Nuclear Energy

and Climate Change

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON PROGRESS, CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

A synthesis of the IAEA submission to the first Global Stocktake under the Paris Agreement
Nuclear energy is contributing significantly
to climate change mitigation and adaptation
while supporting sustainable development.
Nuclear energy is the second largest source of low carbon electricity and the
nuclear power sector is well prepared to adapt to a changing climate. Many
countries include nuclear energy in their national climate change strategies.

Further action is needed to fully capitalize on

nuclear energy’s potential to support climate
change mitigation and resilience, including coherent policy,
regulatory, infrastructure and other measures to mobilize and direct finance
flows, in conjunction with continuing efforts to integrate advances in climate
science and forecasting in power plant design, siting and operations.

The IAEA plays a leading role in assisting its

Member States as they respond to climate change
with nuclear energy by supporting existing and new nuclear
programmes around the world, catalysing innovation and building capacity
in sustainable energy planning. The IAEA also works with Member States to
increase the robustness and climate resilience of nuclear power plants.

<2ºC All low carbon energy technologies, including nuclear power, are needed to meet
the Paris Agreement goal of limiting the rise of global temperatures to below 2°C.
In March 2023 at the invitation of the Chairs of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change’s Subsidiary Body for Implementation and
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, the IAEA provided
input to the first Global Stocktake under the Paris Agreement on climate
change. The Global Stocktake aims to: “[enable] countries and other
stakeholders to see where they’re collectively making progress toward
meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement – and where they’re not. It’s like
taking inventory. It means looking at everything related to where the world
stands on climate action and support, identifying the gaps, and working
together to agree on solutions pathways (to 2030 and beyond)” [1].

This publication presents a synthesis of the IAEA’s submission to the Global

Stocktake in the form of a series of questions and answers addressing the
contribution of nuclear energy to climate change mitigation, adaptation,
finance and technology, along with economic aspects and cross-cutting
issues. These topics are elaborated further in recent IAEA publications,
including Nuclear Energy for a Net Zero World [2] and Climate Change and
Nuclear Power 2022 [3].

“As the first Global Stocktake under the Paris

Agreement draws to a close at COP28, we are
reminded of the key role nuclear science and
technology play in responding to the climate
crisis. Nuclear power provides a quarter of the
world’s low carbon power. As nuclear increases
the amount of power it provides worldwide while
expanding further into decarbonizing other areas
of the economy, nuclear energy will be part of
what gets us to a net-zero carbon world.”

Rafael Mariano Grossi

IAEA DIRECTOR GENERAL
 MITIGATION

1. How does nuclear energy already contribute to climate change mitigation actions and ambition
under the Paris Agreement, including the goals of holding the temperature increase well below
2°C (and pursuing efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C)1 and reaching net zero emissions2?
Nuclear energy remains the second largest source policy and regulatory decisions have granted lifetime
of low carbon electricity globally and has historically extensions to over 50 gigawatts of nuclear capacity,
avoided around 70 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide with decisions pending for close to 60 gigawatts
(CO2) [4]. With over 400 nuclear power reactors in more [4].
operation and more than 50 under construction [5],
nuclear power is continuing its proven role in climate These and other developments are reflected in the
change mitigation, underpinning the decarbonization IAEA’s latest projections of nuclear power deployment
of the electricity sector by operating reliably on up to 2050 [7]. The high case projections, which
demand and supporting increased shares of other low consider country policies on climate change and the
carbon generation, in particular variable renewable expressed intentions of countries for expanding the
sources, such as solar and wind power [4,6]. use of nuclear power, see a doubling of world nuclear
capacity by 2050, to 873 gigawatts. On the other
In addition to the continued operation and new hand, the low case projections see nuclear capacity
construction of nuclear power plants, important in 2050 at around 400 gigawatts (essentially the same
progress has been made around the world in as today) assuming “current market, technology and
extending the operating lifetimes of existing plants, resource trends continue and there are few additional
maintaining “a solid foundation on which to build changes in explicit laws, policies and regulations
clean energy transitions” [4]. From 2019 to 2022, affecting nuclear power” [7].

Nuclear energy
remains the second
largest source
of low carbon electricity
globally and has historically
avoided around 70 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide.

1
Article 2.1(a) of the Paris Agreement: “Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the
risks and impacts of climate change.”
2
Article 4.1 of the Paris Agreement: “In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal set out in Article 2, Parties aim to reach global
peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country Parties, and to
undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with best available science, so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions
by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century, on the basis of equity, and in the context of
sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty.”
2. Are current national commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (including nationally
determined contributions) sufficient to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement? How much
additional abatement is still needed?
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on for 2°C and 1.5° degrees, respectively, and 24 and
Climate Change (IPCC) [8], the International 36 gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent above in 2050 [10].
Energy Agency (IEA) [9] and United Nations
Environment Programme [10] nationally determined Assuming net zero commitments of the members of
contributions (NDCs) submitted by countries the Group of Twenty (G-20) members plus nine other
under the Paris Agreement remain inadequate to large emitters3 are achieved — acknowledging that
hold global warming well below 2°C. With the full some of these commitments are extremely ambitious
implementation of unconditional NDCs, the United — warming would be limited to below 2°C, with
Nations Environment Programme estimates that a gap of around 12 gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent for
annual emissions would be 15 and 23 gigatonnes of 1.5°C in 2050 [10].
CO2 equivalent above the level required in 2030

3
Chile, Colombia, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand,
Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Viet Nam.
3. What efforts are being taken to plan, implement and accelerate mitigation action
using nuclear energy?
According to NDCs and long term strategies carbon heat and hydrogen), general statements of intent
submitted under the Paris Agreement [11,12], around to develop, deploy and use nuclear energy to reach
30 countries are planning, implementing and/or mitigation goals, and targets to support developing
accelerating action capitalizing on the substantial countries and nuclear industry workforce diversity.
mitigation potential of nuclear energy (see Table 1).
This includes 14 countries that have assigned an Beyond NDCs and long term strategies, an additional
important role to nuclear energy in their latest NDCs 50 or so countries are pursuing nuclear energy,
and close to 20 countries including nuclear energy in ranging from countries that have expressed an
their long term strategies. interest to those currently constructing their first
power plants.
Together the countries in the yellow shaded areas in
Table 1 account for over 70% of global energy related The IAEA is also supporting countries to enhance
emissions [14]. Across these NDCs, the commitments NDC ambition by assisting Member States
include quantitative and project oriented targets to in assessing the option of nuclear for their
expand nuclear energy capacity, measures to develop decarbonization strategies, including by supporting
and utilize new nuclear energy technologies (including countries build capacity in energy planning and
small modular reactors and the production of low conduct research on this topic [15].

USING NUCLEAR POWER CONSTRUCTING OTHER

TODAY FIRST NUCLEAR COUNTRIES
POWER PLANT

Nuclear energy in NDC Canada, China, Ukraine, United

and long term strategies Kingdom, United States of America
Nuclear energy Argentina, Armenia, India, Türkiye Democratic
in NDC only Islamic Republic of Iran, Russian People’s Republic
Federation, United Arab Emirates of Korea, Ghana
Nuclear energy Czech Republic, Finland, France, Australia, Colombia,
in long term strategies Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, Singapore
only Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Sweden

Nuclear energy not Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Bangladesh, Egypt Rest of the world
included in NDC or Germany, Republic of Korea,
long term strategies Pakistan, Romania, Switzerland,
(or mentioned in the
context of moratoria South Africa, Spain
or phase-outs)
Note: Republic of Korea recently announced plans to revise its NDC and long term strategies to increase the role of nuclear power [13].

Table 1: Nuclear energy in national

commitments and strategies,
as at mid-2022 [11,12].
~30 countries are planning,
implementing and/or accelerating action capitalizing
on the substantial mitigation potential of nuclear energy.
4. Are current mitigation efforts around nuclear energy, including policies and other means of
support, sufficient to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement?
Global mitigation pathways presented in the IPCC While nuclear power continues to provide the second
Sixth Assessment Report [8,16] consistently highlight largest source of low carbon electricity worldwide,
an important role for nuclear energy in transition in many regions and countries policies, efforts and
scenarios compatible with achieving the goals of support provided for mitigation action utilizing nuclear
the Paris Agreement — the majority of low carbon energy are not aligned with the IPCC mitigation
pathways in the Sixth Assessment Report project pathways. That is, even with important progress
at least a doubling of global nuclear electricity and ambition (see questions 1 and 3), support for
generation by 2050 [17]. deployment of new nuclear power plants and lifetime
extension of existing plants remains inadequate, and
in some cases, inconsistent with the goals of the
Paris Agreement.

14 countries
have assigned an Nuclear power provides the second
important role to largest source of low carbon
nuclear energy. electricity worldwide.
5. What further action is required to overcome barriers and challenges to mitigation (facing
nuclear and other low carbon energy sources) at national, regional and international levels?
To accelerate and scale up mitigation in the non-market benefits, such as enhanced long term
energy sector in line with the goals of the Paris energy security. Policy makers can facilitate and
Agreement and address barriers and challenges at leverage private investment through measures to
different levels, a coherent set of policy, regulatory, manage and share risks during construction (such
infrastructure and other measures is required [2,3,9] as via direct public financing or guarantees to debt
to address: and equity providers, including regulated asset
based approaches) and schemes to share revenue
• Markets and regulation: Policy makers and and pricing risks, such as contracts for difference
regulators can seek to reduce existing energy and or power purchase agreements.
investment market barriers and distortions, such
as those related to electricity market design and • Coordination and cooperation: Policy makers
regulation, poorly targeted subsidies, insufficient will need to coordinate, and potentially finance,
carbon prices and the absence of mechanisms the development of hard infrastructure (e.g.
to value and remunerate system services energy grids and secure supply chains for critical
(including flexibility and reliability) provided by commodities) and soft infrastructure (e.g. human
energy producers, including nuclear power capital, institutions and legal frameworks) to
plants. Approval processes for low carbon energy support the energy transition, enhance international
projects could also be more closely aligned with financial cooperation and expand technology
the need for urgent action on both climate and neutral financing from multilateral development
energy security. banks and climate finance institutions —
particularly to facilitate flows for energy projects in
• Guiding investment: The definitions of ESG developing countries — and support local capital
(environmental, social and governance) criteria market development.
aimed at directing public and private investment
towards low carbon options, including in • Supporting new technologies: Continued
taxonomies developed by governments, should public and private investment in research and
have a strong scientific basis and avoid arbitrary development and demonstration projects to
barriers. By adopting objective and transparent support technology innovation will be critical to
technology neutral criteria, investment can be reach net zero, given that substantial emission
mobilized and guided to maximize the likelihood of reductions are expected to come from emerging
achieving net zero emissions while responding to technologies, including advanced nuclear energy
other aspects of sustainable development. systems [18].

• Management of clean energy project risks: In addition to the above, temporary targeted
Decision makers can adopt coherent targeted measures may be warranted to avoid premature
policy measures to help mitigate the risks retirement of low carbon energy capacity, such as
confronting investors in relation to capital intensive, existing nuclear power plants, and to discourage
long lived, low carbon energy projects. Such investment that would lead to the lock-in of long lived
measures can support projects that face long lead energy supply infrastructure that is incompatible with
times, complex regulatory processes and political the goals of the Paris Agreement.
uncertainty, as well as those providing substantial

By adopting objective and transparent technology

neutral criteria, investment can be mobilized
and guided to maximize the likelihood of achieving
net zero emissions.
GOOD PRACTICES, LESSONS LEARNED
AND SUCCESS STORIES IN MITIGATION

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

The successful rapid deployment of large scale natural gas generation, nearly halving power sector
low carbon nuclear generation by the United Arab emissions in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi [3,19]. With
Emirates provides an illustration of good practices construction starting in 2012, this represents a rapid
and opportunities for enhanced and accelerated decarbonization, similar to experiences in France,
mitigation. The Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant alone Sweden and other countries which successfully and
is expected to produce around 25% of the United rapidly decarbonized their electricity sectors with
Arab Emirates’ electricity by 2025, largely replacing nuclear energy in earlier decades.

CHINA

The success of China in deploying new nuclear (delivering commercial scale district heating since
technologies to decarbonize the country’s heat 2020 and now expanding to meet the heating needs
supply provides additional lessons, demonstrating the of 1 million residents [21]), the Qinshan Nuclear
potential of nuclear energy to not only decarbonize Power Plant (providing industrial heat), a project to
electricity production, but also its capacity to provide supply steam from the Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant
low carbon heat to reach mitigation goals in non- to the petrochemical industry by the end of 2023, and
electric applications and hard-to-abate sectors [20]. plans for dedicated reactors for clean district heating
Examples include the Haiyang Nuclear Power Plant in the city of Liaoyuan [22].

UNITED KINGDOM

On the policy front, the United Kingdom provides The United Kingdom recognized the potential of low
an example of good practices, having implemented carbon nuclear energy to also support broader social
an integrated package of policies and measures to and economic development objectives in the recovery
support investment in low carbon options, including measures in its Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial
nuclear energy, in line with ambitious climate goals. Revolution, providing over UK £400 million for small
Complemented by a comprehensive strategy for modular nuclear reactors (and mobilizing private
the nuclear industry [23], measures that have been funding), research and development of advanced
implemented or are under consideration include: modular reactors, developing regulatory frameworks
• Contracts for difference to provide stable revenues and supporting supply chains [28].
for investors in clean electricity projects [24];
• A capacity market for dispatchable generation to
ensure a reliable and affordable electricity supply [25];
• A final investment decision process to accelerate
energy investment;
• Loan guarantees to support project finance and
investment [26];
• Government financing during project construction;
• Regulated asset base models that provide
a regulated return to investors [27].
 ADAPTATION

6. What are the main climate change adaptation challenges facing the nuclear energy sector
around the world? How adequate and effective are current adaptation efforts?
Global energy infrastructures are increasingly exposed The effectiveness of current adaptation efforts is
to frequent and severe climate hazards [29] and the likely attributable to revisions to regulatory regimes
nuclear energy sector is facing and responding to and improved operational experience. On the former,
multiple climate impacts (see Fig. 1). the evolving nature of weather events has led many
countries and regulators to revise safety guidelines to
While reported nuclear power production losses maintain or strengthen the overall resilience of nuclear
attributed to adverse climatic and weather conditions operations [3]. Episodes of extreme heat, lack of cooling
remain modest (<0.5% of total plant output), they water or floods were at the origin of specific adaptation
account for an increasing share of total production measures [32]. Plant designs have been adapted with
losses. In 2022, the share of weather related losses a variety of engineering solutions including:
was 11.5 percentage points higher than in the (i) a reduction of the usage and consumption of cooling
preceding decade [5,31]. The majority of reported water; (ii) modification of water intake; (iii) investigation
climate-related disruptions occurred at plants located of on-site water production; and (iv) increase and more
by rivers or lakes, where continuity in production efficient use of heat exchanger capacity. As a result, the
directly depends on strictly regulated access to water nuclear energy sector is well prepared to face changing
bodies, ensuring minimal impact on ecosystems. environmental conditions in the foreseeable future [3].

WNA ENA NEU WCE WSB RAR

Western North Eastern North Northern Western & Western Russian
America America Europe Central Europe Siberia Arctic
Fig. 1: Regional climate
risks and climatic impact 2 3.6 GW 43 11 1 1 38 1 1 1 2 2
drivers, based on climate 91.2 GW 28.0 GW 103.8 GW 1.8 GW 0.1 GW
data from IPCC [29,30] CNA MED EEU WCA
NCA EAS
and nuclear data from Central North Mediterranean Eastern Western
Northern Eastern Asia
Europe Central Asia
IAEA [5]. Central America 10 2
America 12 18.1 GW 3 3 3 1 38 6 9
27.0 GW
1 4.2 GW 13.8 GW 2.8 GW 123.8 GW
Location NEU RAR
Inland near a lake
Inland near a river WCE
CNA ENA EEU WSB
Sea coast WNA
WCA
Operational MED
NCA SEA
EAS
Under construction SCA Southeastern
Southern ARP SAS SEA Asia
Planned Central SCA
SAS 1 1.2 GW
America Southern
Nuclear sites & capacity Asia
1 1.6 GW
Operational 8 1 1
WSAF
Under construction 12.6 GW
SES
Planned WSAF
SES Western
Capacity (operational Southeastern Southern ARP
and under construction) South America Africa Arabian Peninsula
3 1 3.8 GW 1 1.9 GW 1 2.8 GW
Climate risks for IPCC regions WNA CNA ENA NCA SCA SES NEU WCE EEU MED WSAF RAR WSB WCA EAS ARP SAS SEA
HEAT
high confidence Mean surface temperature
medium confidence Extreme heat
WET AND DRY
River flood
Heavy precipitation & flood
Aridity
Note: Nuclear sites
Hydrological drought
with additional reactors
Fire weather
under construction or WIND
planned are counted as Severe windstorm
a single plant site. Tropical cyclone
COASTAL
Coastal flood
Sea level rise
7. What efforts are being taken to adapt the nuclear energy sector?
How is the IAEA supporting this?
Beyond continuing successful adaptation the evolution of climate hazards over long time
approaches (see question 6), adaption efforts can be frames. The expected outcomes include identification
further enhanced to address climate related hazards of safety relevant actions for on-site hazards and
(e.g. meteorological, hydrological, fire related) that the design of new protection measures for both
have the potential to affect all types of nuclear existing installations and new designs. Measures will
installations worldwide. aim at increasing the robustness and resilience of
nuclear power plants in the face of time dependant
Anticipating weather and water related events, for hazards exacerbated by climate change, combining
example with seasonal and sub-seasonal forecast engineering provisions (e.g. improved barriers) and
models, can help identify priorities, implementation operational, performance related procedures
and support needs, and support planning and (e.g. preventive shutdown).
actions to ensure the availability of individual power
infrastructure assets (see Fig. 2) and the design of In addition, the IAEA is convening an expert group
measures to mitigate the economic and societal to develop a publication detailing performance
impacts of such events. related technical solutions recently selected or
under consideration by Member States to reduce
The IAEA has initiated a technical project that draws production losses caused by environmental changes
on the most recent experience of countries in the and climate variability before safety and protection
application of climate predictive methods for the measures are triggered. The publication will provide
assessment of site hazards and safety issues related illustrative examples of modifications to physical
to existing and new nuclear sites [3]. The project assets and operating procedures that maximize
combines statistical and numerical methods with plant economics under conditions such as warmer
meteorological and hydrological approaches to hot seasons, longer dry seasons and more frequent
assess time dependent hazards through the lens of storms and episodes of aquatic organism ingress
sustainability, drawing on special methods to assess into cooling water intake structures.

Climate risks Nuclear sites

High winds Sea level rise Aridity Operational Under construction Planned
Compound risk of high winds & sea level rise All nuclear power plants (less affected than top 30)

Under a 4°C increase in global

mean temperature, nuclear sites
located o
 n the east coast of the
USA and in Florida would see
increases in sea level above 50
Ranking Aridity High winds 43% of nuclearSean ewlevelbuild
rise is located in East
cm compared t o current levels, (in consecutive dry days/year, SSP3) (in m/s, SSP2Asia, where
medium term) tropical(incyclones, fl
 oods
m, from near term and
to long termdroughts
SSP3)
exacerbating the impacts of other
1. Darkhovain, Iran, Islam. Rep. 157 have
Onagawa, increased
Japan 8.20 s
 ignificantly over USA
Waterford, the last
0.88 decades,
unpredictable a nd frequent
2. extreme
Kakrapar, India 108 withJapan
Tokai, severe
7.75a
 nd destructive
South impacts
Texas, USA o 0.83
n coastal
weather manifestations.3. Rajasthan, India 93 Calvertcommunities.
Cliffs, USA 7.67 Calvert Cliffs, USA 0.70
4. Kaiga, India 82 Hartlepool, United Kingdom 7.65 Hope Creek, USA 0.69
5. Chasnupp, Pakistan 81 Seabrook, USA 7.59 Salem, USA 0.69
6. Narora, India 80 Doel, Belgium 7.37 Surry, USA 0.67
7. Cofrentes, Spain 78 Millstone, USA 7.37 Millstone, USA 0.66
8. Palo Verde, USA 76 Maanshan, Taiwan, China 7.22 Point Lepreau, Canada 0.65
Fig. 2: Global overview of the most significant environmental changes around selected nuclear power plant site
9. Gorakhpur, India 71 Shimane, Japan 7.22 Seabrook, USA 0.65
locations, based on climate
10.
data from IPCC [30] and nuclearTorness,
Asco, Spain 70
data United
from Kingdom
the IAEA7.20
[5]. Pevek, Russian Fed. 0.59
Note: m/s — metres per11.second, m — metres.
Cernavoda, Romania 69 Kashiwazaki Kariwa, Japan 7.04 Brunswick, USA 0.58
12. Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine 61 Point Lepreau, Canada 6.91 St. Lucie, USA 0.55
13. Almaraz, Spain 61 Kola, Russian Fed. 6.89 Tokai, Japan 0.55
14. Rooppur, Bangladesh 56 Brunswick, USA 6.81 Onagawa, Japan 0.54
15. Armenia, Armenia 52 Surry, USA 6.79 Turkey Point, USA 0.54
8. What further adaptation action is required in the nuclear energy sector
and how can barriers and challenges be addressed?
“New climate hazards, including compounded risks climate science, including the better representation
resulting from cascading, low probability, extreme of future climate risks at the local scale, can greatly
weather events, must be included in the siting and contribute to strengthening the climate resilience of
design of new nuclear installations, particularly nuclear infrastructures and reinforce the security of
in countries embarking [on new nuclear power the electricity supply” [3].
programmes]. Integrating the latest advances in

GOOD PRACTICES, LESSONS LEARNED

AND SUCCESS STORIES IN ADAPTATION

SWEDEN AND FINLAND

“Nuclear power plants in Sweden and Finland have by climate change and extreme weather conditions
successfully prepared for a changing climate…well for several decades to come — for example, plants
beyond 2050 [33]. Actions initiated in the aftermath in Sweden can cope with a sea level rise of up to
of the Fukushima accident and the overall high level 3 metres above the current normal level [2].
of safety in the nuclear sector ensure a robustness
to meet extreme events in general, including extreme “A number of other climate or weather related events
weather events. Recent investments in independent may also potentially affect the operation of nuclear
core cooling in plants in Sweden have further power plants in Nordic countries. These include,
strengthened durability [2]. for example, lightning strikes that may impact the
electricity grid at the plant site and externally. Another
“Nonetheless, climate and weather related events with example is higher seawater temperature, which in
the potential to affect the operation of nuclear power extreme cases may lead to power reduction or even
plants have occurred historically and are expected to require a temporary shutdown. In the summer of 2018,
increase in frequency and severity in the future [(see the production in both the Ringhals and Loviisa nuclear
Fig. 3)]. For instance, all Nordic nuclear power plants power plants was impacted by high cooling water
are situated by the sea, making them potentially temperatures. A warmer sea also increases the risk of
vulnerable to rising sea levels, although this effect marine organisms obstructing cooling water intakes,
is partly offset by land uplift at most of the nuclear as evidenced by jellyfish intrusions at the Oskarshamn
sites. It is estimated that current safety margins can nuclear power plant in 2005 and 2013” [2].
accommodate the impact of sea level rise caused
 2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 15 15
15 15 15 15 15
15 15 15
1.5 1.5
1.5 1.5 1.5 Fig. 3: Projected
10 10
10 10 10 10 10changes
10 10 in10
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 climate indices
5 55 5 5 5 55 of relevance
5 5 for
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 high sea water
temperatures
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0 00 0 0 0 00 at +2°C
0 global
0
warming
-0.5 -0.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-5 -5-5 -5 -5 -5 -5-5compared
-5 -5to
-1.0 -1.0
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0 pre-industrial
conditions [2].
-10 -10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10
-10 -10
-1.5 -1.5
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
-2.0 -2.0
-2.0 -2.0 -2.0 -15 -15 -15
-15 -15 -15 -15 -15
-15 -15

Changes in maximum Changes in consecutive Changes in tropical nights Note: Blue dots
denote operational
temperature (°C). warm days in June–August (i.e. days when night time
nuclear power
(days). temperatures remain above plants.
20°C).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

“The potential impacts of climate change outlined Another important example of opportunities is
above are not considered threats to plant safety, provided by the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating
at least for a foreseeable future, and hence are Station in the Arizona desert in the United States
more relevant for plant economics and electricity of America. Even under moderate climate change
supply security” [2]. The effect of high seawater scenarios, it is estimated that this plant could
temperatures can be mitigated by increasing the experience around 60 days of extreme temperatures
capacity of the heat exchangers, and measures above 40°C per year later this century, increasing
to monitor for, screen and clear marine organisms to close to 100 days under scenarios with higher
have also been implemented at some power plants. warming [30]. In this context, the Palo Verde
Similarly, “to protect the facilities from lightning nuclear power plant provides a unique example
strikes, several different types of protections have of a successful design adapted to withstand and
been installed, both in the plants and in the grid” [2]. operate under severe environmental conditions,
On the other hand, more extensive solutions, such as including utilizing wastewater from surrounding
the installation of deep water inlets (e.g. at Loviisa), sewage stations, cutting freshwater consumption
are not currently deemed economically viable. needs drastically [3].
 FINANCE FLOWS,
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFER,
AND CAPACITY BUILDING

9. Are current finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions
and climate resilient development in line with the Paris Agreement4? Are current trends in
nuclear energy financing sufficient?
To achieve net zero emissions by 2050, the IEA investment taxonomies and similar frameworks to
estimates that global electricity sector investment will direct and mobilize private financial flows towards
need to more than double from recent level to over sustainable investment, including low carbon nuclear
US $2 trillion annually between 2023 and 2030 [9,34]. energy. This is elaborated further in question 11.
This includes an almost 2.5 fold increase in annual
nuclear energy investment to over US $100 billion However, despite these and other positive
by 2030, and more than US $2 trillion by 2050 — developments [35], mobilizing the scale of investment
primarily in the Asia and Pacific region (especially in needed to achieve the Paris Agreement goals
China), Europe and North America [9]. remains challenging in the current market and
policy environment. For instance, recent national
Recent trends in nuclear energy investment have energy policy responses to the war in Ukraine and
been positive, increasing from around US $35 billion the COVID-19 pandemic have continued to direct
between 2017 and 2019 to almost US $50 billion in financial resources towards the production and
2022 [34], driven by construction of new reactors in consumption of fossil fuels: among G-20 countries
China, Europe and Pakistan, and refurbishment and over 40% of the more than US $1 trillion in public
lifetime extensions in a number of other countries. finance committed to energy investment in pandemic
Sustaining and accelerating this growth in financial recovery packages is allocated to fossil energy
flows will be necessary to meet the 2030 investment [36], threatening the goals of the Paris Agreement.
needs identified by the IEA. In this context, important In comparison, around US $12 billion has been
progress is being made in terms of initiatives to committed to nuclear energy investment — mainly in
provide investors with additional guidance on which Canada, France, the United Kingdom and the United
activities are compatible with long term climate States of America [2].
and sustainability goals. For example, governments
and the financial sector are adopting sustainable

4
Article 2.1(c) of the Paris Agreement: “Making finance
flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas
emissions and climate-resilient development.”
10. How are nuclear energy technology development and transfer and capacity building in
developing Member States, contributing to ensuring improving climate resilience and
mitigation5?
Establishing and maintaining a robust system of For more than four decades, the IAEA has also
institutional, regulatory, legal, industrial and other provided extensive support to Member States to build
infrastructure (including human capital) is critical to capacity through training, technical assistance and
supporting technology transfer for the low carbon technology transfer of tools and methodologies for
energy transition (as well as research and development sustainable energy systems analysis and planning,
for new technologies). Directly addressing this need, enabling them to evaluate the role of different
the IAEA assists its Member States in using nuclear technologies in meeting their future energy needs
science and technology for peaceful purposes while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For
and facilitates the transfer of such technology example, over the last decade the IAEA has provided
and knowledge in a sustainable manner [37]. For technical assistance to Member States in Africa to
instance, the IAEA has developed and implemented reinforce local energy planning capabilities. This has
a comprehensive Milestones approach to assist comprised capacity building and the transfer of tools
Member States considering or planning to utilize and methodologies to support the establishment of
nuclear power, incorporating technical education national planning teams and case studies analysing
to train the workforce for the energy transition and sub-regional power pools, most recently supporting
ensuring a robust scientific basis to regulation, the development of a Continental Power System
planning and policy, among others. Masterplan in cooperation with the International
Renewable Energy Agency [41]. These case studies
As an illustration, the development of a nuclear power in turn demonstrated the benefits of cooperation
programme is a key element in the United Arab and integrated development of local generation
Emirates’ climate change mitigation actions [38]. options and grids, in terms of increased access to
To this end, the United Arab Emirates is enhancing its energy services, stronger economic development
technical and vocational education system to support and improved electricity affordability. This effective
the development of the professional workforce model of technology transfer was also applied in Latin
fundamental to accelerating the deployment of America and the Caribbean between 2015 and 2020,
nuclear and other clean energy technologies [39,40]. with IAEA tools and methodologies transferred to over
200 experts in 15 countries to support sub-regional
studies on energy and climate change mitigation.

5
Article 10.1 of the Paris Agreement: “Parties share a long-
term vision on the importance of fully realizing technology
development and transfer in order to improve resilience to Hands-on training at the never-used Zwentendorf Nuclear
climate change and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.” Power Plant in Austria.
11. What further action is needed to support finance, technology development and transfer and
capacity building to achieve the Paris Agreement goals? What are key barriers and challenges
as well as opportunities, good practices, lessons learned and success stories?
Given the scale of investment required and the In addition, further public sector interventions and
current misallocation of financial resources, providing public–private collaboration will also be critical. For
investors with additional guidance on which example, public sector coordination and financing of
activities are compatible with long term climate and infrastructure development is likely to be necessary
sustainability goals is a key element in the framework to leverage private investments and fully unlock the
of policies and measures needed to drive the low large potential of financial markets [8]. This includes
carbon energy transition. both hard (e.g. energy grids, critical supply chains,
physical adaptation measures) and soft infrastructure
Taxonomies and similar frameworks represent one (e.g. regulatory and legal frameworks, and human
important way in which governments and the financial capital). The specific coordinating role of the public
sector are seeking to mobilize and direct private sector, and the nature of public–private partnerships,
financial flows towards sustainable investment. Such will depend on national circumstances and
frameworks should have a strong scientific basis and complementary policy measures.
avoid arbitrary technology barriers. Good practices —
that is objective and transparent technology neutral In addition to national, regional and private sector
criteria — have been adopted in relation to nuclear initiatives and policy support, enhanced international
energy in several taxonomies (see Table 2), mobilizing financial cooperation will be essential to realize the
and guiding investment consistent with the goals low carbon transition, given that many developing
of the Paris Agreement while responding to other countries rely on public resources to finance
aspects of sustainable development. energy projects. Beyond existing commitments to

NUCLEAR ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY

INCLUDED CURRENTLY EXCLUDED CLASSIFICATION TO BE
DETERMINED
National and China, European ASEAN, Bangladesh, Chile, Indonesia,
regional Union, Japan (implicit), Canada, Colombia, Singapore, United
sustainable Republic of Korea, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Kingdom
finance
taxonomies and Malaysia (implicit), South Africa, Thailand
roadmaps Philippines, Russian Under development/
Federation discussion:
Dominican Republic, India,
Mexico, New Zealand,
Sri Lanka, Viet Nam
Private sector Green Bond Principles Climate Bonds Standard
initiatives (ICMA) (implicit) (CBI)

The IAEA assists its Member States in

assessing the option of nuclear energy
for their decarbonization strategies.

Table 2: Examples of sustainable investment taxonomies that include nuclear energy in 2022 [3].
scale up public finance flows to developing net zero emissions over the longer term will
countries to US $100 billion under the United also necessitate continued public and private
Nations Framework Convention on Climate investment in research and development to
Change, opportunities exist to support local support technology innovation — the IEA expects
capital market development, expand financing nearly half of the emission reductions for net zero
through multilateral development banks and to come from technologies yet to have reached
specialized climate finance institutions and the market [18] — including for advanced nuclear
leverage private capital by increasing the use energy systems. A key complement to inform
of public guarantees. The significant barriers the design of research and development and
that developing countries face in relation to broader energy policy is the robust assessment
financing nuclear energy projects can be partly of long term decarbonization pathways, such
addressed through the adoption of a technology as those published by the IEA [43] and IPCC
neutral approach in the funding decisions of [15]. Enhancing the representation of low
development and green banks for infrastructure carbon options in such assessments is critical to
and clean energy funds [2, 42]. identifying key mitigation technologies and lower
cost pathways to reach net zero [17].
Beyond the need for policy interventions to
accelerate the deployment of low carbon
technologies in the near term (to 2030), securing

88

Enhanced international Continued public and private investment

financial cooperation will be in research and development will be
essential to realize the low necessary over the longer term to secure
carbon transition. net zero emissions.
 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS,
AND LOSS AND DAMAGE
12. How can nuclear energy address the social and economic consequences and impacts of
mitigation policies and actions?
According to analysis by the International Monetary “In the near term, investment in projects to extend
Fund, investment in low carbon energy as part the operation of existing nuclear power plants can
of mitigation policies can provide a substantial be implemented rapidly and at scale, providing
economic boost [44]. “The spending multiplier — a substantial boost to economic activity and
i.e. the change in economic activity (GDP) divided employment, while delivering competitive, low carbon
by the change in investment spending — for nuclear electricity [45]. In quantitative terms, extending the
energy is estimated to be around six times larger life of nuclear power plants from 40 to 60 years
than for fossil energy and around three times would retain 95 gigawatts (GW) of low carbon
larger than the multiplier for renewable energy generation by 2025 and an additional 90 GW by
over the short term, delivering a rapid economic 2030 [46,47]. At an estimated investment cost of
boost [(see Fig. 4)]. Spending on nuclear energy US $650 per kilowatt for extension projects in much
is also estimated to stimulate (or ‘crowd in’) more of Europe and the USA, this would be realized with
investment in other parts of the economy and lead a global investment of around US $120 billion over
to ‘larger employment of both high- and lower-skilled the next decade and create up to 370,000 jobs
resources’ [44] per unit of spending compared to [6,45,48,49]” [2].
other low emission energy sources.

500%

400%
Energy investment impact multiplier

300%

200%

100%

Fig. 4: Green multipliers

411% 119% 65%
for investment in nuclear
and other energy
nuclear renewables fossil
sources [2, 44].
13. How can nuclear energy also avert and
minimize loss and damage associated
Countries are
with the adverse effects of climate increasingly
change? What further action is required
to strengthen these efforts? recognizing
Countries are increasingly recognizing the value of linkages between
nuclear energy to mitigate and enhance resilience
against the adverse impacts of climate change, climate action
while ensuring a reliable and security energy supply
critical for sustainable development. In addition to the and other aspects
30 countries planning, implementing and/or accelerating
action to capitalize on the substantial mitigation
of sustainable
potential of nuclear energy in their NDCs and long term
strategies (see response to question 3), around 15
development.
least developed countries are actively considering or
implementing nuclear power programmes. These efforts
can be strengthened with additional capacity building
(particularly in energy planning and nuclear infrastructure
development), technology transfer and financing.

88

Investment in low carbon energy as part of mitigation policies can

provide a substantial economic boost.
 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

14. How are fairness considerations, including equity,

being reflected in NDCs?
The IAEA, in partnership with other United Nations
agencies, intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations, and experts, is working with countries
to revise and enhance their NDCs, which includes
addressing issues of fairness and equity in the context
of supporting strategies to ensure a just transition to
low carbon energy systems.

15. How are mitigation and adaptation actions with nuclear energy respecting, promoting and
considering gender and intergenerational equality and empowering women?
Mitigation action using nuclear energy is proactively Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship Programme seeks to
enhancing and promoting gender equality and the increase the number of women in the nuclear field,
empowerment of women, who are integral to the supporting an inclusive and diverse workforce to
nuclear energy sector. Recognizing the benefits that drive global scientific and technological innovation
gender diversity brings to workplace, the IAEA, its [50]. The United Kingdom also provides a leading
Member States, industry and non-governmental example of how countries are explicitly incorporating
organizations, are active in promoting interest in specific policies and targets to enhance diversity,
nuclear engineering, science and other nuclear gender equality and women’s participation in the
related professions among women. For example, in nuclear sector via government–industry partnership
partnership with the European Union, the IAEA Marie agreements [51].
16. To what extent are countries recognizing the need to address other aspects of sustainable
development, such as ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems and the protection of biodiversity
to achieve the purpose and long term goals of the Paris Agreement?
Countries are increasingly recognizing linkages decarbonization [52]. Life cycle assessment can
— both synergies and trade-offs — between account for impacts from the production, operation
climate action and other aspects of sustainable and disposal of energy technologies across a wide
development, including protection of ecosystems range of environmental and sustainability indictors
(including oceans) (Sustainable Development (for example, eutrophication, acidification and
Goals 14 and 15). This includes linkages affecting ecotoxicity, distinguishing between impacts on
mitigation options for clean energy transitions terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments). This
[8]. To account for such interactions and ensure is critical to identify and develop strategies to manage
the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, or avert potential negative impacts from clean
and to protect biodiversity, life cycle approaches energy transitions on ecosystems and biodiversity,
are increasingly being recognized and applied to particularly given the relatively large impacts of several
develop strategies towards long term energy sector clean energy technologies (see Fig. 5).

Resource use: minerals and metals fossils water use land use climate change acidification

ecotoxicity, fresh water Eutrophication: freshwater marine terrestrial Human toxicity: cancer non-cancer
ionizing radiation ozone depletion photochemical ozone formation particulate matter

Photovoltaics 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
poly-Si, roof mounted 7.6 0.8 0.9 1.5 0.9 0.5 13.8
poly-Si, ground mounted 4.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 2.3 11.6
CIGS, roof mounted 3.0 0.5 0.6 5.5
CdTe, roof mounted 2.8 0.5 0.6 5.4
CIGS, ground mounted 1.8 1.9 5.1
CdTe, ground mounted 1.6 1.9 5.0
Hydro
660 MW 0.6 2.9 3.7 0.6 1.4 0.8 1.2 13.5
360 MW 1.2
Concentrated solar power
trough 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.5 3.5 8.0
tower 0.5 1.2 3.8
Wind
offshore, steel foundation 1.0 3.9 6.5
offshore, concrete foundation 1.0 3.0 5.6
onshore 0.7 3.6 5.7

Nuclear (average) 1.0 0.9 4.2

Environmental impact in comparison:

Pulverised coal with CCS 87
Pulverised coal w/o CCS 81
Natural gas with CCS 21
Natural gas w/o CCS 25
Nuclear 4.2

Fig. 5: Normalized and weighted life cycle impacts of renewable and nuclear technologies from
the production of 1 kilowatt-hour in Europe in 2020, based on data from Ref. [51].
Note: poly-Si, CIGS and CdTe refer to the type of solar cells.
The IAEA also carries
out climate monitoring
activities through
research in its own
laboratories and
extended networks of
research institutions,
academia and reference
laboratories.

In Argentina, like in many parts of the world, water is at risk of over exploitation and contamination.
To protect it, scientists are studying its most invisible details with the help of nuclear technology.
16. How is the IAEA contributing directly to the purpose and long-term goals
of the Paris Agreement?
As a non-Party stakeholder, the IAEA contributes to relevant nuclear technologies and techniques are
the purpose and goals of the Paris Agreement by transferred to countries, especially developing
fostering the efficient, safe, secure and sustainable countries, through the IAEA Technical Cooperation
use of nuclear power “by supporting existing and new programme. The Technical Cooperation programme
nuclear programmes around the world, catalysing is the IAEA’s primary mechanism for helping countries
innovation and building capacity in energy planning, address key development priorities. Over the past
analysis, and nuclear information and knowledge decade, the IAEA has supported almost 500 projects
management” [53]. The IAEA also carries out climate related to climate change adaptation in more than
adaptation and climate monitoring activities, for 100 countries around the world, disbursing over
example through research in its own laboratories and €110 million in support [54].
through extended networks of research institutions,
academia and reference laboratories. Once vetted,

The IAEA has supported

almost 500 projects
related to climate change
adaptation in more than
100 countries
around the world

88
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Printed by the IAEA in Austria, September 2023

IAEA/PAT/002

IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Names: International Atomic Energy Agency.

Title: Nuclear energy and climate change : questions and answers on progress, challenges and
opportunities / International Atomic Energy Agency.

Description: Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references.

Identifiers: IAEAL 23-01625

Subjects: LCSH: Nuclear energy — Climatic changes. | Nuclear energy — Environmental aspects. |
Climate change mitigation.

Classification: UDC 621.039:504 | IAEA/PAT/002

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Vienna, 2023 VISIT US

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