biomechanics and Gait cycle

Chapter 2: Dynamics of Human Gait (2nd edition) by CL Vaughan, BL Davis

and JC O.Connor
• Kinematics: study of the variables that describe or
quantify motion
• Displacement (meters or rads)
• Velocity (m/s or rad/s)
• Acceleration (m/𝑠 2 or rad/𝑠 2 )

(Linear and Angular)

Kinetics
• Kinetics – study of the variables that cause or influence
motion
• Forces
• Moments
Remember!
• Moment or torque is the quantitative measure of the rotational,
bending, or twisting action of a force applied on a body.
• Moment of a force about a point is equal to the magnitude of the
force times the length of the shortest distance between the point and
the line of action of the force

M= d F
 Statics
1. linear Movement
F=0

2. Angular Movement
M=0
 Dynamics
1. linear Movement
 F = ma

2. Angular Moment
M=Iα
Multi-Segment Model
Multi- Segment Model
 Balance

dynamics of body posture to prevent falling” [1].

Another possible definition is the “equilibrium resulting

from the matching of torques”, which can be
organized in, anticipation of, or as a reaction to the
effects of postural perturbation [2].
Pressure
• Pressure equals force over Area (P=F/A)
• When the area over which a force is distributed
is made larger the pressure is reduced
• Ex. heel
• In figure, the pressure reduced by
demonstrating the effect of increasing the area
of contact under the foot.

• Same idea in prosthetic socket design to

attempt to spread force over a large enough
area to reduce pressure to an acceptable
amount.
Centre of Pressure
• The reaction force acts upwards towards the
body from all the parts of the body in contact
with the ground (normally the feet). The
distribution of this force (pressure) over the
soles of the feet is not even, and more force
is taken by some parts of the sole than
others.

• When all the forces over every part of the

sole are averaged together, the ground
reaction force can be represented by a single
force acting a point called the center of
pressure (CP).

http://www.clinicalgaitanalysis.com/teach-in/forces.html
Center of Pressure
(COP) is the projection of the vertical ground reaction force vector
that represents a weighted average of the pressures over the contact
surface with ground.

• main parameter that has been used to study quiet standing.

• It is measured using:
1. Force plates
2. Insole pressure sensors
COP in Gait Cycle
Force Plates
Insole Pressure Sensors
Base of support (BOS):
The base of support (BOS) refers to the area beneath an object or person
that includes every point of contact that the object or person makes with the
supporting surface.
A convex polygon beneath a person bounded by the perimeter of the
contact that the person makes with the supporting surface (ex. ground).
 The points of contact can be body parts such as feet or hands, or things
such as crutches or the chair a person is sitting in.

The BOS is an important concept to understand human Balance, as balance

can be defined as the ability to maintain the center of gravity within the
BOS.
Convex vs Concave
Polygon
BOS
BOS _ Using Crutches
Center of Mass (COM)

 Center of mass (COM) is the equivalent point of the total body mass in
the global reference system (GRS). And practically it can be defined as the
weighted average of the COM of each body segment.
 An important parameter in studying balance; especially dynamic balance.

 Center of Gravity (COG) is the vertical projection of the COM onto the
ground.
Center of gravity
• Every object may be considered to consist of an infinite number of particles that
are acted upon by the force of gravity, thus forming a distributed force system.
The resultant of these forces or individual weights of particles is equal to the total
weight of the object, acting as a concentrated load at the center of gravity of the
object.

• Center of gravity is an imaginary balancing point where the body weight can be
assumed to be concentrated and equally distributed

• Note that the center of gravity of a three-dimensional body, such as a human

being, has three coordinates.
 Center of gravity

In new born: above umbilicus.

At six month: at the level of six thoracic vertebra.
At two years: at the level of umbilicus.
At five years: below the level of umbilicus.
Adult: anterior to the second sacral vertebra.
COM
In an amputee because some mass is excised the center of the mass of the
person changes.
The center of gravity
• One method of finding the center of gravity is
by “balancing” the object on a knife-edge.
• Adjust the position of the person/object on the
board until the board is again balanced
• The horizontal distance between the feet of the
person and the point of contact of the knife-
edge and the board is the height of the center
of gravity of the person.
• The same method must be repeated in two
other planes to establish the exact center of
gravity.

25
A system made up of parts with known centers of gravity then
to find center of gravity of the system as a whole:

The total weight of the system is W1 , W2 , W3

The y coordinate of the center of gravity

26
Example: Consider the leg shown in Figure which is
flexed to a right angle. The coordinates of the centers of
gravity of the leg between the hip and knee joints
(upper leg), the knee and ankle joints, and the foot, as
measured from the floor level directly in line with the
hip joint, are given in Table. The weights of the
segments of the leg as percentages of the total weight
W of the person are also provided in Table.
Determine the location of the center of gravity of the
entire leg.

27
28
Motion Tracking System

Motion capture is the process of recording the movement

of objects or people. The technology originated in the life
science market for gait analysis but is now used widely
by sports therapists, neuroscientists, Visual Effects
Studios and for validation and control of computer vision
and robotics.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Roaxd65yGvo&feature=emb_title

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RqurPg9jJvY
Top-Down Analysis of Gait:
Sequence of Gait-Related Processes
•The sequence of events that must take place for walking to occur
may be summarized as follows:
1. Registration and activation of the gait
command in the central nervous system

2. Transmission of the gait signals to the

peripheral nervous system

3. Contraction of muscles that develop

tension

4. Generation of forces at, and moments

across, synovial joints
Top-Down Analysis of Gait:
Sequence of Gait-Related Processes

5. Regulation of the joint forces and

moments by the rigid skeletal segments
based on their anthropometry

6. Displacement (i.e.,movement) of the

segments in a manner that is recognized
as functional gait

7. Generation of ground reaction forces

Gait Cycle
• When we think of someone walking, we picture a cyclic pattern of movement that
is repeated over and over, step after step.
• Figure below illustrates a single cycle for a normal 8-year-old boy. Note that by
convention, the cycle begins when one of the feet (in this case the right foot)
makes contact with the ground.
Gait Cycle seen in each plane
Directions
Periodicity of Gait
• The act of walking has two basic requisites:

1. Periodic movement of each foot from one position of support to the next
2. Sufficient ground reaction forces, applied through the feet, to support the
body

• These two elements are necessary for any form of bipedal walking to occur, no
matter how distorted the pattern may be by underlying pathology.
Gait Cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5j4YRHf6Iyo
Gait cycle
• The normal gait presents smoothness of function without any sign of impairment or
affliction of parts of the body. The normal walking cycle is considered to have two
phases:
(1) a stance phase, when the foot is in contact with the ground
(2) a swing phase, when the foot is moving forward in the air
• During normal walking, one leg is in the stance phase while the other is in the swing
phase.
• Muscles must contract to counterbalance the forces of gravity, to offer acceleration or
deceleration to momentum forces, and to over come the resistance of the walking
surface.

https://chiro.org/ACAPress/Body_Alignment.html
Stance Phase
• About 60% of the walking cycle
• Because the stance phase is the weight-bearing phase requiring the greatest
stress, most problems will become apparent in its analysis.
• The stance phase is subdivided into:
1. Heel-strike
2. Foot-flat
3. Midstance
4. Heel -off
5. Toe-off.

• The duration of gait is usually measured from heelstrike to heelstrike, but any
two identical points can be taken
The Swing Phase
• about 40% of the gait cycle
• This is subdivided into:
1. initial acceleration,
2. mid swing
3. final deceleration
• begins with toeoff and ends with heelstrike.
Gait Cycle: Phases
• The stance phase may be subdivided into three separate phases:
1. First double support, when both feet are in contact with the ground
2. Single limb stance, when the left foot is swinging through and only the right foot is
in ground contact
3. Second double support, when both feet are again in ground contact
Gait Cycle: Events
• Traditionally the gait cycle has been divided into eight events or periods, five during
stance phase and three during swing.
• The names of these events are self-descriptive and are based on the movement of the
foot.

the stance phase events are as follows:

1. Heel strike initiates the gait cycle and
represents the point at which the body's
centre of gravity is at its lowest position.

2. Foot-flat is the time when the plantar

surface of the foot touches the ground.
Gait Cycle: Events
3. Midstance occurs when the swinging
(contralateral) foot passes the stance
foot and the body's center of gravity
is at its highest position.

4. Heel-off occurs as the heel loses

contact with the ground and pushoff
is initiated via the triceps surae
muscles, which plantar flex the
ankle.

5. Toe-off terminates the stance phase

as the foot leaves the
 Gait Cycle: Events
• The swing phase events are as follows:
6. Acceleration begins as soon as the foot
leaves the ground and the subject activates
the hip flexor muscles to accelerate the leg
forward.

7. Midswing occurs when the foot passes

directly beneath the body, coincidental with
midstance for the other foot.

8. Deceleration describes the action of the

muscles as they slow the leg and stabilize
the foot in preparation for the next heel
strike.
Al-Shuka et al, Biomechanics, actuation, and multi-level control strategies of power-augmentation lower extremity exoskeletons: an
overview, December 2019International Journal of Dynamics and Control 7(5–6)

Divisions of gait cycle with typical muscle activity patterns. The gluteus maximus and hamstrings are hip extensors.
The hamstrings are active at the IC in order to prevent hyperextension of the knee. The quadriceps are knee
extensors helping in control of knee flexion. The iliopsoas is a hip flexor and active during the initial and mid-swing
phase. Tibialis anterior are active throughout the swing phase and the loading response in order to control the ankle
plantarflexion during the loading response and initial swing and maintain the ankle dorsiflexion during the late swing
phase. Triceps surae are active during late mid-stance and terminal stance in order to control dorsiflexion during the
corresponding periods
Muscle Main Function Events Function during the gait
The hamstrings Hip extensor / knee flexor Heel strike (initial contact) to prevent
hyperextension of the
knee
iliopsoas Hip flexor Initial and mid swing The hip flexors
concentrically
contract to assist in lifting
the swing leg.

Triceps surae Ankle plantarflexion late mid-stance and to control dorsiflexion

terminal stance
Tibialis anterior ankle dorsiflexors the swing phase and the to control the ankle
foot flat (loading plantarflexion during foot
response) flat and maintain
dorsiflexion during swing
Abnormal Gait
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FiLAbgLvs24

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t68SS5FQgbU

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Roaxd65yGvo&feature=emb_titl
e
Gait Cycle: Events
• The traditional classification best describes the gait of normal subjects. However, there are a number
of patients with pathologies, such as ankle equinus, whose gait cannot be described using this
approach.

• An alternative classification, developed by Perry and

her associates is shown in the lower part of Figure. Here, too,
there are eight events, but these are sufficiently general to be
applied to any type of gait:

1. Initial contact (0%)

2. Loading response (0-10%)
3. Midstance (10-30%)
4. Terminal stance (30-50%)
5. Preswing (50-60%)
6. Initial Swing (60-70%)
7. Midswing (70-85%)
8. Terminal swing (85-100%)
Normal vs Abnormal Gait Cycle
• In normal gait there is a natural
symmetry between the left and right
sides, but in pathological gait an
asymmetrical pattern very often
exists.

• Patients spend less time bearing

weight on their involved (painful)
sides; and the increased cycle time for
the two patients compared to that of
the normal subject.
Summary
One gait cycle measured from heel strike to heel strike
• Consist of
 Stance phase
• Period of time that foot is on the ground
• ~60% of one gait cycle is spent in stance
• During stance the leg accepts body weight and provides single limb support

 Swing phase
• Period of time that the foot is off the ground moving forward
• ~40% of one gait cycle is spent in swing
• The limb advances
Distance Measures
Distance Measures
• Stride length is the distance travelled by a person during one stride
(or cycle) and can be measured as the length between the heels from
one heel strike to the next heel strike on the same side.
• About 70 cm
• Two step lengths (left plus right) make one stride length.
Distance Measures
• Step width (Walking Base), which is the mediolateral (M/L) distance
between the two feet.
• (8-10) cm
• Patients with balance problems, such as cerebral palsy, the stride
width can increase to as much as 15 or 20 cm.
• https://www.nih.gov/file/37866
Distance Measures
• Angle of the foot relative to the line of progression can also provide
useful information, documenting the degree of external or internal
rotation of the lower extremity during the stance phase.

•  (10-15) degrees
Distance Measures
• Speed/ Velocity change in displacement in unit time.

• Average speed: 1.4 m/s

Distance Measures
• Cadence is the total number of full cycles taken within a given period
of time, often expressed in steps or strides per minute.

• Average cadence: 100-115 steps/minute.

Parameters of Gait
Displacement
Parameters of Gait
Ground Reaction Force
In biomechanics, the ground reaction force (GRF) is the
force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with
it.
For example, a person standing motionless on the
ground exerts a contact force on it (equal to the
person's weight) and at the same time an equal and
opposite ground reaction force is exerted by the ground
on the person.
Ground Reaction Force
Gait Cycle
Parameters of Gait
Ground Reaction Force
Parameters of Gait
Ground Reaction Force
Parameters of Gait
Ground Reaction Force
Mechanics: Moments and force couple

• Two parallel forces with equal magnitude and opposite directions form a
couple
• On a rigid body, the couple has a pure rotational effect.

Moment about C

Moment about C

If F is the magnitude of the forces forming the couple and d is the perpendicular distance between the lines
of actions of the forces, then the magnitude of the couple-moment is:
M= dF
Mechanics: Moments and force couple
Orthosis
• When orthosis is attached to body segment is
usually intend to exert a force on that segment
to limit abnormal or unwanted motion.
• The effect either: force along the axis of the
segment or rotation of the anatomical joint
• The rotational control is called: three-point
force system or three-point force system
• There should be at least 3-points contact
between the device and the limb segments . (3-
point force systems)
Mechanics: Moments and force couple
Orthosis
3-point force systems
• The sum of the forces and the bending
moments created is equal to zero.

• A single force is placed at the area of deformity;

two additional counter forces act in the
opposing direction.
Reduction in unwanted angular rotation
Stabilization about a joint, bone or skeletal
segment
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/541206080197315728/
Mechanics: Moments and force couple
Prosthesis
• Amputees use the remaining limb segments to
apply forces and moments to the prosthesis to
control it or make it move.

• When the leverage from long bones are used to

move or prevent motion of prosthesis , a force
couple must be exerted.

• The force couple usually has a distal component

in the direction of intended movement and
proximal component in the opposite direction.
Mechanics: Moments and force couple
Orthosis and Prosthesis
• It is desirable to use the longest possible lever arm when applying
moments to or form the device . (Why)

• Longer lever arm means the same moment can be generated with
smaller force.

• The greater the length of the supporting orthotic structure, the greater the
moment or torque that can be placed on the joint or unstable segment.
Mechanics: Pressure
• Pressure is equal to the total force per unit area.

• Sites with more muscles and fat can tolerate pressure more than bony or
area containing superficial blood vessels and nerves
• So:
 Reduce the applied force (by maximizing the lever arm )
 Increase the area over which force is applied

• Ex. The greater the area of a pad of an orthosis, the less pressure will be
placed on the skin
• Size of the bands and cuff
Mechanics: Alignment of joint axes
• Congruency between the
anatomical joint axis and
mechanical joint axis of prosthesis
or orthosis is important

• If not, then undesirable forces are

generated as the joint go through
motion
• Compression and shearing