425 N/mm² Reduced Permissible
Stress in steel = 0.885 × 190 = 168.15 N/mm²
We need to determine the area of steel required for the section. If this is assumed as As, the
load capacity of the column would be,

4.425×(300×300 – As) + 168.15×

P = As
Equating this to the actual load on the column,
4.425×(300×300 – As) + 168.15×
600000 = As
As = 1233 mm²
We provide 20mm diameter bars (area 314 mm² for each) for the section.
Number of= 1233 / 314
bars = 3.92
Hence we provide four numbers 20 mm diameter bars, which meet the criteria for the
minimum number of bars for column section.
The next step is to design the transverse reinforcement. The diameter of the tie bar has to be
larger than ¼ of the main bar‘s diameter or 5mm. For 20 mm diameter, the value derived
from both the criteria is 5mm. Hence we provide ties of 5 mm diameter.
To decide the distance between the ties, we know that the pitch should be, the least of the
following three:
• The least lateral dimension of the column : 300mm in this case
• 16 times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar : 16×20 = 320mm
for this case
• 48 times the diameter of a lateral tie or transverse reinforcement: 48×5 = 240mm
forthis case.
Since the least value of the three is 240 mm, we provide 5 mm diameter lateral ties @ 240
mm center to center along the longitudinal axis of the beam.
The sectional details of the column have been shown in Figure 7.21 below:

Figure

Column reinforcement details – illustration

Compression members are structural elements primarily subjected to axial compressive forces
and hence, their design is guided by considerations of strength and buckling. Examples of
compression member pedestal, column, wall and strut

Definitions
(a) Effective length: The vertical distance between the points of inflection of the compression member
in the buckled configuration in a plane is termed as effective length le of that compression member in
that plane. The effective length is different from the unsupported length l of the member, though it
depends on the unsupported length and the type of end restraints. The relation between the effective
and unsupported lengths of any compression member is
le = k l (1)

Where k is the ratio of effective to the unsupported lengths. Clause 25.2 of IS 456 stipulates the
effective lengths of compression members (vide Annex E of IS 456). This parameter is needed in
classifying and designing the compression members.

(b) Pedestal: Pedestal is a vertical compression member whose effective length le does not exceed
three times of its least horizontal dimension b (cl. 26.5.3.1h, Note). The other horizontal dimension D
shall not exceed four times of b.
(c) Column: Column is a vertical compression member whose unsupported length l shall not exceed
sixty times of b (least lateral dimension), if restrained at the two ends. Further, its unsupported length
of a cantilever column shall not exceed 100b2/D, where D is the larger lateral dimension which is also
restricted up to four times of b (vide cl. 25.3 of IS 456).

(d) Wall: Wall is a vertical compression member whose effective height Hweto thickness t (least
lateral dimension) shall not exceed 30 (cl. 32.2.3 of IS 456). The larger horizontal dimension i.e., the
length of the wall L is more than 4t.

Classification of Columns Based on Types of Reinforcement

Based on the types of reinforcement, the reinforced concrete columns are classified into three groups:
Based on the types of reinforcement, the reinforced concrete columns are classified into three groups:

(i) Tied columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within closely spaced lateral
ties (Fig.3.1a).
(ii) Columns with helical reinforcement: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed
within closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement. Circular and octagonal columns
are mostly of this type (Fig. 3.1b).
(iii) Composite columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement of the composite columns consists of
structural steel sections or pipes with or without longitudinal bars (Fig. 3.1c and d).
Out of the three types of columns, the tied columns are mostly common with different shapes of the
cross-sections viz. square, rectangular etc. Helically bound columns are also used for circular or
octagonal shapes of cross-sections.
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.

Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios when
loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and collapses due to
material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined effects of axial load and
moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the other hand, a slender column
subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-column effect and may have material
failure under the combined action of direct load and bending moment. Such failure is called combined
compression and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by elastic instability of very long
column even under small load much before the material reaches the yield stresses. This type of failure
is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least radius of gyration
r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates the slenderness ratio as the ratio
of its effective length le to its least lateral dimension. As mentioned earlier in sec. 3.1(a), the effective
length le is different from the unsupported length, the rectangular reinforced concrete column of
cross-sectional dimensions b and D shall have two effective lengths in the two directions of b and D.
Accordingly, the column may have the possibility of buckling depending on the two values of
slenderness ratios as given below:
Slenderness ratio about the major axis = lex/D
Slenderness ratio about the minor axis = ley/b

Based on the discussion above, cl. 25.1.2 of IS 456 stipulates the following:
A compression member may be considered as short when both the slenderness ratios lex/D and ley/b
are less than 12 where lex = effective length in respect of the major axis, D = depth in respect of the
major axis, ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis, and b = width of the member. It shall
otherwise be considered as a slender compression member.
Further, it is essential to avoid the mode 3 type of failure of columns so that all columns should have
material failure (modes 1 and 2) only. Accordingly, cl. 25.3.1 of IS 456 stipulates the maximum
unsupported length between two restraints of a column to sixty times its least lateral dimension. For
cantilever columns, when one end of the column is unrestrained, the unsupported length is restricted
to 100b2/D where b and D are as defined earlier.

Longitudinal Reinforcement

The longitudinal reinforcing bars carry the compressive loads along with the concrete. Clause
26.5.3.1 stipulates the guidelines regarding the minimum and maximum amount, number of bars,
minimum diameter of bars, spacing of bars etc. The following are the salient points:
(a) The minimum amount of steel should be at least 0.8 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of
the column required if for any reason the provided area is more than the required area.
(b) The maximum amount of steel should be 4 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of the column
so that it does not exceed 6 per cent when bars from column below have to be lapped with those in the
column under consideration.
(c) Four and six are the minimum number of longitudinal bars in rectangular and circular columns,
respectively.
(d) The diameter of the longitudinal bars should be at least 12 mm.
(e) Columns having helical reinforcement shall have at least six longitudinal bars within and in
contact with the helical reinforcement. The bars shall be placed equidistant around its inner
circumference.
(f) The bars shall be spaced not exceeding 300 mm along the periphery of the column.
(g) The amount of reinforcement for pedestal shall be at least 0.15 per cent of the cross-sectional area
provided.

Transverse Reinforcement

Transverse reinforcing bars are provided in forms of circular rings, polygonal links (lateral
ties) with internal angles not exceeding 135o or helical reinforcement. The transverse reinforcing bars
are provided to ensure that every longitudinal bar nearest to the compression face has effective lateral
support against buckling. Clause 26.5.3.2 stipulates the guidelines of the arrangement of transverse
reinforcement. The salient points are:
(a) Transverse reinforcement shall only go round corner and alternate bars if the longitudinal bars are
not spaced more than 75 mm on either side (Fig.3.4).

(b) Longitudinal bars spaced at a maximum distance of 48 times the diameter of the tie shall be tied
by single tie and additional open ties for in between longitudinal bars (Fig.3.5)
(c) For longitudinal bars placed in more than one row (Fig.10.21.9): (i) transverse reinforcement is
provided for the outer-most row in accordance with (a) above, and (ii) no bar of the inner row is
closer to the nearest compression face than three times the diameter of the largest bar in the inner
row.

Pitch and Diameter of Lateral Ties

(a) Pitch: The maximum pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be the least of the following:
(i) the least lateral dimension of the compression members;
(ii) sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied; and
(iii) 300 mm.
(b) Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than one-fourth of
the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

Assumptions in the Design of Compression Members by Limit State of Collapse

The following are the assumptions in addition to given in 38.1 (a) to (e) for flexure for the
design of compression members (cl. 39.1 of IS 456).
(i) The maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial compression is taken as 0.002.
(ii) The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete subjected to
axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the section shall be 0.0035 minus
0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.
Minimum Eccentricity

In practical construction, columns are rarely truly concentric. Even a theoretical column
loaded axially will have accidental eccentricity due to inaccuracy in construction or variation of
materials etc. Accordingly, all axially loaded columns should be designed considering the minimum
eccentricity as stipulated in cl. 25.4 of IS 456 and given below (Fig.3.2c)
ex min ≥ greater of (l/500 + D/30) or 20 mm
ey min ≥ greater of (l/500 + b/30) or 20 mm
where l, D and b are the unsupported length, larger lateral dimension and least lateral dimension,
respectively.

Governing Equation for Short Axially Loaded Tied Columns

Factored concentric load applied on short tied columns is resisted by concrete of area Ac and
longitudinal steel of areas Asceffectively held by lateral ties at intervals. Assuming the design
strengths of concrete and steel are 0.4fck and 0.67fy, respectively, we can write
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc(1)
Where Pu = factored axial load on the member,

fck= characteristic compressive strength of the concrete,

Ac = area of concrete,
fy= characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc= area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.

The above equation, given in cl. 39.3 of IS 456, has two unknowns Ac and Ascto be determined from
one equation. The equation is recast in terms of Ag, the gross area of concrete and p, the percentage of
compression reinforcement employing
Asc= pAg/100 (2)
Ac = Ag(1 – p/100) (3)
Accordingly, we can write
Pu/Ag = 0.4fck + (p/100) (0.67fy – 0.4fck) (4)
Equation 4 can be used for direct computation of Ag when Pu, fckand fyare known by assuming p
ranging from 0.8 to 4 as the minimum and maximum percentages of longitudinal reinforcement.
Equation 10.4 also can be employed to determine Ag and p in a similar manner by assuming p.
 UNIT-V
DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND STAIRCASE

Introduction

The staircase is an important component of a building, and often the only means of access between
the various floors in the building. It consists of a flight of steps, usually with one or more intermediate
landings (horizontal slab platforms) provided between the floor levels. The horizontal top portion of a
step (where the foot rests) is termed tread and the vertical projection of the step (i.e., the vertical
distance between two neighbouring steps) is called riser. Values of 300 mm and 150 mm are ideally
assigned to the tread and riser respectively particularly in public buildings. However, lower values of
tread (up to 250 mm) combined with higher values of riser (up to 190 mm) are resorted to in
residential and factory buildings. The width of the stair is generally around 1.1 – 1.6m, and in any
case, should normally not be less than 850 mm; large stair widths are encountered in entrances to
public buildings. The horizontal projection (plan) of an inclined flight of steps, between the first and
last risers, is termed going. A typical flight of steps consists of two landings and one going, as
depicted in Fig. Generally, risers in a flight should not exceed about 12 in number. The steps in the
flight can be designed in a number of ways: with waist slab, with tread-riser arrangement (without
waist slab) or with isolated tread slabs — as shown in Fig respectively.

Objectives

1. To design a dog-legged and open newel staircases

TYPES OF STAIRCASES

Geometrical Configurations
A wide variety of staircases are met with in practice. Some of the more common geometrical
configurations are depicted in Fig. These include:

1. Straight stairs (with or without intermediate landing)

2. Quarter-turn stairs

3. Dog-legged stairs

4. Open well stairs

5. Spiral stairs

6. Helicoidal stairs
Structural Classification
Structurally, staircases may be classified largely into two categories, depending on the
predominant direction in which the slab component of the stair undergoes flexure:

1. Stair slab spanning transversely (stair widthwise);

2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally (along the incline).

Stair Slab Spanning Transversely

The slab component of the stair (whether comprising an isolated tread slab, a tread-riser unit
or a waist slab) is supported on its side(s) or cantilevers laterally from a central support. The
slab supports gravity loads by bending essentially in a transverse vertical plane, with the span
along the width of the stair.
In the case of the cantilevered slabs, it is economical to provide isolated treads (without
risers). However, the tread-riser type of arrangement and the waist slab type are also
sometimes employed in practice, as cantilevers. The spandrel beam is subjected to torsion
(equilibrium torsion‗), in addition to flexure and shear.

When the slab is supported at the two sides by means of ‗stringer beams‗ or masonry walls,
itmay be designed as simply supported, but reinforcement at the top should be provided near
the supports to resist the ‗negative‗ moments that may arise on account of possible partial

fixity.

Stair Slab Spanning Longitudinally

In this case, the supports to the stair slab are provided parallel to the riser at two or more
locations, causing the slab to bend longitudinally between the supports. It may be noted that
longitudinal bending can occur in configurations other than the straight stair configuration,
such as quarter-turn stairs, dog-legged stairs, open well stairs and helicoidally stairs.

The slab arrangement may either be the conventional waist slab type or the tread-riser type.
The slab thickness depends on the ‗effective span‗, which should be taken as the centre-to-
centre distance between the beam/wall supports, according to the Code (Cl. 33.1a, c).In
certain situations, beam or wall supports may not be available parallel to the riser at the
landing. Instead, the flight is supported between the landings, which span transversely,

the flight (spanning longitudinally) should be taken as the going of the stairs plus at each end

either half the width of the landing or one metre, whichever is smaller.

Numerical Problem

Design a (waist slab type) dog-legged staircase for an office building, given the following
data:
1. Height between floor = 3.2 m;
2. Riser = 160 mm, tread = 270 mm;
3. Width of flight = landing width = 1.25 m
4. Live load = 5.0 kN/m
5. Finishes load = 0.6 kN/m
Assume the stairs to be supported on 230 mm thick masonry walls at the outer edges of the
landing, parallel to the risers [Fig. 12.13(a)]. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. Assume
mild exposure conditions.
DESIGN OF FOOTING AND STAIR CASE
The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as substructure
as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure transfer the loads and
moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments come to the foundation
structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure
effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and
cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation
structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the tolerable
limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of supports causes
additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the differential
settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall settlement of the
structure.

Types of Foundation Structures

1. Shallow Foundation

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below
the ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil. These
heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls (either of bricks or reinforced
concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high strength of bricks or reinforced concrete
when compared to that of soil. The strength of the soil, expressed as the safe bearing capacity of the
soil is normally supplied by the geotechnical experts to the structural engineer. Shallow foundations
are also designated as footings. The different types of shallow foundations or footings are discussed
below.
(i) Plain concrete pedestal footings

(ii) Isolated footings

(iii) Combined footings

(iv) Strap footings

(v) Strip foundation or wall footings

(vi) Raft or mat foundation

2. Deep foundations

As mentioned earlier, the shallow foundations need more plan areas due to the low strength of
soil compared to that of masonry or reinforced concrete. However, shallow foundations are selected
when the soil has moderately good strength, except the raft foundation which is good in poor condition
of soil also. Raft foundations are under the category of shallow foundation as they have comparatively
shallow depth than that of deep foundation. It is worth mentioning that the depth of raft foundation is
much larger than those of other types of shallow foundations.

However, for poor condition of soil near to the surface, the bearing capacity is very less and
foundation needed in such situation is the pile foundation. Piles are, in fact, small diameter columns
which are driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. Precast piles are driven and cast-in-situ are
cast. These piles support the structure by the skin friction between the pile surface and the surrounding
soil and end bearing force, if such resistance is available to provide the bearing force. Accordingly,
they are designated as frictional and end bearing piles. They are normally provided in a group with a
pile cap at the top through which the loads of the superstructure are transferred to the piles.

Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of foundation are impossible to construct. The
length of the pile which is driven into the ground depends on the availability of hard soil/rock or the
actual load test. Another advantage of the pile foundations is that they can resist uplift also in the same
manner as they take the compression forces just by the skin friction in the opposite direction.

However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs equipment and specially trained persons or
agencies. Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a situation where the adjacent buildings
are not likely to be damaged due to the driving of piles. The choice of driven or bored piles, in this
regard, is critical.

Exhaustive designs of all types of foundations mentioned above are beyond the scope of this course.
Accordingly, this module is restricted to the design of some of the shallow footings, frequently used
for normal low rise buildings only.
Isolated Footing

Design Considerations

(a) Minimum nominal cover (cl. 26.4.2.2 of IS 456)

The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be more than that of other structural elements of
the superstructure as the footings are in direct contact with the soil. Clause 26.4.2.2 of IS 456
prescribes a minimum cover of 50 mm for footings. However, the actual cover may be even more
depending on the presence of harmful chemicals or minerals, water table etc.

(b) Thickness at the edge of footings (cls. 34.1.2 and 34.1.3 of IS 456)
The minimum thickness at the edge of reinforced and plain concrete footings shall be at least 150 mm
for footings on soils and at least 300 mm above the top of piles for footings on piles, as per the
stipulation in cl.34.1.2 of IS 456.
For plain concrete pedestals, the angle α (see Fig.11.28.1) between the plane passing through the
bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and the
horizontal plane shall be determined from the following expression (cl.34.1.3 of IS 456)

where qa= calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of pedestal in N/mm2, and
fck= characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2.

(c) Bending moments (cl. 34.2 of IS 456)

1. It may be necessary to compute the bending moment at several sections of the footing
depending on the type of footing, nature of loads and the distribution of pressure at the base of the
footing. However, bending moment at any section shall be determined taking all forces acting over the
entire area on one side of the section of the footing, which is obtained by passing a vertical plane at
that section extending across the footing (cl.34.2.3.1 of IS 456).

2. The critical section of maximum bending moment for the purpose of designing an isolated concrete
footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall shall be:
(i) at the face of the column, pedestal or wall for footing supporting a concrete column, pedestal or
reinforced concrete wall, and
(ii) halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footing under masonry wall. This is
stipulated in cl.34.2.3.2 of IS 456.
The maximum moment at the critical section shall be determined as mentioned in 1 above.
For round or octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal shall be taken
as the side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round or octagonal column or pedestal (see
cl.34.2.2 of IS 456 and Figs.11.28.13a and b).

(d) Shear force (cl. 31.6 and 34.2.4 of IS 456)

Footing slabs shall be checked in one-way or two-way shears depending on the nature of
bending. If the slab bends primarily in one-way, the footing slab shall be checked in one-way vertical
shear. On the other hand, when the bending is primarily two-way, the footing slab shall be checked in
two-way shear or punching shear. The respective critical sections and design shear strengths are given
below:
1. One-way shear (cl. 34.2.4 of IS 456)
One-way shear has to be checked across the full width of the base slab on a vertical section located
from the face of the column, pedestal or wall at a distance equal to
(i) effective depth of the footing slab in case of footing slab on soil, and
(ii) half the effective depth of the footing slab if the footing slab is on piles.
The design shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement is given in Table 19 of cl.40.2 of IS
456.
2. Two-way or punching shear (cls.31.6 and 34.2.4)
Two-way or punching shear shall be checked around the column on a perimeter half the effective
depth of the footing slab away from the face of the column or pedestal.
The permissible shear stress, when shear reinforcement is not provided, shall not exceed , where ks=
(0.5 + cβ), but not greater than one, cβ being the ratio of short side to long side of the column, and =
0.25(fck
Normally, the thickness of the base slab is governed by shear. Hence, the necessary thickness of the
slab has to be provided to avoid shear reinforcement.

(e) Bond (cl.34.2.4.3 of IS 456)

The critical section for checking the development length in a footing slab shall be the same
planes as those of bending moments in part (c) of this section. Moreover, development length shall be
checked at all other sections where they change abruptly. The critical sections for checking the
development length are given in cl.34.2.4.3 of IS 456, which further recommends to check the
anchorage requirements if the reinforcement is curtailed, which shall be done in accordance with
cl.26.2.3 of IS 456
.
(f) Tensile reinforcement (cl.34.3 of IS 456)
The distribution of the total tensile reinforcement, calculated in accordance with the moment at critical
sections, as specified in part (c) of this section, shall be done as given below for one-way and two-way
footing slabs separately.
(i) In one-way reinforced footing slabs like wall footings, the reinforcement shall be distributed
uniformly across the full width of the footing i.e., perpendicular to the direction of wall. Nominal
distribution reinforcement shall be provided as per cl. 34.5 of IS 456 along the length of the wall to
take care of the secondary moment, differential settlement, shrinkage and temperature effects.
(ii) In two-way reinforced square footing slabs, the reinforcement extending in each direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width/length of the footing.
iii) In two-way reinforced rectangular footing slabs, the reinforcement in the long direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing slab. In the short direction, a central band
equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the length of the footing, where the portion of
the reinforcement shall be determined as given in the equation below. This portion of the
reinforcement shall be distributed across the central band

Reinforcement in the central band = {2/(β+1)} (Total reinforcement in the short direction)

Where β is the ratio of longer dimension to shorter dimension of the footing slab (Fig.3.10).

Each of the two end bands shall be provided with half of the remaining reinforcement, distributed

uniformly across the respective end band.

(g) Transfer of load at the base of column (cl.34.4 of IS 456)

All forces and moments acting at the base of the column must be transferred to the pedestal,

if any, and then from the base of the pedestal to the footing, (or directly from the base of the

column to the footing if there is no pedestal) by compression in concrete and steel and tension

in steel. Compression forces are transferred through direct bearing while tension forces are

transferred through developed reinforcement. The permissible bearing stresses on full area of

concrete shall be taken as given below from cl.34.4 of IS 456:

 br= 0.25fck , in working stress method, and

br= 0.45fck , in limit state method

The stress of concrete is taken as 0.45fck

while designing the column. Since the area of

footing is much larger, this bearing stress of concrete in column may be increased

considering the dispersion of the concentrated load of column to footing. Accordingly, the

permissible bearing stress of concrete in footing is given by (cl.34.4 of IS 456):

br= 0.45fck(A1/A2)1/2

with a condition that

(A1/A2)1/22.0 (11.8) ≤ 2

where A1= maximum supporting area of footing for bearing which is geometrically imilar to and
concentric with the loaded area A2

.A2= loaded area at the base of the column.

The above clause further stipulates that in sloped or stepped footings, A1 may be taken as the area of
the lower base of the largest frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly within the footing and
having for its upper base, the area actually loaded and having side slope of one vertical to two
horizontal.
If the permissible bearing stress on concrete in column or in footing is exceeded, reinforcement shall
be provided for developing the excess force (cl.34.4.1 of IS 456), either by extending the longitudinal
bars of columns into the footing (cl.34.4.2 of IS 456) or by providing dowels as stipulated in cl.34.4.3
of IS 456 and given below:

(i) Sufficient development length of the reinforcement shall be provided to transfer the
compression or tension to the supporting member in accordance with cl.26.2 of IS 456, when
transfer of force is accomplished by reinforcement of column (cl.34.4.2 of IS 456).
(ii) Minimum area of extended longitudinal bars or dowels shall be 0.5 per cent of the cross-
sectional area of the supported column or pedestal (cl.34.4.3 of IS 456).
(iii) A minimum of four bars shall be provided (cl.34.4.3 of IS 456).
(iv) The diameter of dowels shall not exceed the diameter of column bars by more than 3 mm.
(v) Column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm, in compression only can be doweled at the footings
with bars of smaller size of the necessary area. The dowel shall extend into the column, a distance
equal to the development length of the column bar and into the footing, a distance equal to the
development length of the dowel, as stipulated in cl.34.4.4 of IS 456.

(h) Nominal reinforcement (cl. 34.5 of IS 456)

Clause 34.5.1 of IS 456 stipulates the minimum reinforcement and spacing of the bars in footing slabs
as per the requirements of solid slab (cls.26.5.2.1 and 26.3.3b(2) of IS 456, respectively).

Design of Staircase

The staircase is an important component of a building, and often the only means of access between the
various floors in the building. It consists of a flight of steps, usually with one or more intermediate
landings (horizontal slab platforms) provided between the floor levels. The horizontal top portion of a
step (where the foot rests) is termed tread and the vertical projection of the step (i.e., the vertical
distance between two neighbouring steps) is called riser [Fig. 2.10]. Values of 300 mm and 150 mm
are ideally assigned to the tread and riser respectively — particularly in public buildings. However,
lower values of tread (up to 250 mm) combined with higher values of riser (up to 190 mm) are
resorted to in residential and factory buildings. The width of the stair is generally around 1.1 – 1.6m,
and in any case, should normally not be less than 850 mm; large stair widths are encountered in
entrances to public buildings. The horizontal projection (plan) of an inclined flight of steps, between
the first and last risers, is termed going. A typical flight of steps consists of two landings and one

going, as depicted in Fig. 2.10(a). Generally, risers in a flight should not exceed about 12 in
number. The steps in the flight can be designed in a number of ways: with waist slab, with tread-riser
arrangement (without waist slab) or with isolated tread slabs — as shown in Fig. 2.10(b), (c), (d)
respectively.
TYPES OF STAIRCASES

Geometrical Configurations
A wide variety of staircases are met with in practice. Some of the more common geometrical
configurations are depicted in Fig. 2.11. These include:
• straight stairs (with or without intermediate landing) [Fig. 2.11 (a)]
• quarter-turn stairs [Fig. 2.11 (b)]
• dog-legged stairs [Fig. 2.11 (c)]

open well stairs [Fig. 2.11 (d)]

• spiral stairs [Fig. 2.11 (e)]
• helicoidal stairs [Fig. 2.11 (f)]
Structural Classification

Structurally, staircases may be classified largely into two categories, depending on the
predominant direction in which the slab component of the stair undergoes flexure:
1. Stair slab spanning transversely (stair widthwise);
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally (along the incline).

Stair Slab Spanning Transversely

The slab component of the stair (whether comprising an isolated tread slab, a tread-riser unit or a waist
slab) is supported on its side(s) or cantilevers laterally from a central support. The slab supports
gravity loads by bending essentially in a transverse vertical plane, with the span along the width of the
stair.

In the case of the cantilevered slabs, it is economical to provide isolated treads (without risers).
However, the tread-riser type of arrangement and the waist slab type are also sometimes employed in
practice, as cantilevers. The spandrel beam is subjected to torsion (‗equilibrium torsion‗), in addition
to flexure and shear.
When the slab is supported at the two sides by means of ‗stringer beams‗ or masonry walls, it may be
designed as simply supported, but reinforcement at the top should be provided near the supports to
resist the ‗negative‗ moments that may arise on account of possible partial fixity.

Stair Slab Spanning Longitudinally

In this case, the supports to the stair slab are provided parallel to the riser at two or more
locations, causing the slab to bend longitudinally between the supports. It may be noted that
longitudinal bending can occur in configurations other than the straight stair configuration, such as
quarter-turn stairs, dog-legged stairs, open well stairs and helicoidal stairs .
The slab arrangement may either be the conventional ‗waist slab‗ type or the ‗tread-riser‗ type. The
slab thickness depends on the ‗effective span‗, which should be taken as the centre-to-centre distance
between the beam/wall supports, according to the Code (Cl. 33.1a, c).In certain situations, beam or
wall supports may not be available parallel to the riser at the landing. Instead, the flight is supported
between the landings, which span transversely, parallel to the risers. In such cases, the Code(Cl. 33.1b)
specifies that the effective span for the flight (spanning longitudinally) should be taken as the going of
the stairs plus at each end either half the width of the landing or one metre, whichever is smaller.

Numerical Problem

Design a (‗waist slab‗ type) dog-legged staircase for an office building, given the following data:
• Height between floor = 3.2 m;
• Riser = 160 mm, tread = 270 mm;
• Width of flight = landing width = 1.25 m
• Live load = 5.0 kN/m2
• Finishes load = 0.6 kN/m2
Assume the stairs to be supported on 230 mm thick masonry walls at the outer edges of the landing,
parallel to the risers [Fig. 12.13(a)]. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. Assume mild exposure
conditions.

Solution

Given: R = 160 mm, T = 270 mm ⇒+RT22

= 314 mm Effective span = c/c distance between supports = 5.16 m [Fig below].
• Assume a waist slab thickness ≈l20 = 5160/20 = 258 →260 mm.
Assuming 20 mm clear cover (mild exposure) and 12 θ main bars,
effective depth d = 260 – 20 – 12/2 = 234 mm.
The slab thickness in the landing regions may be taken as 200 mm, as the bending moments are
relatively low here.

Loads on going [fig. below] on projected plan area:

(1) self-weight of waist slab @ 25 × 0.26 × 314/270 = 7.56 kN/m2
(2) self-weight of steps @ 25 × (0.5x0.16) = 2.00 kN/m2
(3) finishes (given) = 0.60 kN/m2
(4) live load (given) = 5.00 kN/m2
Total =15.16 kN/m2
⇒Factored load = 15.16 × 1.5 = 22.74 kN/m2
• Loads on landing
(1) self-weight of slab @ 25 × 0.20 = 5.00 kN/m2
(2) finishes @ 0.6 kN/m2
(3) live loads @ 5.0 kN/m2
Total =10.60 kN/m2
⇒Factored load = 10.60 × 1.5 = 15.90 kN/m2
• Design Moment [Fig. below]
Reaction R= (15.90x1.365)+(22.74x2.43)/2 = 49.33 kN/m
Maximum moment at midspan:
Mu = (49.33 × 2.58) – (15.90 × 1.365) × (2.58 – 1.365/2)
– (22.74) × (2.58 – 1.365)2/2
= 69.30 Kn-m

• Main reinforcement

Assuming fck= 20 MPa, fy= 415 MPa,

⇒
Required spacing of 12 θ bars = 127 mm
Required spacing of 16 θ bars = 225 mm
Provide 16 θ @ 220c/c

• Distributors
2 ()0.0012312/
spacing 10 θ bars = 251 mm
Provide 10 θ @ 250c/c as distributors.
Introduction

Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread
footing, it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are
generally the economical. Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely
necessary, as
i) When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolatedfootings
ii) Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolatedfootings
iii) Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building
column.
The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan. The
geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centeroid of the footing area
coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in uniform pressure
below the entire area of footing.

Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the other.
As a result, the both projections of footing beyond the faces of the columns will be
restricted. Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing
is restricted or the width of the footing is restricted.

Rectangular combined footing

Longitudinally, the footing acts as an upward loaded beam spanning between columns
and cantilevering beyond. Using statics, the shear force and bending moment diagrams
in the longitudinal direction are drawn. Moment is checked at the faces of the column.
Shear force is critical at distance ‗d‘ from the faces of columns or at the point of
contra flexure. Two-way shear is checked under the heaviercolumn.
The footing is also subjected to transverse bending and this bending is
spread over a transverse strip near the column.
Combined footing may be of slab type or slab and beam type or slab and strap beam type

Design:

1. Locate the point of application of the column loads on thefooting.

2. Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the centre of
footing
3. Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is notexceeded.
4. Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence
draw SFD andBMD.
5. Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.
6. Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for
depth and reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.
7. Check the footing for longitudinal shear and hence design the longitudinal steel.
8. Design the reinforcement for the longitudinal moment and place them in
the appropriate positions.
9. Check the development length for longitudinal steel
10. Curtail the longitudinal bars for economy
11. Draw and detail the reinforcement Prepare the bar bending schedule.

Section 1-1, 2-2, 5-5, and 6-6 are sections for critical
moments Section 3-3, 4-4 are sections for critical shear (one
CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR MOMENTS
Objective
1. To provide basic knowledge in the areas of limit state method and concept of design of
RC and Steel structures
2. To identify, formulate and solve engineering problems in RC and Steel Structures.

Step by Step Procedure of Isolated Footing Design:

Step -1: Determining size of footing:
Loads on footing consists of load from column, self-weight of footing and weight of soil
above footing. For simplicity, self-weight of footing and weight of soil on footing is
considered as 10 to 15% of the vertical load.

Load on column = 1000 kN

Extra load at 10% of load due to self-weight of soil = 1000 x 10% = 100kN
Therefore, total load P = 1100 kN.

Size of footing to be designed can be square, rectangular or circular in plan. Here we will
consider square isolated footing.

Therefore, length of footing (L) = Width of footing (B)

Therefore area of footing required =

= 1100/300 = 3.67 m2
Provide Length and width of footing = 2m

Area of footing = 2 x 2 = 4m2

Now the pressure on isolated footing is calculated as

When calculated, Pmax = 325 kN/m2

pmin = 175 kN/m2
But pmax is greater than SBC of soil, so we need to revise the size of footing so that Pmax is
below 300 kN/m2.
Consider width and length of footing = L =B =2.25m

Now, pmax = 250.21 kN/m2 (<300 kN/m2 -> OK)

andpmin = 144.86 kN/m2 > 0 (OK)

Hence, factored upward pressure of soil = pumax = 375.315 kN/m2

pumin= 217.29 kN/m2

Further, average pressure at the center of the footing is given by Pu,avg= 296.3 kN/m2

and, factored load, Pu= 1500 kN, factored uniaxial moment, Mu= 150 kN-m.

Step 2: Two way shear

Assume an uniform overall thickness of footing, D =500 mm

Assuming 16 mm diameter bars for main steel, effective depth of footing ‗d‘ is

d = 500 – 50 – 8 = 452 mm
The critical section for the two way shear or punching shear occurs at a distance of d/2 from
the face of the column (Fig. 1), where a and b are the dimensions of the column.

Fig 1: Critical section for Two Way Shear (Punching Shear)

Hence, punching area of footing = (a + d)2 = (0.45 + 0.442)2 = 0.796 m2
where a = b = side of column

Punching shear force = Factored load – (Factored average pressure x punching area of
footing)

= 1500 – (296.3 x 0.0.796)

= 1264.245 kN

Perimeter along the critical section = 4 (a+d) = 4 (450+ 442) = 3568 mm

Therefore, nominal shear stress in punching or punching shear stress is calculated as below:

= 1264.245 x 1000/(3568×442) = 0.802 N/mm2

Allowable shear stress =

where = 1.369 N/mm2

 = =1

therefore, allowable shear stress = 1×1.369 = 1.369 N/mm2

Since the punching shear stress (0.802 N/mm2) is less than the allowable shear stress (1.369
N/mm2), the assumed thickness is sufficient to resist the punching shear force. Hence, the
assumed thickness of footing D = 500 mm is sufficient. Please note, there is much difference
between allowable and actual values of shear stress, so depth of footing can be revised and
reduced. For our example, we will continue to use D = 500mm.

Step 3: Design for flexure:

The critical section for flexure occurs at the face of the column (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Critical section for flexure

The projection of footing beyond the column face is treated as a cantilever slab subjected to
factored upward pressure of soil.

Factored maximum upward pressure of soil, pu,max= 375.315 kN/m2

Factored upward pressure of soil at critical section, pu= 312.1 kN/m2

Projection of footing beyond the column face, l = (2250 – 450)/2 = 900 mm

Bending moment at the critical section in the footing is given by:

Mu = Total force X Distance from the critical section

Considering uniform soil pressure of 375.315, Mu = 180 kN/m2

0.92

from SP 16, percentage of reinforcement can be found for M30 concrete, fe415 steel for

above pt = 0.265%
 Ast = pt x bxd

considering 1m wide footing, Ast required = 1171.1 mm2/ m width

Provide 16 diabar @ 140mm c/c

Repeat this exercise for other direction as well. Since, uniform base pressure is assumed, and
it is a square footing, Mu and Ast for other direction will be same.

Step 4: Check for One-Way Shear:

The critical section for one way shear occurs at a distance of ‗d‘ from the face of the column.

Factored maximum upward pressure of soil, pu,max= 375.315 kN/m2

Factored upward pressure of soil at critical section, pu= 375.315 kN/m2

For the cantilever slab, total Shear Force along critical section considering the entire width B
is

Vu = Total Force X (l – d) X B

= 375.315 X (0.9 – 0.442) X 2 = 343.8 kN

Nominal shear stress = Vu/(Bxd) = 0.346 N/mm2

For, pt = 0.265, and M30, allowable shear force from Table – 19, IS456 is greater than 0.346
N/mm2
Therefore, the foundation is safe in one-way shear.

Step 5: Check for development length

Sufficient development length should be available for the reinforcement from the critical
section.

Here, the critical section considered for Ld is that of flexure.

The development length for 16 mm diameter bars is given by

Ld= 47xdiameter of bar = 47 x 16 = 752 mm.

Providing 60 mm side cover, the total length available from the critical section is

0.5x( L – a) – 60 = 0.5x(2250 – 450) – 60 = 840 >Ld, Hence O.K.

What is Punching Shear?

The punching shear is a failure mechanism in structural members like slabs and foundation by
shear under the action of concentrated loads.

The action of concentrated loads is on a smaller area in the structural members. In most cases,
this reaction is the one from the column acting against the slab. Eventually the slab will fail.
One possible method of failure is that the load punches through the slab.
Some examples of the occurrence of concentrated loads on a slab are a column, particularly
on a pad foundation, and wheel loads. This same type of failure could also happen in another
way. Turning the structure upside down we get a flat slab supported by a column, where there
is a high concentration of shear force around the column head.

When the total shear force exceeds the shear resistance of the slab, the slab will be pushed
down around the column, or this can be viewed as the column being punched through the slab.

Punching shear failure mechanism is observed in normal floor slabs, flat slabs, and in the
foundation slabs below the column. In pad foundations, where weight and depth are not so
critical, it‘s effects are satisfied by providing sufficient depth.

Punching Shear in Reinforced Concrete Slabs

The Punching shear in reinforced concrete slabs can be considered as a 2D analog of the shear
observed in beams. This kind of failure occurs as a sudden rupture. This rupture cannot be
restrained by the help of main reinforcement.

Hence, there is a reduction of ultimate load capacity of the structure below the flexural
capacity by the action of shear. But when compared to beam shear, the punching shear is less
critical.

In slabs, the punching shear occurs when they are subjected to high values of concentrated
loads. These load categories includes the wheel loads on the bridge slabs or the loads from
above floors on the columns that support the slab floors.

Calculations in Punching Shear

The calculations of punching shear dealt in the design is based on the punching shear force
that is punching against the thickness of the slab or foundation. This can happen only if there
exists shear alone in the system. This is not possible if there exist any form of moment in the
pedestal or the column.
The Maximum Punching Shear Stress is determined based on the punching shear failure
cone and the applied values of shear and moments.

Fig.1. Punching Shear Failure Zone for Slabs above and below the column

The ‗d‘ is the effective depth of the slab. The punching shear perimeter is formed at a distance
of d/2 from the edges of the column or the pedestal. In the figure-1, Dped is the depth of the
pedestal.

Design Considerations for Punching Shear in Slabs

The Punching Failure in the structure can be prevented by taking the following control
measures:
1. Undergo proper checking to make sure that the concrete itself is strong enough.
2. If the concrete lacks adequate strength, check whether the amount of reinforcement that is
provided is reasonable.
3. If it is not reasonable, it is recommended to change the form of the structure.

The methods involved in changing the form of the structure are:

1. Increasing the depth of the slab

2. The column size can be made larger
3. Incorporation of drop panels
4. Introduction of Flared column heads
5. Other foreign codes can be referred to practice other liberal designs

Different failure zones are mentioned below in figure-2 based along with the area where the
reinforcement have to be provided. Usually vertical and traverse failure lines are possible. We
do not actually know where the failure can occur. So, each possible failure plane must be
reinforced.
Masonry is one of the main items of construction in a building and needs careful
consideration. It comprises masonry units such as brick, stone, concrete block laid in
mortar. There is a large variety of units and a number of different types and grades of
mortars that are used in masonry. Architects and Engineers should have good knowledge of
properties of units and mortars so as to be able to choose an appropriate combination of the
two, to meet the requirements for a particular situation.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
General
i) Some general guidance on the design concept of load bearing masonry structures is
given in the following paragraphs.
ii) A building is basically subjected to two types of loads, namely:
a) Vertical loads on account of dead loads of materials used in construction, plus live
loads due to occupancy; and
b) Lateral loads due to wind and seismic forces. While all walls in general can take
vertical loads, ability of a wall to take lateral loads depends on its disposition in relation
to the direction of lateral load. This could be best explained with the help of an
illustration. In Fig. 4.1, the wall A has good resistance against a lateral load, while wall B
offers very little resistance to such load. The lateral loads acting on the face of a building
are transmitted through floors (which act as horizontal beams) to cross walls which act as
horizontal beams) to cross walls which act as shear walls. From cross walls, loads are
transmitted to the foundation. This action is illustrated in Fig. 4.2. Stress pattern in cross
walls due to lateral loads is illustrated in Fig. 4.3.

FIG. 4.1 ABILITY OF A WALL TO TAKE LATERAL LOADS

 FIG. 4.2 Function of Lateral Support to Wall

iii) As a result of lateral load, in the cross walls there will be an increase of compressive
stress on the leeward side, and decrease of compressive stress on the windward side.
These walls should be designed for ‗no tension‗ and permissible compressive stress. It
will be of interest to note that a wall which is carrying-greater vertical loads, will be in a
better position to resist lateral loads than the one which is lightly loaded in the vertical

FIG. 4.3 Stress Pattern in Cross Wall Acting as Shear Wall

direction.
 iv) A structure should have adequate stability in the direction of both the principal axes.
The so called ‗cross wall‗ construction may not have much lateral resistance in the
longitudinal direction. In multi-storeyed buildings, it is desirable to adopt ‗cellular‗ or
‗box type‗ construction from consideration of stability and economy as illustrated in Fig.
E-19.

Fig. 4.4 Stability Of Cross Wall and Cellular (Box Type) Construction

v) Size, shape and location of openings in the external walls have considerable
influence on stability and magnitude of stresses due to lateral loads. vi) If openings in
longitudinal walls are so located that portions of these walls act as flanges to cross walls,
the strength of the cross walls get considerably increased and structure becomes much more
stable.
vii) Ordinarily a load-bearing masonry structure is designed for permissible compressive
and shear stresses (with no tension) as a vertical cantilever by accepted principles of
engineering mechanics. No moment transfer is allowed for, at floor to wall connections and
lateral forces are assumed to be resisted by diaphragm action of floor, roof slabs, which
acting as horizontal beams, transmit lateral forces to cross walls in proportion to their
relative stiffness (moment of inertia).

Design of isolated column footing.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and
moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying
soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure.
However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle.
Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as
given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456):
 1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.
Types of Foundation Structures

1. Shallow Foundation

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below
the ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil.
These heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls (either of bricks
or reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high strength of bricks or
reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. The strength of the soil, expressed as the
safe bearing capacity of the soil is normally supplied by the geotechnical experts to the
structural engineer. Shallow foundations are also designated as footings. The different types
of shallow foundations or footings are discussed below.

(i) Plain concrete pedestal footings

(ii) Isolated footings
(iii) Combined footings
(iv) Strap footings
(v) Strip foundation or wall footings
(vi) Raft or mat foundation
2. Deep Foundation:
As mentioned earlier, the shallow foundations need more plan areas due to the low strength of
soil compared to that of masonry or reinforced concrete. However, shallow foundations are
selected when the soil has moderately good strength, except the raft foundation which is good
in poor condition of soil also. Raft foundations are under the category of shallow foundation
as they have comparatively shallow depth than that of deep foundation. It is worth
mentioning that the depth of raft foundation is much larger than those of other types of
shallow foundations.

However, for poor condition of soil near to the surface, the bearing capacity is very less and
foundation needed in such situation is the pile foundation. Piles are, in fact, small diameter
columns which are driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. Precast piles are driven
and cast-in-situ are cast. These piles support the structure by the skin friction between the
pile surface and the surrounding soil and end bearing force, if such resistance is available to
provide the bearing force. Accordingly, they are designated as frictional and end bearing
piles. They are normally provided in a group with a pile cap at the top through which the
loads of the superstructure are transferred to the piles.
Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of foundation are impossible to
construct. The length of the pile which is driven into the ground depends on the availability
of hard soil/rock or the actual load test. Another advantage of the pile foundations is that
they can resist uplift also in the same manner as they take the compression forces just by the
skin friction in the opposite direction.

However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs equipment and specially trained
persons or agencies. Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a situation where
the adjacent buildings are not likely to be damaged due to the driving of piles. The choice
of driven or bored piles, in this regard, is critical.

Exhaustive designs of all types of foundations mentioned above are beyond the scope of
this course. Accordingly, this module is restricted to the design of some of the shallow
footings, frequently used for normal low rise buildings only.