UNIT III PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

MATHEMATICS OF ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY: Primes – Primality Testing –

Factorization – Euler‘s totient function, Fermat‘s and Euler‘s Theorem – Chinese Remainder Theorem –
Exponentiation and logarithm
ASYMMETRIC KEY CIPHERS: RSA cryptosystem – Key distribution – Key management – Diffie
Hellman key exchange -ElGamal cryptosystem – Elliptic curve arithmetic-Elliptic curve cryptography.

MATHEMATICS OF ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

PRIME NUMBER
An integer p > 1 is a prime number if and only if its only divisors are ±1 and ±p. Any integer a> 1 can be
factored in a unique way as

where p1 <p2 <…< pt are prime numbers and where each ai is a positive integer.

Eg, 91 = 7 * 13
3600 = 24 * 32 * 52
11011 = 7 * 112 * 13

If P is the set of all prime numbers, then any positive integer a can be written uniquely in the following
form:

It is easy to determine the greatest common divisor of two positive integers if we express each integer as the
product of primes
Eg 300 = 22 * 31 * 52
18 = 21 * 32
gcd(18, 300) = 21 * 31 * 50 = 6

The following relationship always holds: If k = gcd(a, b), then kp = min(ap, bp) for all p.

TESTING FOR PRIMALITY

For many cryptographic algorithms, it is necessary to select one or more very large prime numbers at
random. Thus, we are faced with the task of determining whether a given large number is prime. There is no
simple yet efficient means of accomplishing this task.

Miller-Rabin Algorithm
The algorithm due to Miller and Rabin [MILL75, RABI80] is typically used to test a large number for
primality.
TEST (n)
1. Find integers k, q, with k > 0, q odd, so that (n - 1 = 2kq);
2. Select a random integer a, 1 < a < n - 1;
3. if aqmod n = 1 then return("inconclusive");
4. for j = 0 to k - 1 do
5. if a2jqmod n = n - 1 then return("inconclusive");
6. return("composite");
Example 1: Let us apply the test to the prime number n = 29.
(n - 1) = 28 =22(7) = 2kq.
First, let us try a = 10.
Compute 107 mod 29 = 17,
(107)2 mod 29 = 28, and the test returns inconclusive.
So n is prime number.

FERMAT AND EULER'S THEOREM

Two theorems that play important roles in public-key cryptography are Fermat’s theorem and Euler’s
theorem

Fermat's Theorem (also called as Fermat’s little Theorem)

Definition:
If P is prime and a is a positive integer not divisible by p, then ap-1 ≡ 1 (mod p)

Fermat's little theorem is the basis for the Fermat primality test and is one of the fundamental results
of elementary number theory.
This theorem is useful in generating public key in RSA and Primality testing
Proof:
1) Consider the set of positive integers less than p:{1,2,3..p-1}
2) Multiply each element by a, modulo p to get the set

X ={ a mod p,2a mod p….(p-1) a mod p}.

➢ None of the elements of X is equal to zero because p does not divide a.

➢ No two of the integers in X are equal.
➢ We know that (p-1) elements of X are all positive integers with no two elements are equal.
So, we can conclude X consists of the set of integers {1,2,………..,p-1} in some order
3) Multiplying the numbers in both sets (p and X) and taking the result mod p yields.
a * 2a *…*(p-1)a ≡ [(1*2*…*(p-1)](mod p)
{1 * 2 *…*(p-1)} ap-1 ≡ [(1*2*…*(p-1)](mod p)
(p-1)! ap-1≡ (p-1)!(mod p)
ap-1 ≡ 1(mod p)

Example
a = 7, p = 19
• 72 = 49≡ 11 (mod 19)
• 74 = 72 x 72 = 121 ≡ 7 (mod 19)
• 78 = 74 x 74 = 7 x 7 = 49 ≡ 11 (mod 19)
• 716 ≡ 78 x 78 = 11 x 11 = 121 ≡ 7 (mod 19)
• ap-1 = 718 = 716 * 72 ≡ 7 * 11 ≡ 1 (mod 19)

An alternative form of Fermat’s theorem:

If p is prime and a is a positive integer, ap ≡ a (mod p)
Eg: a=3, p=5
ap = 35 = 243≡ 3 (mod 5)= a(mod p)
ap ≡ a (mod p)

Euler’s Totient function

Euler's totient function written as ∅(𝑛), (called as phi) is defined as the number of positive integers less than
n and relatively prime (Co-Prime) to n.

The Properties are as follows

1) ø(1) = 1
2) ø(p)=p-1 for p (p prime)
3) ø(p.q)=(p-1)x(q-1) for p.q (p,q prime )

Suppose that we have two prime numbers p and q, with p not equal to q. Then we can show that
n=pq.
ø(n)= ø(pq)= ø(p)* ø(q)=(p-1)*(q-1)

Examples:
1) ø(37) = 36 {ø(p)=p-1 for p (p prime)]
2) ø(21) = ø(3)* ø(7)= (3–1)x(7–1) = 2x6 = 12 where the 12 integers are {1,2,4,5,8,10,11,13,16,17, 19,
20}
[ ø(p.q)=(p-1)x(q-1) for p.q (p,q prime )]

Sample Examples
1. What is the value of Φ(13)?
Because 13 is a prime, Φ (13) = (13 −1) = 12.
2. What is the value of Φ (10)?
We can use the third rule: Φ (10) = Φ (2) × Φ (5) = 1 × 4 = 4, because 2 and 5 are primes.
3. What is the number of elements in Z14*?
The answer is Φ (14) = Φ (7) × Φ (2) = 6 × 1 = 6. The members are 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, and 13.

Euler’s theorem

Euler’s theorem states that for every a and n that are relatively prime:
a ø(n) ≡ 1(mod n)

Proof:
The above equation is true, if n is prime, because in that case ø(n)=(n-1) and Fermat’s theorem holds.
However it holds for any integer n.

1)Recall that ø(n)is the number of positive integers less than n that are relatively prime to n. consider the set
of such integers, labeled as follows:
R={x1,x2….x ø(n)}
That is, each element xi of R is a unique positive integer less than n with gcd(xi,n)=1.

2)Now multiply each element by a modulo n:

S={(ax1 mod n), (ax2 mod n),…. (ax ø(n) mod n)}
3) The set S is a permutation of R, by the following reasons:
1.Because a is relatively prime to n and xi is relatively prime to n,axi must also be relatively prime to n. thus
all the members of S are integers that are less than n and that are relatively prime to n.
2. There are no duplicates in S. if axi mod n=axi mod n, then xi=xj

An alternative form of the theorem is also useful:

THE CHINESE REMAINDER THEOREM

The Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) is used to solve a set of congruent equations with one variable
but different moduli, which are relatively prime, as shown below:

Let m1, m2 …….mk be integers with gcd(mi, mj) = 1, whenever i≠ j. Let a1, a2 …… ak be integers, there
exists exactly one solution x (mod m1, m2 …..mk) to the simultaneous congruences

x≡a1 (mod m1)

x≡a2 (mod m2)
x≡ak (mod mk)

If n1,n2,..,nk are positive integers that are pairwise co-prime and a1,a2,…,ak are any integers, then CRT is
used to find the values of x that solves the following congruence simultaneously.

Value of x=(a1m1y1+a2m2y2+…+akmkyk)mod M
Where M=n1n2n3..nk
mi=M/ni
miyi=1 mod ni

Example 1:
Find the solution to the simultaneous equations: x ≡ 1 ( mod 5), x≡ 2 (mod 6), x≡ 3 (mod 7).
Solution
M=n1n2n3
M=5*6*7=210
 mi=M/ni
m1=210/5=42
m2=210/6=35
m3=210/7=30
miyi=1 mod ni
42y1=1 mod 5
y1= 2

35y2= 1 mod 6
y2=5

30y3=1 mod 7
y3=2

x=(a1m1y1+a2m2y2+ a3m3y3)mod M
=((1*42*2)+(2*35*5)+(3*30*3)) mod 210
=193

Example 2:

Find an integer that has a remainder of 3 when divided by 7 and 13, but is divisible by 12.
Solution: This is a CRT problem. We can form three equations and solve them to find the value of x.

Example 3:
A bag has contained number of pens if you take out 3 pens at a time 2 pens are left. If you take out 4
pens at a time 1 pen is left and if you take out 5 pens at a time 3 pens are left in the bag. What is the number
of pens in the bag.
x ≡ 2 mod 3
x ≡ 1 mod 4
x ≡ 3 mod 5
a1=2
a2=1
a3=3
n1=3
n2=4
n3=5
M=n1n2n3
M=3*4*5=60
mi=M/ni
m1=60/3=20
m2=60/4=15
m3=60/5=12

miyi=1 mod ni
20y1=1 mod 3
Y1=2 mod 3

15y2= 1 mod 4
y2=3 mod 4

12y3=1 mod 5
y3=3 mod 5

x=(a1m1y1+a2m2y2+ a3m3y3)mod M
=((2*20*2)+(1*15*3)+(3*12*3)) mod 60
=233 mod 60
=53

DISCRETE LOGARITHMS.
Discrete logarithms are fundamental to a number of public-key algorithms. Discrete logarithms are
analogous to ordinary logarithms but are defined using modular arithmetic.

Discrete logarithms are fundamental to a number of public-key algorithms, including Diffie-Hellman key
exchange and the digital signature algorithm (DSA)

The Powers of an Integer, Modulo n

Recall from Euler’s theorem that, for every and that are relatively prime,

Where , Euler’s totient function, is the number of positive integers less than
and relatively prime to . Now consider the more general expression:

If a and n are relatively prime, then there is at least one integer m that satisfies
Equation, namely M= , . The least positive exponent m for which
Equation holds is referred to in several ways:
• The order of a(mod n)
• The exponent to which a belongs (mod n)
• The length of the period generated by a
The highest possible exponent to which a number can belong (mod n) is . If a number is of this order,
it is referred to as a primitive root of n .The importance of this notion is that if is a primitive root of , then
its powers
Logarithms for Modular Arithmetic
A primitive root of a prime number p is one whose powers modulo p generate all the integers from 1
to p - 1. That is, if ‘a’ is a primitive root of the prime number p, then the numbers
a mod p, a2 mod p,…, ap-1 mod p
are distinct and consist of the integers from 1 through p - 1 in some permutation.
For any integer b and a primitive root a of prime number p, we can find a unique exponent i such that
b≡ ai (mod p) where 0 … i … (p - 1)
The exponent i is referred to as the discrete logarithm of b for the base a, mod p.
We denote this value as dloga,p(b)
Note the following:
dloga,p(a) = 1 because a1 mod p = a
dloga,p(1) = 0 because a0 mod p = 1 mod p = 1

Calculation of Discrete Logarithms

Consider the equation
y = gx mod p

Given g, x , and p , it is a straightforward matter to calculate y. At the worst, we must

perform repeated multiplications, and algorithms exist for achieving greater efficiency.

PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

Introduction to Public key Cryptography:

➢ Public key cryptography also called as asymmetric cryptography.
➢ It was invented by whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in 1976. Sometimes this
cryptography also called as Diffie-Helman Encryption.
➢ Public key algorithms are based on mathematical problems which admit no efficient
solution that are inherent in certain integer factorization, discrete logarithm and Elliptic
curve relations.
Public key Cryptosystem Principles:
➢ The concept of public key cryptography in invented for two most difficult problems of
Symmetric key encryption.
▪ The Key Exchange Problem
▪ The Trust Problem
The Key Exchange Problem: The key exchange problem arises from the fact that
communicating parties must somehow share a secret key before any secure
communication can be initiated, and both parties must then ensure that the key
remains secret. Of course, direct key exchange is not always feasible due to risk,
inconvenience, and cost factors.
The Trust Problem: Ensuring the integrity of received data and verifying the
identity of the source of that data can be very important. Means in the symmetric
key cryptography system, receiver doesn’t know whether the message is coming
for particular sender.
 ➢ This public key cryptosystem uses two keys as pair for encryption of plain text and
Decryption of cipher text.
➢ These two keys are names as “Public key” and “Private key”. The private key is kept
secret whereas public key is distributed widely.
➢ A message or text data which is encrypted with the public key can be decrypted only with
the corresponding private-key
➢ This two key system very useful in the areas of confidentiality (secure) and
authentication
A public-key encryption scheme has six ingredients

1 Plaintext This is the readable message or data that is fed into the algorithm as input.

Encryption
2 The encryption algorithm performs various transformations on the plaintext.
algorithm

This is a pair of keys that have been selected so that if one is used for
3 Public key
encryption, the other is used for decryption. The exact transformations
performed by the algorithm depend on the public or private key that is provided
Private
4 as input
Key

This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext

5 Ciphertext and the key. For a given message, two different keys will produce two different
ciphertexts.

Decryption This algorithm accepts the ciphertext and the matching key and produces the
6
algorithm original plaintext.
Public key cryptography for providing confidentiality (secrecy)

The essential steps are the following.

1. Each user generates a pair of keys to be used for the encryption and decryption of
messages.
2. Each user places one of the two keys in a public register or other accessible file. This is
the public key. The companion key is kept private. So above fig states that each user
maintains a collection of public keys obtained from others.
3. If Bob wishes to send a confidential message to Alice, Bob encrypts the message using
Alice’s public key.
4. When Alice receives the message, she decrypts it using her private key. No other
recipient can decrypt the message because only Alice knows Alice’s private key.
 There is some source A that produces a message in plaintext X = [X1, X2, . . . ,XM].
The M elements of X are letters in some finite alphabet. The message is intended for
destination B. B generates a related pair of keys: a public key, PUb, and a private key, PRb.
PRb is known only to B, whereas PUb is publicly available and therefore accessible by A.
With the message X and the encryption key PUb as input, A forms the ciphertext Y = [Y1, Y2, . . .
, YN]:

The intended receiver, in possession of the matching private key, is able to invert the
transformation:

Public key cryptography for proving Authentication:

The above diagrams show the use of public-key encryption to provide authentication:

➢ In this case,A prepares a message to B and encrypts it using A’s private key before
transmitting it. B can decrypt the message using A’s public key. Because the message
was encrypted using A’s private key, only A could have prepared the message. Therefore,
the entire encrypted message serves as a digital signature.
➢ It is impossible to alter the message without access to A’s private key, so the message is
authenticated both in terms of source and in terms of data integrity.

Public key cryptography for both authentication and confidentiality (Secrecy)

It is, however, possible to provide both the authentication function and confidentiality by
a double use of the public-key scheme (above figure):

In this case, we begin as before by encrypting a message, using the sender’s private key.
This provides the digital signature. Next, we encrypt again, using the receiver’s public key. The
final ciphertext can be decrypted only by the intended receiver, who alone has the matching
private key. Thus, confidentiality is provided.

Applications for Public-Key Cryptosystems

The use of public-key cryptosystems into three categories
• Encryption /decryption: The sender encrypts a message with the recipient’s public key.
• Digital signature: The sender “signs” a message with its private key. Signing is achieved by a
cryptographic algorithm applied to the message or to a small block of data that is a function of
the message.
• Key exchange: Two sides cooperate to exchange a session key. Several different approaches
are possible, involving the private key(s) of one or both parties.
 Algorithm Encryption/Decryption Digital Signature Key Exchange
RSA Yes Yes Yes
Elliptic Curve Yes Yes Yes
Diffie-Hellman No No Yes
DSS No Yes No

RSA
➢ It is the most common public key algorithm.
➢ This RSA name is get from its inventors first letter (Rivest (R), Shamir (S) and Adleman
(A)) in the year 1977.
➢ The RSA scheme is a block cipher in which the plaintext & ciphertext are integers
between 0 and n-1 for some ‘n’.
➢ A typical size for ‘n’ is 1024 bits or 309 decimal digits. That is, n is less than 21024
Description of the Algorithm:
➢ RSA algorithm uses an expression with exponentials.

➢ In RSA plaintext is encrypted in blocks, with each block having a binary value less than
some number n. that is, the block size must be less than or equal to log2(n)
➢ RSA uses two exponents ‘e’ and ‘d’ where e is public and d is private.
➢ Encryption and decryption are of following form, for some PlainText ‘M’ and
CipherText block ‘C’

M=Cd mod = (Me mod n) d mon n =(Me)d mod n= Med mod n

➢ Both sender and receiver must know the value of n.
➢ The sender knows the value of ‘e’ & only the reviver knows the value of ‘d’ thus this is a
public key encryption algorithm with a
Public key PU={e, n}
Private key PR={d, n}

Requirements:
The RSA algorithm to be satisfactory for public key encryption, the following requirements must
be met:
1. It is possible to find values of e, d n such that “ Med mod n =M ” for all M<n
2. It is relatively easy to calculate “ Me mod n “ and “ Cd mod n “for M<n
3. It is infeasible to determine “d” given ‘e’ & ‘n’. The “ Med mod n =M ” relationship
holds if ‘e’ & ‘d’ are multiplicative inverses modulo Ø(n).
Ø(n) is Euler Totient function
For p,q primes where p*q and p≠q.
Ø(n)= Ø(pq)=(p-1)(q-1)
 Then the relation between ‘e’ & ‘d’ can be expressed as “ “
this is equivalent to saying

That is ‘e’ and ‘d’ are multiplicative inverses mod Ø(n).

Note: according to the rules of modular arithmetic, this is true only if ‘d’ (and ‘e’) is
relatively prime to Ø(n).
Equivalently gcd(Ø(n), d)=1.
Steps of RSA algorithm:
Step 1 Select 2 prime numbers p & q
Step 2 Calculate n=pq
Step 3Calculate Ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
Step 4 Select or find integer e (public key) which is relatively prime to Ø(n).ie., e with
gcd (Ø(n), e)=1 where 1<e< Ø(n).
Step 5 Calculate “d” (private key) by using following condition.
d< Ø(n).

Step 6 Perform encryption by using

Step 7 perform Decryption by using

Example:
1. Select two prime numbers, p = 17 and q = 11.
2. Calculate n = pq = 17 × 11 = 187.
3. Calculate Ø(n) = (p - 1)(q - 1) = 16 × 10 = 160.
4. Select e such that e is relatively prime to Ø(n) = 160 and less than Ø (n); we choose e = 7.
5. Determine d such that de ≡1 (mod 160) and d < 160.The correct value is d = 23, because 23 *
7 = 161 = (1 × 160) + 1; d can be calculated using the extended Euclid’s algorithm
The resulting keys are public key PU = {7, 187} and private key PR = {23, 187}.
The example shows the use of these keys for a plaintext input of M= 88. For encryption,
we need to calculate C = 887 mod 187. Exploiting the properties of modular arithmetic, we can
do this as follows.
RSA Attacks

There are four possible approaches to attack the RSA:

• Brute force: This involves trying all possible private keys. The defence against this
attack is the use of large key space.
• Mathematical attacks: There are several approaches, all equivalent in effort to factoring
the product of two primes. Three approaches that could be identified of this type are:
o Factor n into its two prime factors which enables calculation of (n) = (p - 1) × (q
- 1), which in turn enables determination of d  e-1 (mod (n)).
o Determine (n) directly, without first determining p and q. Again, this enables
determination of d  e-1 (mod (n)).
o Determine d directly, without first determining (n).
• Timing attacks: These depend on the running time of the decryption algorithm. This
attack is alarming for two reasons namely it comes from a completely unexpected
direction, and it is a cipher text-only attack. Modular exponentiation algorithm that is
accomplished bit by bit, with one modular multiplication performed every iteration and
an additional modular multiplication performed for each 1 bit can be used to perform this
attack. Simple counter measures could be used to overcome the timing attack. They are
o Constant exponentiation time: Ensure that all exponentiations take the same
amount of time before returning a result. This is a simple fix but does degrade
performance.
o Random delay: Better performance could be achieved by adding a random delay
to the exponentiation algorithm to confuse the timing attack. Kocher points out
that if defenders don’t add enough noise, attackers could still succeed by
collecting additional measurements to compensate for the random delays.
o Blinding: Multiply the cipher text by a random number before performing
exponentiation. This process prevents the attacker from knowing what cipher text
bits are being processed inside the computer and therefore prevents the bit-by-bit
analysis essential to the timing attack.
• Chosen cipher text attacks (CCAs): This type of attack exploits properties of the RSA
algorithm. It is defined as an attack in which the adversary chooses a number of
ciphertexts and is then given the corresponding plaintexts, decrypted with the target’s
 private key. Thus, the adversary could select a plaintext, encrypt it with the target’s
public key, and then be able to get the plaintext back by having it decrypted with the
private key. Clearly, this provides the adversary with no new information. Instead, the
adversary exploits properties of RSA and selects blocks of data that, when processed
using the target’s private key, yield information needed for cryptanalysis.
To overcome this simple attack, practical RSA-based cryptosystems randomly pad
the plaintext prior to encryption. More sophisticated CCAs are possible and simple padding
with a random value is insufficient to provide the desired security. To counter such attacks
modifying the plaintext using a procedure known as optimal asymmetric encryption padding
will help.
Diffie-Hellman key exchange is the first published public key algorithm, also known as
exponential key agreement. And it is based on mathematical principles. The purpose of the algorithm
is to enable two users to exchange a key securely that can then be used for subsequent encryption of
messages.This algorithm itself is limited to exchange of the keys. Security of algorithm depends on
computing discrete logarithms values.

KEY MANAGEMENT

There are actually two distinct aspects to the use of public-key cryptography:
● The distribution of public keys
● The use of public-key encryption to distribute secret keys
1. Distribution of Public Keys
There are four different schemes
➢ Public announcement
➢ Publicly available directory
➢ Public-key authority
➢ Public-key certificates

A.Public announcement
Any participant can send his or her public key to any other participant or broadcast the
key to the community. Uncontrolled Public-Key Distribution

Limitation : Anyone can forge such a public announcement. That is, some user could pretend to be
user A and send a public key to another participant or broadcast such a public key. Authentication
is needed to avoid this problem.
B. Publicly Available Directory
A greater degree of security can be achieved by maintaining a publicly available dynamic
directory of public keys. Maintenance and distribution of the public directory would have to be the
responsibility of some trusted entity or organization.
i)The authority maintains a directory with a {name, public key} entry for each participant.
ii)Each participant registers a public key with the directory authority.
iii) Participants could also access the directory electronically.

Limitation :
An Adversary may impersonate by stealing the private key of public key directory and falsely send
the public key details.
An attacker may attack the records stored in the directory.

C. Public-key authority
Stronger security for public-key distribution can be achieved by providing tighter control
over the distribution of public keys from the directory.
Each participant reliably knows a public key for the authority, with only the authority
knowing the corresponding private key.
i) A sends a time stamped message to the public-key authority containing a request for the current
public key of B.
ii) The authority responds with a message that is encrypted using the authority's private key,
PRauth. Thus, A is able to decrypt the message using the authority's public key. Therefore, A is
assured
that the message originated with the authority. The message includes the following:
● B's public key, PUb which A can use to encrypt messages destined for B
● The original request, to enable A to match this response with the corresponding earlier request
and to verify that the original request was not altered before reception by the authority
● The original timestamp, so A can determine that this is not an old message from the authority
containing a key other than B's current public key
iii) A stores B's public key and also uses it to encrypt a message to B containing an identifier of
A (IDA) and a nonce (N1), which is used to identify this transaction uniquely.
iv) B retrieves A's public key from the authority in the same manner as A retrieved B's public
key.
v) At this point, public keys have been securely delivered to A and B, and they may begin their protected
exchange.
v) B sends a message to A encrypted with PUa and containing A's nonce (N1) as well as a new
nonce generated by B (N2) Because only B could have decrypted message (3), the presence of
N1 in message (6) assures A that the correspondent is B.
vi) A returns N2, encrypted using B's public key, to assure B that its correspondent is A.

Limitations : Bottleneck may occur in public authority. Tampering of records stored by the
authority may take place.

D. Public key certificate

A certificate consists of a public key plus an identifier of the key owner, with the whole
block signed by a trusted third party.

Typically, the third party is a certificate authority, such as a government agency or a financial
institution, that is trusted by the user community.
A user can present his or her public key to the authority in a secure manner, and obtain a
certificate. The user can then publish the certificate.
 2. Secret Key Distribution with Confidentiality and Authentication
i) A uses B's public key to encrypt a message to B containing an identifier of A (IDA) and a
nonce (N1), which is used to identify this transaction uniquely.
ii) B sends a message to A encrypted with PUa and containing A's nonce (N1) as well as a new
nonce generated by B (N2)

iv) A returns N2 encrypted using B's public key, to assure B that its correspondent is A.
A selects a secret key Ks and sends M = E(PUb, E(PRa, Ks)) to B. Encryption of this message
with B's public key ensures that only B can read it; encryption with A's private key ensures that
only A could have sent it.
v) B computes D(PUa, D(PRb, M)) to recover the secret key.

Elagamal Cryptographic system

➢ Public-key cryptosystem related to D-H
➢ uses exponentiation in a finite field
➢ with security based difficulty of computing discrete logarithms, as in D-H
➢ Used in number of standards including DSS (Digital Signature Standard) and S/MIME e-mail
standard
How K is recovered by the decryption process:
Example:
 DIFFIE- HELLMAN KEY EXCHANGE

Algorithm for Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange:

Step 1 two public known numbers q, α
q Prime number
α primitive root of q and α< q.
Step 2 if A & B users wish to exchange a key
a) User A select a random integer XA<q and computes
b) User B independently select a random integer XB <q and computes
c) Each side keeps the X value private and Makes the Y value available publicly to the
outer side.

Step 3 User A Computes the key as

User B Computes the key as

Step 4 two calculation produce identical results

(We know that )

(We know that )

The result is that the two sides have exchanged a secret key.
Example: 1
Example2:

Example 3:

MAN-IN-MIDDLE-ATTACK:

Definition: A man in the middle attack is a form of eavesdropping where communication

between two users is monitored and modified by an unauthorized party.
Generally the attacker actively eavesdrops by intercepting (stoping) a public key message
exchange.
The Diffie- Hellman key exchange is insecure against a “Man in the middle attack”.
Suppose user ‘A’ & ‘B’ wish to exchange keys, and D is the adversary (opponent). The attack
proceeds as follows.
1. ‘D’ prepares for the attack by generating two random private keys XD1 & XD2 and then
computing the corresponding public keys YD1 and YD2.
2. ‘A’ transmits ‘YA’ to ‘B’
3. ‘D’ intercepts YA and transmits YD1 to ‘B’. and D also calculates

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4. ‘B’ receives YD1 & calculate
5. ‘B’ transmits ‘YB’ to ‘A”
6. ‘D’ intercepts ‘YB’ and transmits YD2 to ‘A’ and ‘D’ calculate K1
7. A receives YD2 and calculates
At this point, Bob and Alice think that they share a secret key, but instead Bob and Darth share
secret key K1 and Alice and Darth share secret key K2. All future communication between Bob
and Alice is compromised in the following way.

The key exchange protocol is vulnerable to such an attack because it does not authenticate the
participants. This vulnerability can be overcome with the use of digital signatures and public-key
certificates.

ELLIPTIC CURVE CRYPTOGRAPHY

Elliptic Curve Arithmetic:

A major issue with the use of Public-Key Cryptography, is the size of numbers used, and hence
keys being stored. Recently, an alternate approach has emerged, elliptic curve cryptography (ECC),
which performs the computations using elliptic curve arithmetic instead of integer or polynomial
arithmetic.

Majority of public-key crypto (RSA, D-H) use either integer or polynomial arithmetic with very
large numbers/polynomials. It imposes a significant load in storing and processing keys and
messages. An alternatives to use elliptic curves; it offers same security with smaller bit sizes.
Real Elliptic Curves
Comparision of RSA/DSA (Diffie Hellman Algorithm
Elgamal Cryptography: Asymmetruc Key ( Encrp-pub key ,Decrypt-Private key)

`Let P=11;D=3;E1=2

E2=E1D mod p

E2= 23 mod 11

E2= 8 mod 11

E2=8

Now public key={E1,E2,P}={2,8,11}

Private Key=3

Encryption:

R=4

C1=E1R mod p

C1=24 mod 11

C1=16 mod 11=5

Now Pt=7

C2={Pt E2R mod p}

C2= 7x84 mod 11

C2=28672 mod 11 =6

C2=6

C.T ={5,6}

Decryption

Pt={C2 (C1D)-1 mod p}

Pt={6x(53)-1)mod 11

First: (53)-1)mod 11

(125)-1)mod 11

125 *X mod 11=1

125*1 mod 11= 121 +4 mod 11=4

125*2 mod 11= 250 mod 11= 242+8 mod11=8

125*3 mod 11=375 mod 11= 374+1 mod 11=1

Pt={6*3 mod 11}

Pt=18 mod 11=7

Pt=7

So the Decrypt and encrypt Ptvalue is same .