PEOPLE AND THE EARTH’S ECOSYSTEM

Unit 1: HUMAN POPULATION

Lesson 1: Human Population Growth

1. What is a human population? A group of individuals of different species living in a particular place and are
interacting with one another.
2. Where did the first modern human evolved? Africa
3. What is the projected human population in 2050? about 9 billion
4. What was the world’s population 200,000 years ago? 1 million
5. An S-shaped graph will be achieved when the population? steadily grows fewer

According to the Population Reference Bureau (PRB), the world’s population could swell to 9.9 billion
by 2050. The planet today is estimated to contain 7.6 billion people and could increase by 33% in 35 years
from today (Garfield, L.; 2016).

This premise gives us the need to study human population growth in order for humans to act on this,
that is, to be able to identify causes of human population growth and as well as describe the possible effects
of human population growth to the earth’s resources, and maybe propose measures on how to lessen its
growth.

What is a human population?

Human population refers to the number of people living in a particular area, from a village to the
world as a whole.
The number of people living in the Philippines as of July 18, 2020 is 109,643,012. If we compare this
data from the one in 1950, there were only about 18,580,480 people living in the Philippines. It is estimated
that towards the middle of this year, the human population in the Philippines will reach 110 million.
No one knows the population of the earliest humans, but there may have been only a few tens of
thousands of individuals that first emerge 200,000 years ago.

Summary
● Human population is the number of people living in a particular area or locality.
● World’s human population is growing so fast, according to Miller & Spoolman (2009), it is
exponentially growing. This means that human population growth started very slow, but after only a
few doubling, it grows to enormous number and when plotted on a graph it will show a J-shaped
graph.
● Population projections by 2050 will be high (10.8 billion) if women will have an average of 2.5
children, medium (9.3 billion) for 2 children, and low (7.8 billion) when having 1.5 children.
● Levelling off of the population may happen when human population steadily grows fewer and the
graph may show an S-shaped graph.
● Human population growth may lead to depletion of natural resources, population catastrophe,
meaning, millions of people will be living in poverty, and widespread environmental damage.
● Family planning/population control can lower down population growth.
● To lower down population growth means reduced consumption of the Earth’s resources.

Lesson 2: Human Population Dynamics

Demography is the scientific study of human populations. It includes population processes that
change population size such as births, deaths, and migration. It encompasses the size, distribution, and
structure of the population. The population characteristics may allow predictions of the future, more so it may
establish relationships with factors such as economic, social, and cultural.

Demographic Measures
 Population size increases because of births and immigration and decreases through deaths and
emigration. Human population of countries and cities grow or decline through the interplay of three factors:
births (fertility), deaths (mortality), and migration (immigration and emigration).

Population change of an area can be computed by subtracting the number of people leaving a population
(through death and emigration) from the number entering it (through birth and immigration) during a
specified period of time (usually one year).

Population Change = (Births + Immigration) - (Death + Emigration)

When births plus immigration exceeds deaths and emigration, population increases, when the reverse
happens, population declines.

Birth Rate & Death Rate

Instead of using the total numbers of births and deaths per year, population experts (demographers)
use the birth rate, or crude birth rate, and death rate, or crude death rate.

Birth rate is the number of live births in 1 year per 1,000 people in the population. According to the
International Encyclopedia of Public Health (2008), birth rates are the crucial determinant of population
growth (or decline) and age structure of populations have profound socioeconomic implications.

Death Rate

Death rate is the number of deaths in 1 year per 1,000 people in the population.

Fertility Rate

The number of children born to a woman during her lifetime.

There are two types of fertility rates that affect a country’s population size and growth rate:
1. Replacement-level fertility rate - the average number of children that couples in a population must
bear to replace themselves. It is slightly higher than two children per couple (2.1 in developed
countries and as high as 2.5 in some developing countries), mostly because some children die before
reaching their reproductive years.
2. total fertility rate (TFR) - average number of children born to women in a population during their
reproductive years. This factor plays a key role in determining population size. The average fertility
rate has been declining. In 2008, the average global TFR was 2.6 children per woman: 1.6 in
developed countries (down from 2.5 in 1950) and 2.8 in developing countries (down from 6.5 in
1950). Although the decline in TFR in developing countries is impressive, the TFR remains far above
the replacement level of 2.1, not low enough to stabilize the world’s population in the near future.

Population Growth Rate

Population growth rate (r) is the net number of people added to a population in 1 year per 1000
people already in the population. Legend:
Human population density

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is calculated by dividing the
number of people by the area of the land (Internet Geography, 2020).

The Population density given in the picture to your right is the average population density of the entire
Philippines. This is computed by using this formula:

Population Density

Population Distribution

Population distribution is the spread of people across the world.

The world’s population is spread unevenly across the globe with concentrations of large numbers of people
living in the same area. The world as a whole has more ‘empty’ areas than ‘crowded’ areas. There are several
physical and human factors to explain this.

There are factors, both Physical and human, that are contributory to the distribution of the population

AGE AND SEX

AGE AND SEX

Age and sex, are arguably the most important and relevant to demographers. Horiuchi and Preston (cited in
Poston, 2005) stated that the interaction of the demographic processes, such as fertility, mortality, migration,
and growth, produces the age and sex structure of the population. Reciprocally, this age and sex structure of a
population, in itself, affects the interaction of these demographic processes.

Population Reference Bureau (2019) defines age structure as the proportion of the total population in each
age group. Davis & Morduck (cited in Poston, 2005) stated that the distribution of the age groups (infant,
young, adult, etc.) and sex (male or female) of the population defines the division of labor in traditional
societies. Moreover, Keyfitz & Flieger (cited in Poston, 2005) mentioned that changes in the age distribution of
a population have consequences for educational, political, and economic life.

Summary

● Population size increases because of births and immigration and decreases through deaths and
emigration.
● Population change of an area can be computed by subtracting the number of people leaving a
population (through death and emigration) from the number entering it (through birth and
immigration) during a specified period of time (usually one year).
● When births plus immigration exceeds deaths and emigration, population increases, when the
reverse happens, population declines.
● Birth rate is the number of live births in 1 year per 1,000 people in the population.
● Death rate is the number of deaths in 1 year per 1,000 people in the population
● There are two types of fertility rates that affect a country’s population size and growth rate. The first
type, called the replacement-level fertility rate, is the average number of children that couple in a
population must bear to replace themselves. The second type of fertility rate, the total fertility rate
(FTR), is the average number of children born to women in a population during their reproductive
years.
● Population growth rate (r) is the net number of people added to a population in 1 year per 1000
people already in the population.
● Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area.
● Population distribution describes the variability of the spread of people across the world.
● Age structure is the proportion of the total population in each age group. Age and sex structure and
the demographic processes relates with each other by reciprocity.

Lesson 3: Population Pyramid: The shape of the society’s population

Two of the most common variables necessary in the study of population dynamics are age and sex of
individuals within a given area.
Population Reference Bureau (2019) stated that age-sex structure is the composition of a population
as determined by the number or proportion of males and females in each category.
These data on age-sex structure are used to construct population pyramid, which is one of the most
visual representation of the population. The resulting shape of the graph can tell much about what is
happening in the population (SDSU, Census Data Center, 2020)
The population pyramid, also known as the age-sex pyramid, is a “snapshot” of a population in time.
It shows how the population are distributed among age and sex categories (Khan Academy, 2020)

Age-Sex Structure
Age-sex structure refers to the number of individuals of sex and age group in the population. The numbers of
males and females in young, middle, and older age groups determine how fast a population grows or declines.
It is represented by a special type of graph called population pyramid.
Types of population pyramids
Population pyramid tells us of the shape of the population. Bezy (2016) mentioned that population
pyramid is a graphical representation of the age and sex composition of the population. On the other hand,
Preshoff (2014) said that population pyramids are not only powerful predictors
of the future, but it gives us a record of the past. Furthermore, it may also
provide insights about political and social stability, and economic development
of a population (Wakim & Grewal, 2020)
Boucher (2016) discussed the three types of population pyramids,
namely: expansive, constrictive, and stationary.
1. Expansive
Expansive population pyramid is used to describe populations
that are young and growing. They are often characterized by their
typical ‘pyramid’ shape, which has a broad base and narrow top.
Expansive population pyramids show a larger percentage of the
population in the younger age cohorts, usually with each age cohort
smaller in size than the one below it. These types of populations are
typically representative of developing
nations, whose populations often
have high fertility rates and lower than average life expectancies.

2. Constrictive
Constrictive population pyramid is used to describe
populations that are elderly and shrinking. It can often be seen like
beehives and typically have an inverted shape
with the graph tapering in at the bottom. It
represents a smaller percentages of people in
the younger age cohorts and are typically
characteristic of countries with higher levels of
social and economic development, where
access to quality education and health care is
available to a large portion of the population.

3. Stationary
Stationary or near stationary population pyramid is used to describe a
population that is not growing. They are characterized by their rectangular
shape, displaying somewhat equal percentages across age cohorts that taper off
toward the top. These pyramids are often characteristic of developed nations,
where birth rates are low and overall quality of life is high

Interpretation of Population Pyramids of some

countries
Wakim & Grewal (2020) provided examples of the
population pyramids of some countries and its
interpretation. The population pyramid of Nigeria
(2015) has a broad base of young children and
tapered sides showing rapidly decreasing numbers of
people at older ages. This represents an expansive
population. This reflects a population that has a high
birth rates and relatively high death rates. Nigeria is
typically a developing nation that has very high
fertility rate and has an overall low quality of life.
 This next graph is owned by France
(2015), showing a narrow base of children and
young adults, reflects relatively low birth rate over
the past several decades.
There is a bulge of people in mid-to-
adulthood, an evidence of higher birth rates in
previous generations (the post-World II baby
boom) coupled with low death rates.
Also, there is a larger proportion of
females than males at older ages, which is
especially pronounced, that it is due to the higher
rates of death of males than females.
The last example that will be presented
here is the population pyramid of Egypt (2010).
The 2010 population pyramid of Egypt has a
youth bulge in the young adult age groups.
The “Youth Bulge” shown in the graph
depicts a disproportionately large cohort of
young adults, in which this age groups typically
enter the labor force and electorate. Thus, the
social, political, and economic implications are,
there will be high rates of unemployment, as
well as social and political alienation. These
conditions, in turn, may result in a heightened
risk of violence and political instability

Summary
● Age-sex structure refers to the number of individuals of sex and age group in the population. It is
represented by a special type of graph called population pyramid.
● There are three types of pyramidal graph namely: Expansive, Constrictive, and Stationary.
● The type of pyramidal graph may reveal the economic, political, and cultural conditions of the
population
UNIT 2:
Lesson 4: ECOSYSTEMS: What are they and how do they work?

Community
● consists of all the populations of all the species that live together in a particular area.
● The concepts of ecosystem and community are closely related—the difference is that an ecosystem
includes the physical environment, while a community does not.
● community is the biotic, or living, component of an ecosystem. In addition to this biotic component,
the ecosystem also includes an abiotic component—the physical environment.
Ecosystems
● recycle materials and provide humans and other organisms with essential natural services (such as
purification of air and water, moderation of weather extremes, soil formation and maintenance, to
mention a few), and natural resources such as nutrients.

Lesson 4: Ecosystem
Ecology
● is the study of the interactions between living organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments. It
is therefore the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological
environment. An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms together with their physical
environment
● (from the Greek words oikos, meaning “house” or “place to live,” and logos, meaning “study of”) is
the study of how organisms interact with their living (biotic) environment of other organisms and
with their nonliving (abiotic) environment of soil, water, other forms of matter, and energy mostly
from the sun.
● it is a study of connections in nature.
● The goal is to understand the interactions in the thin layer of water, air, soil, and organisms.

What is an Ecosystem?
● An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and microorganisms in an area
functioning together with all the non-living physical factors of the environment
● a community of living organisms (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting with
each other, and with the non-living components of their environment (weather, earth, sun, soil,
climate, atmosphere, ambient temperature, humidity, moisture, concentration of O2 and CO2, and
light intensity) - all influence basic physiological process crucial to survival and growth interacting as
a system
● Eco implies the environment
● ‘system’ ‘implies an interacting, interdependent complex.

Types of Ecosystem
1. Ocean - ocean ecosystems are the most common, comprising 75 percent of the Earth’s surface and
consisting of three basic types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean surfaces (the low
depth areas of the deep oceans). The shallow ocean ecosystems include extremely biodiverse coral
reef ecosystems, and the deep ocean surface is known for its large numbers of plankton and krill
(small crustaceans) that support it. These two environments are especially important to aerobic
respirators worldwide as the phytoplankton perform 40 percent of all photosynthesis on Earth.
Although not as diverse as the other two, deep ocean ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine
organisms. Such ecosystems exist even at the bottom of the ocean where light is unable to penetrate
through the water
2. Freshwater - freshwater ecosystems are the rarest, occurring on only 1.8 percent of the Earth’s
surface. Lakes, rivers, streams, and springs comprise these systems; they are quite diverse, and they
support a variety of fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, phytoplankton, fungi, and bacteria
3. Terrestrial ecosystems - also known for their diversity, are grouped into large categories called
biomes, based largely on climate. Examples of terrestrial biomes such as tropical rain forests,
savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and tundra. The map below shows the
broad distribution of biomes on Earth
Ecosystem
● is a community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving
environment of soil, water, other forms of matter, and energy, mostly from the sun.
● Ecosystems can range in size from a puddle of water to an ocean, or from a patch of woods to a
forest.
● Ecosystems can be natural or artificial (human created). Examples of artificial ecosystems are crop
fields, tree farms, and reservoirs. Ecosystems do not have clear boundaries and are not isolated from
one another
Scientists classify matter into levels of organization from atoms to the biosphere. Ecologists
focus on organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biosphere.
Biosphere = Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found.

Ecosystem = A community of different species interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment of matter and energy.

Community = Populations of different species living in particular place, and potentially

interacting with each other.

Population = A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place.

Organism = An individual living being. Cell The fundamental structural and functional unit of life.

Molecule = Chemical combination of Two or more atoms of the same or different elements.

Atom = Smallest unit of a Chemical element that exhibits it

Habitat
● is the place where a population or an individual organism normally lives. It maybe as large as the
ocean or as small as the intestine of a termite.
● An organism's habitat can be thought of as its natural address.
● Each habitat, such as a tropical rainforest, a desert, or a pond, has certain resources, such as water,
and environmental conditions, such as temperature and light, that its organisms need in order to
survive.
Population
● is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same place at the same time
Genetic Diversity
● the variation in a population is called genetic diversity. The place where a population or an individual
organism normally lives is its habitat.

LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM

Natural Capital:
General Structure of the earth showing that it consist of a
"lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living
things), and "atmosphere" (air).

ATMOSPHERE
● Troposphere - closest, weather, warmth, air
● Stratosphere - farther away from surface, ozone
GEOSPHERE - Includes interior, minerals, oil, soil
LIFE EXISTS ON LAND AND WATER
Biologists have classified the terrestrial(land)
portion of the biosphere into biomes - large
regions such as forests, deserts, and
grasslands, with distinct climates and certain
species (especially vegetation) adapted to
them
BIOMES (Land) - regions of earth with one
dominant type of environment
AQUATIC LIFE ZONES -
freshwater life zones (lakes and streams)
Marine life zones (coral reefs, estuaries,
deep ocean)

THREE FACTORS THAT SUSTAIN LIFE ON EARTH

1. One-way flow of high-quality energy beginning with the sun
● From sun through food cycle to environment exiting back into space
● Dictated by 2nd law of Thermo, high to low quality energy
2. Cycling of matter or nutrients
● Earth is basically closed in terms of matter
● Nutrients must be recycled, in seconds or in centuries
3. Gravity (law of gravity)
● Allows earth to hold on to an atmosphere
● Allows movement of materials, life on earth

Energy created by renewable resources is considered virtually unlimited because of the ability of these
resources to regenerate naturally.

WHAT HAPPENS TO SOLAR ENERGY REACHING THE EARTH?

● Ozone gas (0) in the lower atmosphere

absorbs about 95% of the sun's harmful
UV radiation.
● 1% of the Incoming energy generates
wind.
● Less than 0.1% are utilized by green
plants, algae, and some types of
bacteria.
● Of the total solar radiation Intercepted
by the Earth, about 1% reaches the
Earth's surface.
● Without these greenhouse gases, the
earth will be too cold to support the
forms of life we have here today.

Natural Greenhouse Effect

● Energy from sun is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation (felt as heat)
● Encounter greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, No3 and O3)
● Causes gas molecules to vibrate more
● More vibration greater KE and Heat
● Warmer atmosphere and surface
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE
ECOSYSTEM?
Ecosystems have living and non-living components.
Two types of components that make up the biosphere
and its ecosystems:
● Abiotic, consists of the nonliving components
such as the water, air, nutrients, rocks, heat,
and solar energy.
● Biotic, consists of the living and once living
biological components - plants, animals, and
microbes. It also include dead organisms,
dead parts of the organisms, and waste
products of organisms.
WHAT ARE BIOTIC COMPONENTS?
● Producers or Autothropic COmponents
● Consumers
● Decomposers and transformers

Several Abiotic factors Can Limit Population Growth

● A variety of abiotic factors can affect the
number of organisms in a population, the limiting factors, regulates population growth.
● Limiting Factor Principle: "Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a
population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance."
● Too much of an abiotic factor can also be limiting.

On land, Precipitation Soil nutrients temperature

In water, Temperature, Sunlight, Nutrient stability Low solubility of oxygen gas in water, Salinity

Range of tolerance
● Different species and their populations thrive under physical and chemical conditions. Some need
bright sunlight: others flourish in shade. Some need a hot environment; others prefer a cool or cold
one. Some do their best under wet conditions; others thrive under dry conditions.

Producers and Consumers are the

Living Components of Ecosystem

Ecologists assign every organism in an

ecosystem to a feeding level, or
trophic level, depending on its source
of food or nutrients.

Producers, the autotrophs (self-

feeders), make nutrients they need
from compounds and energy
obtained from their environment.

Photosynthesis
● Most producers capture sunlight to produce energy-rich carbohydrates (such as glucose, CH06, by
photosynthesis, which is the way energy enters most ecosystems. Although hundreds of chemical
changes take place during photosynthesis, the overall reaction can be summarized as:
● carbon dioxide + water + solar energy → glucose + oxygen - 6C0+ 6H20+ solar energy → CH₁₂06 +602
 ● plants capture solar energy that falls on their leaves and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water
to form carbohydrates, such as glucose (C6H12O6), which they store as a source of the chemical
energy. In the process, they emit oxygen (O2) gas into the atmosphere.
Chemosynthesis
● A few produces, mostly specialized bacteria, can convert simple inorganic compounds from their
environment into more complex nutrient compounds without using sunlight. Instead, gas escaping
from fissures in the ocean floor, either from hydrothermal vents or from the geothermal energy from
the earth's interior.

Living Component of an Ecosystem

Producers, autotrophs
● Photosynthesis: sunlight-sugar
● Chemosynthesis: no sunlight- not sugar
● organisms, such as green plants, that make the nutrients they need from compounds and energy
obtained from their environment through things like photosynthesis.
Consumers, heterotrophs (other feeders)
● Obtain their nutrients by feeding on other organisms (producers or other consumers) or their
remains.
● In other words, all consumers (including humans) are directly or indirectly dependent on producers
for their food or nutrients.
Types:
● Primary- feed off of plants (Aka herbivores (plant eaters), are animals that eat mostly green plants or
algae.) animals that eat producers
● Secondary- feed off of herbivores (Aka Carnivores (meat eaters) are animals that feed on the flesh of
other animals)
● Third- and higher-level consumers, are carnivores, animals that feed on the flesh other carnivores,
● Omnivores, play dual roles by feeding on both plants and animals.
● Decomposers, consumers that release nutrients from dead bodies of plants and animals and return
them to the soil, water, and air for reuse by producers.

Decomposers:
● release nutrients from dead bodies
● Mushrooms, Bacteria
● consumers that get their nutrients by breaking down the wastes or remains of plants and animals.
The process of decomposition returns these nutrients to the soil, water, and air for reuse by
producers
Detritivores-
● feed off of wastes and the dead
● Worms and Vultures
● get their nutrients by feeding on the wastes or dead bodies of other organisms.

Aerobic respiration:
● uses oxygen to convert sugar (glucose) to CO2 + H2O + energy (or other organic nutrient molecules)
back to carbon dioxide and water.
● glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
● CH20 +606CO₂+6H₂0+ energy
● Producers, consumers, and decomposers use the chemical energy stored in glucose and other
organic compounds to fuel their life processes through cellular respiration which uses oxygen to
convert glucose and other organic compounds back into carbon dioxide and water, as shown below
Anaerobic respiration, fermentation:
● does not use oxygen to convert sugar to energy
● Some decomposers, such as yeast and some bacteria get the energy they need by breaking down
glucose (or other organic compounds) in the absence of oxygen. This form of cellular respiration is
called anaerobic respiration, or fermentation
 Energy flow and Nutrient Cyling
● Ecosystems and the biosphere are sustained
through a combination of one-way energy
flow from the sun through these systems
and nutrient cycling of key materials within
them-two important natural services that
are components of the earth's natural
capital.

Natural Capital: The main structural components of an

ecosystem (energy, chemicals, and organisms).

Nutrient Cycling and the flow of energy- first from the

sun, then through organisms, and finally into the
environment as low- quality heat-link these
components.

What happens to Energy in an Ecosystem?

● Energy flows through the ecosystem in food chains and webs, and the amount of chemical energy
available to organisms at each succeeding feeding level decreases.
● Food chain, a sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food or energy for the
next. Chemical energy and nutrients move from one organism to another through the trophic levels
in an ecosystem-photosynthesis, feeding, and decomposition.
Here are a few of the main reasons for inefficient energy transfer:

● In each trophic level, a significant amount of energy is dissipated as heat as organisms carry out
cellular respiration and go about their daily lives.
● Some of the organic molecules an organism eats cannot be digested and leave the body as feces,
poop, rather than being used.
● Not all of the individual organisms in a trophic level will get eaten by organisms in the next level up.
Some instead die without being eaten.

Ecological efficiency
In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on more than one type of organism, and most
organisms are eaten or decomposed by more than one type of consumer. Because of this, organisms, most
ecosystems form a complex network of interconnected food chains called food web.

Ecological efficiency, the percentage of usable chemical energy transferred as biomass from one
trophic level to the next.

Ecological Efficiency ranges from 29% to 40% (that is a loss of 60-98%) depending on what types of
species and ecosystems are involved, 10% is typical.

The more trophic levels there are in a food chain or web, the greater is the cumulative loss of usable
chemical energy as it flows through the trophic levels.

A simplified food web in Antarctica

Phytoplankton (Producer): They serve as primary producers

by converting sunlight into energy through photosynthesis.

Zooplankton (Primary Consumer): feed on phytoplankton.

Fish (Secondary Consumer): feed on zooplankton. They are

considered secondary consumers in the food chain.

HUmans (Tertiary Consumer)

The pyramid energy flow, illustrates the energy loss for a

simple food chain, assuming a 90% energy loss with each
transfer.
Estimated annual average net productivity in major zones and ecosystems, expressed as kilocalories of energy
produced per square meter per year (kcal|m²|yr)

What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?

● Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and among the ecosystems and the biosphere, and
human activities are altering these chemical cycles.

Nutrients Cycle in the Biosphere

● The elements and compounds that make up nutrients move continually through air, water, soil, rock,
and living organisms called biogeochemical cycles (literally, earth-chemical cycles) or nutrients
cycles.
● These cycles, driven directly or indirectly by incoming solar energy and gravity, include the hydrologic
(water), carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles.
● As nutrients move through the biochemical cycles, they may accumulate in one portion of the cycle
and remain for different lengths of time. These 4 temporary storage sites such as the atmosphere,
the oceans and other waters, and underground deposits are called reservoirs.
● Nutrients cycles connect past, present, and future forms of life.

Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and among the ecosystems and the biosphere, and human
activities are altering these chemical cycles.

● The movement of matter through the living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem is a continuous
process, a cycle.

● It consists of a series of events that happens over and over again. Matter in an ecosystem may
change form, but it never leaves the ecosystem, so the matter is said to cycle through the ecosystem.

● The elements and compounds that make up nutrients move continually through air, water, soil, rock,
and living organisms in ecosystems and in the biosphere in cycles called biogeochemical cycles
(literally, life earth-chemical cycles) or nutrient cycles

The Law of Conservation of Matter in Biogeochemical Cycles

● The Law of Conservation of Matter in Biogeochemical Cycles: "Matter may be transformed from one
type to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed."
● This principle is called the law of conservation of matter. It explains why the amount of matter in the
environment stays the same as it flows through matter cycles, such as the water cycle.

Five of the most important cycles in ecosystems

 1) Hydrologic (water) Cycle
2) Carbon Cycle
3) Nitrogen Cycle
4) Phosphorus Cycle
5) Sulfur Cycle

HYDROLOGIC (WATER) CYCLE

Hydrologic Cycle is an unending sequence of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, run off and storage
of water.
● Water is stored on Earth's surface in lakes, rivers, oceans, glaciers and ice sheets.
● The oceans cover about 70% of the Earth's surface. This large mass coupled with high thermal
properties, enable water to store vast quantities of heat energy.

1. Evaporation: The cycle begins when solar energy heats the Earth's surface, causing water in bodies of water
(such as oceans, lakes, and rivers) and moist soil to evaporate into water vapor. Evaporation is the process by
which liquid water transforms into water vapor and rises into the atmosphere.

2. Condensation: As the water vapor rises into the cooler upper atmosphere, it cools and condenses to form
tiny water droplets or ice crystals, creating clouds. This process is known as condensation.

3. Precipitation: When the water droplets in clouds combine and grow large enough, they fall back to the
Earth's surface as precipitation. Precipitation can take various forms, including rain, snow, sleet, and hail. This
is a crucial part of the water cycle as it replenishes the Earth's surface with freshwater.

4. Infiltration: When precipitation reaches the Earth's surface, it can either flow over the land surface as runoff
or infiltrate (percolate) into the ground. Infiltration is the process by which water seeps into the soil and
becomes groundwater.

5. Surface Runoff: Some of the precipitation that falls on the land surface does not infiltrate immediately.
Instead, it may flow over the surface as runoff, eventually making its way into streams, rivers, and ultimately
the ocean.
6. Groundwater Flow: Water that infiltrates the soil may move through underground layers of rock and
sediment as groundwater. Groundwater can slowly flow through subsurface aquifers and discharge into rivers,
lakes, or the ocean over time.

7. Transpiration: Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots and release it into the atmosphere
through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process, known as transpiration, contributes to the
movement of water vapor from the land back into the atmosphere.

8. Sublimation: In certain conditions, such as in polar regions, ice can directly change from a solid (ice) to a gas
(water vapor) without passing through the liquid phase. This process is called sublimation.

CARBON CYCLE
● When living things die and decay, the rest of the carbon that makes up living matter is released.
● Earth's oceans contain far more carbon than the air does. In water ecosystems-lakes, rivers, and
oceans-carbon dioxide is dissolved in water.
● Buried deposits of dead plant matter and bacteria are compressed between layers of sediment,
where high pressure and heat convert them to carbon-containing fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas.

Two ways on how humans have been intervening in the Earth's Carbon Cycle.

1. First, in some areas, especially in tropical forests, we clear trees and other plants, which absorb CO2
through photosynthesis, faster than they can grow back.
2. Second, we add large amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere by burning carbon-containing fossil fuels
and wood

1. Photosynthesis: Plants, algae, and some types of bacteria use sunlight to convert atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) into organic carbon compounds, primarily glucose, through a process called
photosynthesis. This process removes carbon from the atmosphere and stores it in living organisms.
 2. Respiration: All living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, engage in
respiration. During respiration, carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO2 when organisms
break down organic carbon compounds to obtain energy for their metabolic processes.

3. Decomposition: When plants and animals die, their organic matter is decomposed by bacteria, fungi,
and other decomposers. This decomposition process returns carbon to the soil, where it can be
stored for long periods in the form of organic matter.

4. Fossilization: In some cases, dead organic matter is not fully decomposed but instead becomes
buried under sediment and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years. This process forms
fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which contain stored carbon from ancient life forms.

5. Combustion: When fossil fuels or organic matter in forests are burned for energy or other purposes,
carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO2. This process, known as combustion, is a
significant contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2 levels, leading to global climate change.

6. Oceanic Uptake: The world's oceans act as a carbon sink by absorbing and storing large amounts of
atmospheric CO2. This occurs through a complex process involving the dissolution of CO2 in
seawater. Phytoplankton also play a role by photosynthesizing and incorporating carbon into their
biomass.

7. Human Activities: Human activities, such as deforestation, industrial processes, and the burning of
fossil fuels, have significantly altered the carbon cycle by increasing the release of CO2 into the
atmosphere. This enhanced greenhouse effect contributes to global warming and climate change.

SULFUR CYCLE
● Earth's sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals, including sulfate (SO4)-2 salts buried deep
under ocean sediments.
● Sulfur also enters the atmosphere from several natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-a colorless,
highly poisonous gas with a rotten-egg smell is released from active volcanoes and from organic
matter broken down by anaerobic decomposers in flooded swamps, bogs, and tidal flats.
● Sulfur dioxide (502), a colorless and suffocating gas, also comes from volcanoes. Particles of sulfate
(S04 2) salts, such as ammonium sulfate, enter the atmosphere from sea spray, dust storms, and
forest fires. Plant roots absorb sulfate ions and incorporate the sulfur as an essential component of
many proteins.
● Certain marine algae produce large amounts of volatile dimethyl sulfide, or DMS (CH3SCH3). Tiny
droplets of DMS serve as nuclei for the condensation of water into droplets found in clouds. In this
way, changes in DMS emissions can affect cloud cover and climate.
● In the atmosphere, DMS is converted to sulfur dioxide, some of which in turn is converted to sulfur
trioxide gas (503) and to tiny droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4),

Human activities have affected the sulfur cycle primarily by releasing large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
into the atmosphere. We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere in three ways.
1. First, we burn sulfur-containing coal and oil to produce electric power.
2. Second, we refine sulfur containing petroleum to make gasoline, heating oil, and other useful
products.
3. Third, we convert sulfur containing metallic mineral ores into free metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc.
Once in the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and particles of sulfate (SO4 2)
salts, which return to the earth as acid deposition
1. Atmospheric Sulfur: The sulfur cycle begins with the release of sulfur compounds into the atmosphere. This
can occur through natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and the emission of sulfur-containing gases by
marine organisms, as well as human activities like the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes. Sulfur is
primarily released into the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

2. Atmospheric Transformation: Once in the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide can be transformed through chemical
reactions. It can combine with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide (SO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). These
compounds are involved in the formation of acid rain, which can have environmental impacts.

3. Deposition: Sulfur compounds can be deposited from the atmosphere onto the Earth's surface through
precipitation (wet deposition) or as particulate matter (dry deposition). This can contribute to the input of
sulfur to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

4. Uptake by Plants: Sulfur is essential for plants, which absorb it from the soil in the form of sulfate ions
(SO4²⁻). Plants incorporate sulfur into their organic molecules, such as amino acids and proteins, through
processes like assimilatory sulfate reduction.

5. Consumption by Animals: Animals obtain sulfur by consuming plants or other animals. Sulfur is an essential
component of amino acids and vitamins in animal diets.

6. Decomposition When plants and animals die, sulfur in their organic matter is released into the soil as
organic sulfur compounds. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, break down these organic compounds
and convert them into inorganic forms like sulfate.

7. Sulfur Cycling in Aquatic Ecosystems In aquatic ecosystems, sulfur can undergo various transformations.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria in sediments convert sulfate into hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which can be released into
the water column. Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to many aquatic organisms and can contribute to the formation of
anoxic (oxygen-depleted) conditions.
8. Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Over
geological time scales, volcanic activity can contribute to the cycling of sulfur in the Earth's crust and
atmosphere.

9. Human Activities: Human activities, such as industrial emissions and agriculture (through the use of sulfur-
containing fertilizers), have significantly influenced the sulfur cycle. Excessive sulfur emissions can lead to acid
rain, which can harm ecosystems and damage infrastructure.

NITROGEN CYCLE
● All animals must get nitrogen from plants.
● Plants can absorb certain compounds of nitrogen. Plants take in these nitrogen compounds through
their roots, along with water and other nutrients.

So how does the nitrogen from the atmosphere get into the soil?

● One source is lightning. Every lightning strike breaks apart, or fixes, pure nitrogen, changing it into a
form that plants can use. This form of nitrogen falls to the ground when it rains.
● A far greater source of nitrogen is nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria live in the oceans as well
as the soil.
● Some even attach themselves to the roots of certain plants, like alfalfa or soybeans.
● When organisms die, decomposers in the ocean or soil break them down. Nitrogen in the soil or
water is used again by living things.
● A small amount is returned to the atmosphere by certain bacteria that can break down nitrogen
compounds into nitrogen gas

Steps in Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen cycle consists of the following steps: fixation, ammonification, nitrification, denitrification and
sedimentation.

1. Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of free nitrogen of atmosphere into the biologically acceptable
form or nitrogenous compounds.
 2. Ammonification is the process that converts organic nitrogen from the decomposing bodies or
organism to ammonia which is being released in the environment.
3. Nitrification is the reverse process of ammonification since this process is known to convert
ammonia into nitrite and to nitrate.
4. Denitrification is the next process which
converts the nitrates from the nitrification
converting it into nitrogen gas back to the
atmosphere.
5. Sedimentation is the final process which
involves washing away all the nitrates from the
soil going to the bodies of water or deeper into
the soil surface and are being locked up in the
rocks.

Global trends in the annual inputs of nitrogen into the

environment from human activities, with projections to
2050

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
● Phosphorus circulates through water, the
earth's crust, and living organisms in the
phosphorus cycle
● In contrast to the cycles of water, carbon, and nitrogen, the phosphorus cycle does not include the
atmosphere.
● The major reservoir for phosphorus is phosphate salts containing phosphate ions (PO 3) in terrestrial
rock formations and ocean bottom sediments.