COMPOSITE MATERIALS

MODULE 5

MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
suma.b.t VANISHREE T S

SJB
I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O LO G Y
CHAPTER 1

Composite Materials

INTRODUCTION
Many of modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties that cannot be met by the metals, conventional metallic alloys, ceramics, and polymeric materials,

e.g. materials needed for aerospace, underwater, and transportation applications

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 alloys and many ceramics do not fit this definition because their multiple phases are formed
as a consequence of natural phenomena.
For example engineers working in aircraft industry are looking and searching for structural
materials that have low densities, are strong, stiff, and abrasion and impact resistant, and are
not easily corroded. Obviously, this is a rather formidable combination of characteristics.
Usually strong materials are relatively dense; also, increasing the strength or stiffness
generally results in a decrease in impact strength. Therefore, in composites the whole is
greater than the sum of the parts (synergy). Wood, celery, bamboo, and corn are all examples
of nature‘s composites, where two materials combine to reinforce and bind together. We
have already discussed in previous chapters, composites of sort which include multiphase
metal alloys, ceramics and polymers. A composite is considered to be any multiphase
material that exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of both constituent phases
such that a better combination of properties is realized. This is termed as the principle of
combined action. According to this principle, better combinations are fashioned by the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
judicious combination of two or more distinct materials.
(i) Composite materials are superior to all other known structural materials in specific
All composites generally have one thing in common: a matrix or binder combined with a
strength and stiffness, high temperature strength, fatigue strength and other properties. The
reinforcing material. Obviously, a composite consists of a matrix material, dispered within
desired combination of properties can be tailored in advance and realized in the manufacture
which is a dispersion of one or more phases of another material. If the fibres are
of a particular material. Moreover, the material can be shaped in this process as close as
directionally oriented and continuous, the material is termed an advanced composite.
possible to the form of final products or even structural units.
Reinforced concrete is a good example of composite material. When concrete is reinforced
with steel rebar, the concrete becomes the matrix, which surrounds the reinforcing fibre, the (ii) Composite materials are complex materials whose components differ strongly from
rebar. Another example is reinforced fiber glass products such as fishing rods. Glass fibres each other in the properties, are mutually insoluble or only slightly soluble and divided by
are set in a thermosetting resin matrix. This produces a strong, lightweight, flexible fishing distinct boundaries.
rod. Other fibres are produced from aramid (Kevlar and Nomex), boron, carbon, graphite,
and ultrahighmolecular-weight polyethylene (spectra). The matrix for these materials is (iii) The principle of manufacture of composites has been borrowed from nature. Trunks
typically a thermosetting epoxy resin. These materials provide some exceptional increase in and stems of plants and bones of man and animals are examples of natural composites. In
mechanical properties, sometimes three to six times greater than steel. Another example of a wood, cellulose fibres are bonded by plastic lignin, in bones, thin and strong fibres of
composite material is pearlitic steels. The microstructure of this material consists of phosphates are bonded by plastic collagen.
alternating layers of a-ferrite and cementite. The ferrite phase is soft and ductile, whereas
(iv) The properties of composites mainly depend on the physico-mechanical properties
cementite is hard and very brittle. The combined mechanical characteristics of this
of their components and the strength of bonds between them. A characteristic feature of
composite, i.e. pearlite (reasonably high ductility and strength) are superior to those of either
composite materials is that the merits of their components are fully utilized. Composite
of the constituent phases. Other common vareties of composites include combinations:
materials may acquire certain valuable properties not found in the components. For
fibre-resin, fibreceramic, carbon-metal, metal concrete, metal resin and wood plastic. Most
obtaining the optimal properties in composites, their components are chosen so as to have
of the contemporary advanced composites use glass, kevlar (an aramid), or one of the
sharply different, but complementary properties. (v) The base, or matrix, of composites may
various types of graphite fibres. Fibre composites form an important subset of this class of
consist of metals or alloys (metallic composites), polymers, carbon and ceramic materials
engineering materials. Obviously, a composite is a multiphase material that is artificially
(non metallic composites).
made, as to one that occurs naturally. In addition, the constituent phases in a composite must
be chemically dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface. This is why most metallic

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(vi) The matrix is essentially the binding and shaping component in composites. Its
properties determine to a large extent the process conditions for the manufacture of
composite materials and the important operating characteristics, e.g., working temperature, These can be further classified under two subgroups:
fatigue strength, resistance to environmental effects, density, and specific strength. Some
(i) large particle and
composites have a combined matrix which consists of alternating layers (two or more) of
different composition. (ii)dispersion- strengthened composites.

(vii) Composites with combined matrix may be called multi-matrix, or multi-layer The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism. The
composites(Fig(a)). Multi-matrix composites can be characterized by a wider spectrum of term ‗large‘ indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or
useful properties. For example, use of titanium as an addition to aluminium may increase the molecular level; rather continum mechanics is used. The particulate phase for most of these
strength of a composite material in directions transverse to fibres. Aluminium layers in a composites is harder and stiffer than the matrix. In the vicinity of each particle, these
matrix diminish the density of composite Matrix material. reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase. Obviously, the matrix
transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. We
(viii) Fillers, i.e., other components are uniformly distributed in a matrix. These plays the
may note that the degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends
major part in strengthening of composites and thus they are called strengtheners. Fillers
on strong bonding at the matrix particle interface
should possess high values of strength, hardness and elastic modulus. These characteristics
should be substantially higher than those of the matrix. With an increase of the elastic Particles for dispersion-strengthened composites are normally much smaller (diameter
modulus and ultimate strength of a filler, the corresponding properties of a composite between 0.01 and 0.1 _m). Particle-matrix interactions occur on the atomic or molecular
material also increase, but do not reach the value of the filler. Fillers are alternatively called level and lead to strengthening
reinforcing components. This is a broader term than ‗strengthener‘, it does not specify the
particular strengthening role of filler which may used for improving other properties of a We may note that the mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation. The
composite. The properties of a composite material can also depend on the shape (geometry), matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, where as the small dispersed particle
dimensions,concentration and distribution of filler (reinforcement pattern). As regards their hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Obviously, plastic deformation is restricted
shape, fillers are divided into three main groups (i) zero-dimensional (ii) one- dimensional, such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness improve. Fillers added to some
and (iii) two dimensional. polymeric materials produce large-particle composites. The fillers modify or improve the
properties of the material and/or replace some of the polymer volume with less expensive
By the reinforcement pattern, composite materials are divided into three groups: with filler material.
uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial reinforcement.
Concrete is another familiar example of large-particle composite. Concrete is composed of
iX)Fillers of different shape may be used for obtaining a wider complex of properties or cement (the matrix), and sand and gravel (the particulates).
enhancing a particular property of a composite material. For example, the strength of bond
between one-dimensional filler elements (glass or carbon fibres) and a polymer matrix can We may note that particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be
be increased by introducing a zero-dimensional filler (particles of asbestos, silicon carbide, approximately the same dimension in all directions (equiaxed). Particules should be small
etc.). The same purpose can be achieved by reinforcing a composite material with fillers of and evenly distributed throughout the matrix for effective reinforcement. Moreover, the
the same shape, but different composition. For example, the modulus of elasticity of volume fraction of the two phases influences the behaviour; mechanical properties are
composite materials with a polymer matrix reinforced by glass fibres can be increased by enhanced with increasing particulate content. The rule of mixtures equations reveal that the
additional reinforcement with boron fibres. Composite materials containing two-or more elastic modulus should fall between an upper bound given by nd a lower bound, or limit,
different fillers are termed complex-reinforced composites

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 material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. When at least three materials are present,
it is called a hybrid composite. An MMC is complementary to a cermics

MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. The reinforcement
surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with the matrix. For example, carbon
fibers are commonly used in aluminium matrix to synthesize composites showing low
density and high strength. However, carbon reacts with aluminium to generate a brittle and
water-soluble compound Al4C3 on the surface of the fibre. To prevent this reaction, the
carbon fibres are coated with nickel or titanium boride.

Matrix

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded, and is
Where E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction, respectively and the completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix to any point in the
subscript c, m, and p represent composite, matrix and particulate phases respectively. material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is
Largeparticle composites are utilized with all three material types, i.e. metals, polymers and usually a lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant
ceramics. Examples of ceramic-metal composite are cermets. Cemented carbide, which is support for the reinforcement. In high-temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt–nickel
composed of extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten alloy matrices are common.
carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or
nickel is the most common cermet. These composites are widely used as cutting tools for Reinforcement
hardened steels.
The reinforcement material is embedded into a matrix. The reinforcement does not always
Interestingly, both elastomers and plastics are frequently reinforced with various particulate serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound), but is also used to change physical
materials. The use of many of the modern rubbers would have been severely restricted properties such as wear resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The
without reinforcing particulate materials, e.g. as carbon black. Carbon black consists of very reinforcement can be either continuous, or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be
small and essentially spherical particles of carbon. Carbon black is produced by the isotropic, and can be worked with standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion,
combustion of natural or oil in an atmosphere that has only a limited air supply. When forging, or rolling. In addition, they may be machined using conventional techniques, but
carbon black is added to vulcanized rubber, this material which is very cheap, enhances commonly would need the use of polycrystaline diamond tooling (PCD).
tensile strength, toughness, and tear and abrasion resistance. Automobile tire contain on the
Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon fiber or silicon
order of 15 to 30 volume percentage of carbon black.
carbide. Because the fibres are embedded into the matrix in a certain direction, the result is
In order that carbon black may provide significant reinforcement, the particle size must be an anisotropic structure in which the alignment of the material affects its strength. One of
evenly small, with diameters between 20 and 50 nm. Moreover, the particle must be evenly the first MMCs used boron filament as reinforcement. Discontinuous reinforcement uses
distributed throughout the rubber and must form a strong adhesive bond with the rubber "whiskers", short fibers, or particles. The most common reinforcing materials in this
matrix. Particle reinforcement using other materials, e.g. silica, is much less effective as this category are alumina and silicon carbide.
special interaction between the rubber molecules and particle surfaces does not exist.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a
A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two constituent parts, subgroup of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix. The
one being a metal necessarily, the other material may be a different metal or another

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matrix and fibres can consist of any ceramic material, whereby carbon and carbon fibres can and a C/SiC composite manufactured with the liquid polymer infiltration (LPI) process (see
also be considered a ceramic material. below) is abbreviated as LPI-C/SiC.

The motivation to develop CMCs was to overcome the problems associated with the The important commercially available CMCs are C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC and Al2O3/Al2O3.
conventional technical ceramics like alumina, silicon carbide, aluminium nitride, silicon They differ from conventional ceramics in the following properties, presented in more detail
nitride or zirconia – they fracture easily under mechanical or thermo-mechanical loads below:
because of cracks initiated by small defects or scratches. The crack resistance is – like in
glass – very low. To increase the crack resistance or fracture toughness, particles (so-called • Elongation to rupture up to 1%
monocrystalline whiskers or platelets) were embedded into the matrix. However, the
• Strongly increased fracture toughness
improvement was limited, and the products have found application only in some ceramic
cutting tools. So far only the integration of long multi-strand fibres has drastically increased • Extreme thermal shock resistance
the crack resistance, elongation and thermal shock resistance, and resulted in several new
applications. The reinforcements used in ceramic matrix composites (CMC) serve to • Improved dynamical load capability
enhance the fracture toughness of the combined material system while still taking advantage
of the inherent high strength and Young’s modulus of the ceramic matrix. The most common • Anisotropic properties following the orientation of fibers
reinforcement embodiment is a continuous-length ceramic fiber, with an elastic modulus
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
that is typically somewhat higher than the matrix. The functional role of this fiber is (1) to
increase the CMC stress for progress of micro-cracks through the matrix, thereby increasing A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite material composed of a variety of short
the energy expended during crack propagation; and then (2) when thru-thickness cracks or continuous fibers bound together by an organic polymer matrix. PMCs are designed to
begin to form across the CMC at a higher stress (proportional limit stress, PLS), to bridge transfer loads between fibers through the matrix. Some of the advantages with PMCs
these cracks without fracturing, thereby providing the CMC with a high ultimate tensile include their lightweight, high stiffness and their high strength along the direction of their
strength (UTS). In this way, ceramic fiber reinforcements not only increase the composite reinforcements. Other advantages are good abrasion resistance and good corrosion
structure’s initial resistance to crack propagation, but also allow the CMC to avoid abrupt resistance.
brittle failure that is characteristic of monolithic ceramics. This behavior is distinct from the
behavior of ceramic fibers in polymer matrix composites (PMC) and metal matrix PMCs are divided into two categories: reinforced plastics, and advanced composites. The
composites (MMC), where the fibers typically fracture prior to the matrix due to the higher two categories differ in their level of mechanical properties. Reinforced plastics typically
failure strain capabilities of these matrices. consists of polyester resins reinforced with low-stiffness glass fibers. Advanced Composites
consist of fiber and matrix combinations that yield superior strength and stiffness. The PMC
Carbon (C), special silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al2O3) and mullite (Al2O3–SiO2) is designed so that the mechanical loads that are being applied to the material is being
fibres are most commonly used for CMCs. The matrix materials are usually the same, that is supported by the reinforcements. The function of the matrix is to bond the fibers together
C, SiC, alumina and mullite. Recently Ultra-high-temperature ceramics (UHTCs) were and to transfer loads between them.[1]
investigated as ceramic matrix in a new class of CMC so-called Ultra-high Temperature
Ceramic Matrix Composites (UHTCMC) or Ultra-high Temperature Ceramic Composites Composition
(UHTCC).[1][2][3][4]
Fibers
Generally, CMC names include a combination of type of fibre/type of matrix. For example,
C/C stands for carbon-fibre-reinforced carbon (carbon/carbon), or C/SiC for PMCs contain about 60 percent reinforcing fiber by volume. The fibers that are commonly
carbon-fibre-reinforced silicon carbide. Sometimes the manufacturing process is included, found and used within PMCs include fiberglass, graphite and aramid. Fiberglass has a
relatively low stiffness at the same time exhibits a competitive tensile strength compared to
other fibers. The cost of fiberglass is also dramatically lower than the other fibers which is

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why fiberglass is one of the most widely used fiber. The reinforcing fibers have their
highest mechanical properties along their lengths rather than their widths. Thus, the
reinforcing fibers maybe arranged and oriented in different forms and directions to provide
different physical properties and advantages based on the application.

Matrix

The properties of the matrix determines the resistance of the PMC to processes that includes
impact damage, water absorption, chemical attack, and high-temperature creep. This means
that the matrix of the PMC is typically the weak link. The matrix of PMCs consists of resin
that are either thermosets or thermoplastics.

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Fundamentals of production of composites

Fundamentals of production of composites • Vacuum bag Moulding

a) Open Mould Process • Autoclave Process

1.Hand lay-up Process 4.Filament Winding Process

2.Spray Lay-up Proces b) Closed mould Process

3.Bag Moulding Processs • Pultrution process

• Pressure bag Moulding • compression moulding

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• Injection Moulding Hand Lay-Up

• Sheet metal moulding Compound Process Hand lay-up molding is used for the production of parts of any dimensions such as technical
parts with a surface area of a few square feet, as well as swimming pools as large as 1600
• Resin Transfer Moulding square feet (approx. 150 m²). But this method is generally limited to the manufacture of
parts with relatively simple shapes that require only one face to have a smooth appearance
• Pulformimg
(the other face being rough from the molding operation). It is recommended for small and
• Thermoformimg medium volumes requiring minimal investment in molds and equipment.

• Blow Moulding

Pultrusion Hand Lay-Up process

Pultrusion is a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials with constant

cross-section. The term is a portmanteau word, combining "pull" and "extrusion". As

opposed to extrusion, which pushes the material, pultrusion works by pulling the material.

Pultrusion is a manufacturing process for producing continuous lengths of reinforced

polymer structural shapes with constant cross-sections. Raw materials are a liquid resin
mixture (containing resin, fillers and specialized additives) and flexible textile reinforcing
fibers. The process involves pulling these raw materials (rather than pushing, as is the case
in extrusion) through a heated steel forming die using a continuous pulling device.

The reinforcement materials are in continuous forms such as rolls of fiberglass mat and
doffs of fiberglass roving. As the reinforcements are saturated with the resin mixture
("wet-out") in the resin bath and pulled through the die, the gelation, or hardening, of the
resin is initiated by the heat from the die and a rigid, cured profile is formed that
corresponds to the shape of the die.While pultrusion machine design varies with part
geometry, the basic pultrusion process concept is described in the schematic shown below.

Hand Lay-Up process

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The contact molding method consists of applying these elements successively onto a mold optimum strength and workability of concrete mixture. One can achieve dense packing of
surface: arelease agent, a gel coat, a layer of liquid thermosetting Resin, of viscosity the aggregate and good interfacial contact by having particles of two different sizes. The fine
between 0.3 and 0.4 Pa.s, and of medium reactivity, a layer of reinforcement (glass, aramid, particles of sand should fill be void spaces between the gravel particles. Normally, these
carbon, etc.) in the form of chopped strand Mat or woven Roving Impregnation of the
reinforcement is done by hand using a roller or a brush. This operation is repeated for
each layer of reinforcement in order to obtain the desired Thickness of the structure

• RTM ( Resin Transfer Molding)

RTM is a vacuum-assisted, resin transfer process with a flexible solid counter tool for the
B-side surface compression. This process yields increased laminate compression, a high
glass-to-resin ratio, and outstanding strength-to-weight characteristics. RTM parts have two
finished surfaces.Reinforcement mat or woven roving is placed in the mold, which is then
closed and clamped. Catalyzed, low-viscosity resin is pumped in under pressure, displacing
the air and venting it at the edges, until the mold is filled. Molds for this low- pressure
system are usually made from composite or nickel shell-faced composite
construction.Suitable for medium volume production of larger components, resin transfer
molding is usually considered an intermediate process between the relatively slow spray- up
with lower tooling costs and the faster compression molding methods with higher tooling
costs.

CONCRETE
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do tempor
This is a common large-particle composite in which both matrix and disperse phases are
ceramic materials. Broadly speaking, concrete implies a composite material consisting of an
incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
aggregate of the particles that are bound together in a solid body by some type of binding
medium, i.e., a cement. The two most familiar concretes are those made with portland and
asphaltic cements, where the aggregate is gravel and sand. Asphaltic cement is used
primarily as a paving material on a wider scale, whereas portland cement concrete is used aggegrates comprise between 60% and 80% of the total volume. However, the amount of
extensively as a structural building material. cement-water paste should be sufficient to coat all the sand and gravel particles, otherwise
the cementitious bonds will be incomplete.
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
This is a major material for construction. One can pour portland cement concrete in place
The ingredients for portland cement concrete are portland cement, a fine aggregate (sand), a and it hardens at room temperature, and even when submerged in water. However, as a
coarse aggregate (gravel), and water. The aggregate particles act as a filler material to reduce structural material, it is found to be relatively weak and extremely brittle; the tensile strength
the overall cost of concrete product as they are cheap, whereas cement is relatively costly. is approximately 10 to 15 times smaller than its compressive strength. Moreover, large
The ingredients have to be added in correct proportions so that one may achieve the concrete structure can experince considerable thermal expansion and also contraction with

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temperature fluctuations. Water also penetrates into external pores, which can cause severe that is prestressed should be of a high quality and there must be a low shrinkage and low
cracking in cold weather (as a consequence of freeze-thaw cycles) creep rate. Usually, prestressed concretes are prefabricated and used mostly for railway
bridges and highway.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
DISPERSION STRENGTHENED COMPOSITE
One can increase the strength of portland cement concrete by additional reinforcement. One
can achieve this by means of steel rods, wires, bars (rebar), or mesh, which are embedded This type of composite contains small particulates or dispersions, which increase the
into the fresh and uncured concrete. Obviously, the reinforcement renders the hardened strength of the composite by blocking the movement of dislocations. The dispersoid is
structure capable of supporting greater tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Considerable typically a stable oxide of the original material. A common example is sintered aluminium
reinforcement is maintained even when cracks develop in the concrete. powder (SAP). SAP has an aluminium matrix, which contains up to 14% aluminium oxide
(Al2O3). This composite is produced with the powder metallurgy process, where the
The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is nearly the same as that of concrete and thus powders are mixed, compacted at high pressures, and sintered together. Sintering involves
it serves as a suitable reinforcement. Moreover, steel is not rapidly corroded in the cement heating a material until the particles of the material fuse together. Only the edges of the
environment and also a relatively strong adhesive bond is formed between it and the curved particles are generally bonded together; the whole particle does not melt. In terms of
concrete. One can enhance this adhesion by the incorporation of contours into the surface of sintered ceramics, the product is a strong, rigid, brittle product that exhibit good
the steel member. This permits a greater degree of interlocking. compressive strength, high melting points, and good heat resistance. Examples of
dispersion- strengthened composites include Ag–CdO, used as an electrical contact material,
One can also reinforce portland cement concrete by mixing into the fresh concrete fibres of
Pb–PbO, used in battery plates, and Be–BeO, used in nuclear reactor and aerospace
a high modulus material, e.g. glass, nylon, steel and polyethylene. However, when exposed
components. The high- temperature strength of nickel alloy may be enhanced significantly
to cement environment some fibre materials experience rapid deterioration and therefore
by the addition of about 3 volume percentage of thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed particles.
care must the exercised in using this type of reinforcement. There is another reinforcement
This material is known as thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel.
technique of strengthening concrete. This involves the introduction of residual compressive
stresses into the structural member. The resulting material is called prestressed concrete. The FIBRE REINFORCES COMPOSITES
characteristic of brittle ceramics, i.e. they are stronger in compression than in tension is
utilized in this method. Obviously, to Fracture, a prestressed concrete member, the These are strong fibres imbedded in a softer matrix to produce products with high
magnitude of the pre compressive stress must be exceeded by an applied tensile stress. strength-to weight ratios. The matrix material transmits the load to fibres, which absorb the
stress. Under an applied stress, fibrematrix bond ceases at the fibre ends, yielding a matrix
In one prestressed technique, inside the empty moulds high-strength steel wires are deformation pattern .In order to have effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite
positioned and stretched with a high tensile force, which is maintained constant. After material, some critical fibre length is esential. This critical length lc is dependent on the fibre
placing the concrete and allowing them to harden, the tension is released. As the wires diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength σF, and on the fibre-matrix bond strength (or
contract, they put the structure in a state of compression because the stress is transmitted to the shear yield strength of the matrix, whichever is smaller)
the concrete through the concrete- wire bond that is formed.
Applications of composite
There is also another technique known as posttensioning. In this technique stresses are
applied after the concrete hardens. Sheet metal or rubber tubes are situated inside and pass • Aircraft : used to make rotor blades, fins, rudders, wing body, fuel tanks, propeller
through the concrete forms, around which the concrete is cast. Steel wires are fed through blades, etc
the resulting holes after the cement has hardened and tension is applied to the wires through
jacks attached and abutted to the faces of the structure. Also, a compressive stress is • Spacecraft: rocket motor casing, heat shields, nozzles, panel doors, truss elements, etc
imposed on the concrete piece, this time by the jacks. To protect the wire from corrosion, the
• Marine: propeller vanes, fans, blowers, condenser shells, valves etc
empty spaces inside the tubing are filled finally with a grout. We must note that the concrete

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• Automobile: combustion engines, disc brakes, brake parts, drive shafts, steering
wheels, etc
Manufacturing Process
• Construction industries
1 The mould is waxed and polished for easy removal.
• Electrical and electronics field Medical
2 The gelcoat (a smooth, hard polyester resin coating) is applied to the mould
• Sports surface and is given time to cure before re-applying,Usually two coats of gelcoats are being
used.
Spray Lay-up Proces
3 The barrier coat is applied to avoid fibre print and a rough surface through
Spray-Up also known as chop method of creating fiberglass objects by spraying short the gel coat.
strands of glass out of a pneumatic gun. This method is used often when one side of the
finished product is not seen, or when large quantities of a product must be made cheaply and 4 The barrier coat is oven cured, then brought to room temperature.
quickly without regards to strength.[1] Corvette fenders and boat dinghies are commonly
manufactured this way. 5 After curing, Calcium Carbonate and Aluminium Trihydrate fillers are added
using a high shear mixing unit.
It is very different from the hand lay-up process. The difference comes from the application
of the fibre and resin material to the mould. Spray-up is an open-moulding composites 6 A wax-like additive is added into the resin to reduce styrene discharge by
fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a reusable mould. The 20% during lamination.
resin and glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in a combined
7 A fibreglass chopper is mounted on the spray gun.
stream from a chopper gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood,
foam, or other core material may then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer embeds the 8 The mixture of catalyst, resin and fibreglass is then sprayed evenly in a
core between the laminates. The part is then cured, cooled, and removed from the mould. fan-like pattern to assure even coverage.

9 A roller is used for compaction after each layer has been applied, this
removes trapped air.

10 Where desirable, wood, foam, or honeycomb cores are embedded into the
laminate to create a sandwich structure. Corner and radius coverage is also checked.

11 The part is then cured in an oven and left to cool to room temperature.

12 The mould is removed and is ready to be waxed and polished for the next
manufacture cycle.

13 Finishing is done by trimming edges of excess fibreglass and drilling holes

that are needed.

14 After this the part is assessed by quality control personal; it is weighed,

structurally checked and surface finish is inspected prior to packing and shipping.

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 • Metal rollers in both paddle and disc configurations for flattening trapped air

Bag Moulding Processs • Laminating rollers with long hair or short hair bristles for applying bonding resins and gel
coatings
While automation has gained in prevalence in the plastic molding industry, there are still
numerous manual processes in use today. For example, bag molding is a method of • Brush cleaners and brush replacements
fabricating thermoset plastic materials into a variety of durable reinforced components, a
process that relies mostly on manual control. It involves placing a specialized bag over a • Laminating and coating brushes
plastic workpiece while it is inside a mold cavity, and applying vacuum or compressed air
A liquid catalyzed resin compound that includes pigments, dyes, and other additives is
pressure around the bag. Rollers squeeze out air pockets as pressure is directed against the
typically dispensed over the mold reinforcement. The entire mixture is then covered with an
bag, and often heat is introduced to aid in the process. The bag itself is usually an
impermeable bag, while operators apply serrated hand-rollers to create a uniform
impermeable and flexible cover made of parting film or an elastomeric material.
distribution of resin under the bag’s surface. Manual rolling also helps ensure that the
Bag molding products tend to be compact and strong, with thickness tolerances resembling reinforcement is properly bonded with the resin, without any air pockets that may cause the
those offered by injection molding. Bag molding is traditionally employed for molded product to degrade. This resin-reinforcement bond is crucial for effective bag
manufacturing high performance structural components, such as construction materials, molding.
equipment housings, automotive bodies, ship hulls, and a range of military products. It is
Inserts and Curing
also often used in conjunction with other molding techniques. This combination of
machinery and hand-operated devices allows for quality and attention to detail in fabricating Depending on the application requirements, additional materials, such as wood or foam,
plastic materials. may be added to the reinforcement. Likewise, metal inserts or support components may also
be included, as they can be wholly incorporated within the resin-reinforcement bond. The
Mold Preparation
entire unit is then transported to a different area for curing, which can be accelerated through
In a standard bag molding process, the elastic bag covers the plastic material within the the use of oven or infrared heating. Once cured, the solidified product is then ejected from
mold cavity. However, before this can occur, the mold itself must be cleaned, pre-treated, the mold or the mold is dismantled around it. The product may then undergo further shaping
and sealed along the edges. The mold is usually coated with a releasing agent and a gel or finishing treatments before being ready for use.
lubricant, although molds featuring a single curve can sometimes be treated with a plastic
film instead. A reinforcing layer of glass fiber can be inserted to provide smoother surface
quality, although the key reinforcement is usually a preform composed of a glass thread mat. Vacuum bag Moulding
This preform is shaped to size before being placed into the mold along with any other
necessary reinforcing agents or additives. By reducing the pressure inside the vacuum bag, external atmospheric pressure exerts force
on the bag. The pressure on the laminate removes entrapped air, excess resin, and compacts
Bagging and Molding the laminate, resulting in a higher percentage of fiber reinforcement.

After the mold has been prepared for bagging and the glass fiber reinforcements have been Vacuum bagging can be used with wet-lay laminates and prepreg advanced composites. In
positioned, the actual fabrication process is ready to begin. In a standard bag molding wet lay up bagging the reinforcement is saturated using hand lay up, then the vacuum bag is
procedure, the following equipment is usually required to perform the manual stages of the mounted on the mold and used to compact the laminate and remove air voids. In the case of
operation: pre-impregnated advanced composites molding, the prepreg material is laid up on the mold,
the vacuum bag is mounted and the mold is heated or the mold is placed in an autoclave that
applies both heat and external pressure, adding to the force of atmospheric pressure. The

12
prepreg-vacuum bag-autoclave method is most often used to create advanced composite
aircraft and military products.
Movie 1.1 pressure bag moulding
Structures fabricated with traditional hand lay up techniques can become resin rich and
vacuum bagging can eliminate the problem. Additionally, complete fiber wet-out can be
accomplished if the process is done correctly. Improved core bonding is also possible with
vacuum bag processing.

Process:

In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a flexible film (PVA, nylon, mylar, or
polyethylene) is placed over the wet lay up, the edges are sealed, and a vacuum is drawn. A
more advanced form of vacuum bagging places a release film over the laminate, followed by
a bleeder ply of fiberglass cloth, non-woven nylon, polyester cloth, or other material that
absorbs excess resin from the laminate. A breather ply of a non woven fabric is placed over
the bleeder ply, and the vacuum bag is mounted over the entire assembly. Pulling a vacuum
from within the bag uses atmospheric pressure to eliminate voids and force excess resin
from the laminate. The addition of pressure further results in high fiber concentration and
provides better adhesion between layers of sandwich construction. When laying
non-contoured sheets of PVC foam of balsa into a female mold, vacuum bagging is the
technique of choice to ensure proper secondary bonding of the core to the outer laminate.

Molds:

Molds are similar to those used for conventional open mold processe

Pressure bag Moulding

Autoclave Process

An autoclave is a pressure chamber used to carry out industrial processes requiring elevated
temperature and pressure different from ambient air pressure. Autoclaves are used in
medical applications to perform sterilization and in the chemical industry to cure coatings
and vulcanize rubber and for hydrothermal synthesis. They are also used in industrial
applications, especially regarding composites, see autoclave (industrial).

Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to
high-pressure saturated steam at 121 °C (249 °F) for around 15–20 minutes depending on
the size of the load and the contents. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in

13
1884,[2] although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in cutter or a roller die/die cutter. Wink meaning that 2 blades meet on center to cut the
1679.[3] The name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning self, and Latin clavis extrudate to length. For example; Molding water bottles used die cut sheets from a roller die.
meaning key, thus a self-locking device. The sheet was 3 inch by 6 inch. The first sheet was placed- one below a core and one sheet
of equal size above the core, and then the top of the mold lowered by hand or by hoist to
near shut. The mold was then pushed into the press. The start button hydraulically closed the
vertical press to full pressure. The mold temperature was about 350 degrees. The platens of
the presses were steam heated. When the cycle ended (about 3.5-4.0 Minutes) the press
would open and the mold would be pulled out toward the operator. The operator would pry
to open the clam shell mold top, and then lean the top of the mold back against the press.
Exposed is the bottle with the core still inside. While the bottle was still hot the operator
would insert prongs like reverse pliers in between the bottle rubber and the steel core. The
operator would then stretch the bottle at the neck over the core to free the bottle. In
preparation of compression molding baby nipples and golf ball centers the preforms were
extruded. The baby nipple was a kidney shape about 2 inches tall and 1/2 inch wide in the
middle. The golf ball center preform had a 1 x 1 inch round slug. Both slugs were designed
to stand up in the mold cavity. During the cycle the operator would load the jig with slugs.
compression moulding When the mold is opened, the lower platen would lower and the mold would be
hydraulically pushed ou to the operator. Therein, the heat sheet (all molded parts from that
Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally cycle were joined together by a parting line rind (flash)) were placed in a transfer cart. The
preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top next cycle began by the jig being put over the mold. The slide tray was pulled and the
force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold preforms were released into the cavity of the mold. The start button moved the lower platen
areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The back into the press and the cure cycle bagan again. Therein the first cycle was complete.
process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of Each operator ran an average of 4 presses. Loading an unload was done during the cycle.
granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. The heat sheets removed from the mold were then transported to a die station. The die out
station would remove the rind leaving the finished parts. With the evolution of compression
Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
molding, next was injection transfer. Basically the extruder was made part of the molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can
cycle. The rubber was injected into an upper heated platen station, and then pressure was
also be compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented
applied to transfer molten rubber to the clamped mold. The design of injection transfer and
fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold
improved molds were more so plastic injection molding except the platens and molds of
large, fairly intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods compared with
injection transfer are heated. In contrast plastic Injections molding shoots a hot plastic into a
other methods such as transfer molding and injection molding; moreover it wastes relatively
cold mold
little material, giving it an advantage when working with expensive compounds.

Process

Compression molding is one of the oldest manufacturing technique for rubber molding. The
process parameters includes molding time, temperature, and pressure. Usually, a 300-400
ton clamp pressure is used. The typical mold is shaped like a clam shell. The molding press
looked a lot like a ladle filled vertical press used for casting aluminum. The bottom of the
mold was always the cavity. Compression molding used preforms made by an extruder/wink

14
 The dwelling phase consists of a pause in the injection process. Once the molten plastic has
been injected into the mould, the pressure is applied to make sure all of the mould cavities
are filled.

Cooling

The plastic is allowed to cool to its solid form within the mould.

Mould Opening

The clamping unit is opened, which separates the two halves of the mould.

Ejection

An ejecting rod and plate eject the finished piece from the mould. The unused sprues and
runners can be recycled for use again in future moulds

Injection Moulding

Injection Moulding is the process of forcing melted plastic in to a mould cavity. Once the
plastic has cooled, the part can be ejected. Injection moulding is often used in Sheet metal
mass-production and prototyping and is a relatively new way to manufacture parts, the first
machines appearing in the 1930’s. There are six major steps in the injection moulding
process:

Clamping

An injection moulding machine consists of three basic parts: the mould, plus the clamping
and injection units. The clamping unit holds the two halves of the injection mould together
during the injection and cooling.

Injection

During the injection phase plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is loaded into a
hopper on top of the injection unit. The pellets feed into a cylinder where they are heated
until they reach molten form. Within the heating cylinder there is a motorised screw or ram
that mixes the molten pellets and forces them to end of the cylinder. Once enough material
has accumulated in front of the screw, the injection process begins. The molten plastic is
inserted into the mould through a sprue (channel), while the pressure and speed are
controlled by the screw.

Dwelling

15
moulding Compound Process charge and once fully cured, this is then removed from the mould as the finished product.
Fillers both reduce weight and change the physical properties, typically adding strength.
Sheet moulding compound (SMC) or sheet moulding composite is a ready to mould Production challenges include wetting the filler, which could consist of glass microspheres
glass-fibre reinforced polyester material primarily used in compression moulding.[1] The or aligned fibers rather than random chopped fibers; adjusting die temperature and pressure
sheet is provided in rolls weighing up to 1000 kg. Alternatively the resin and related to provide the proper geometry; and adjusting chemistry to end use.
materials may be mixed on site when a producer wants greater control over the chemistry
and filler. Thermoformimg

SMC is both a process and reinforced composite material. This is manufactured by Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable
dispersing long strands (usually >1”) of chopped fiber (commonly glass fibers or carbon forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable
fibers on a bath of thermoset resin (commonly polyester resin, vinyl ester resin or epoxy product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is
resin)). The longer fibers in SMC result in better strength properties than standard bulk heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a
moulding compound (BMC) products. Typical applications include demanding electrical mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.
applications, corrosion resistant needs, structural components at low cost, automotive, and
transit In its simplest form, a small tabletop or lab size machine can be used to heat small cut
sections of plastic sheet and stretch it over a mold using vacuum. This method is often used
Process for sample and prototype parts. In complex and high-volume applications, very large
production machines are utilized to heat and form the plastic sheet and trim the formed parts
Paste reservoir dispenses a measured amount of specified resin paste onto a plastic carrier from the sheet in a continuous high-speed process, and can produce many thousands of
film. This carrier film passes underneath a chopper which cuts the fibers onto the surface. finished parts per hour depending on the machine and mold size and the size of the parts
Once these have drifted through the depth of resin paste, another sheet is added on top being formed.
which sandwiches the glass. The sheets are compacted and then enter onto a take-up roll,
which is used to store the product whilst it matures. The carrier film is then later removed Thermoforming differs from injection molding, blow molding, rotational molding and other
and the material is cut into charges. Depending on what shape is required determines the forms of processing plastics. Thin-gauge thermoforming is primarily the manufacture of
shape of the charge and steel die which it is then added to. Heat and pressure act on the disposable cups, containers, lids, trays, blisters, clamshells, and other products for the food,
medical, and general retail industries. Thick-gauge thermoforming includes parts as diverse
as vehicle door and dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets.

16
Keynote on Composite Materials
Review 1.1 Quiz on Composite Materials

Question 1 of 5
Composite materials are classified based on

A. Type of matrix

B. Size-and-shape of reinforcement

C. Both
Keynote on Composite Materials

D. None

Check Answer

17
Autoclave

An autoclave is a pressure chamber used to carry out industrial processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure different
from ambient air pressure

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Chapter 1 - Fundamentals of production of composite

Fibers

A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists of three components: (i) the fibers as the
discontinuous or dispersed phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine interphase region, also known as the
interface.

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Molds

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of
the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of
the mold to complete the process

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Physico-mechanical

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REINFORCED

strengthen or support (an object or substance), especially with additional material.

"the helmet has been reinforced with a double layer of cork

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Chapter 1 - Fundamentals of production of composite