LECTURE 2 – ANTENNA PARAMETERS

Radiation intensity of an antenna is closely related to the direction of the beam focused and the efficiency
of the beam towards that direction.

Directivity
“The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotropic
or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called the directivity.”
An Antenna radiates power, but the direction in which it radiates matters much. The antenna, whose
performance is being observed, is termed as subject antenna.
Its radiation intensity is focused in a particular direction, while it is transmitting or receiving. Hence, the
antenna is said to have its directivity in that particular direction.
 The ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the radiation intensity
averaged over all directions, is termed as directivity.
 If that particular direction is not specified, then the direction in which maximum intensity is
observed, can be taken as the directivity of that antenna.
 The directivity of a non-isotropic antenna is equal to the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the radiation intensity of the isotropic source.

Mathematical Expression
The radiated power is a function of the angular position and the radial distance from the circuit. Hence, it
is expressed by considering both the terms θ and Ø.
Directivity=Maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna/ Radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
D=ϕ(θ,ϕ)max(from subject antenna) / ϕ0(from an isotropic antenna)
Where
 ϕ(θ,ϕ)max - is the maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna.
 ϕ0 - is the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (antenna with zero losses).

Aperture Efficiency
“Aperture efficiency of an antenna, is the ratio of the effective radiating area (or effective area) to the
physical area of the aperture.”
An antenna has an aperture through which the power is radiated. This radiation should be effective with
minimum losses. The physical area of the aperture should also be taken into consideration, as the
effectiveness of the radiation depends upon the area of the aperture, physically on the antenna.

Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for aperture efficiency is as follows −
εA=Aeff / Ap
where
 εA- is Aperture Efficiency.
 Aeff - is effective area.
 Ap – is physical area.

Antenna Efficiency
“Antenna Efficiency is the ratio of the radiated power of the antenna to the input power accepted by the
antenna.”
Simply, an Antenna is meant to radiate power given at its input, with minimum losses. The efficiency of
an antenna explains how much an antenna is able to deliver its output effectively with minimum losses in
the transmission line.
This is otherwise called as Radiation Efficiency Factor of the antenna.

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Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for antenna efficiency is given below −
ηe=Prad/Pinput
Where
 ηe is the antenna efficiency.
 Prad - is the power radiated.
 Pinput - is the input power for the antenna.

Gain
According to the standard definition, “Gain of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were
radiated isotropically.”
Simply, gain of an antenna takes the directivity of antenna into account along with its effective
performance. If the power accepted by the antenna was radiated isotropically (that means in all
directions), then the radiation intensity we get can be taken as a referential.
 The term antenna gain describes how much power is transmitted in the direction of peak
radiation to that of an isotropic source.
 Gain is usually measured in dB.
 Unlike directivity, antenna gain takes the losses that occur also into account and hence focuses on
the efficiency.

Mathematical Expression
The equation of gain, G is as shown below.
G=ηeD
Where
 G is gain of the antenna.
 ηe-is the antenna’s efficiency.
 D is the directivity of the antenna.
Units
The unit of gain is decibels or simply dB.

RADIATION PATTERN
 The radiation pattern of antenna is a representation (pictorial or mathematical) of the distribution of
the power out-flowing (radiated) from the antenna (in the case of transmitting antenna), or inflowing
(received) to the antenna (in the case of receiving antenna) as a function of direction angles from the
antenna
 Antenna radiation pattern (antenna pattern):
 is defined for large distances from the antenna, where the spatial (angular) distribution of the
radiated power does not depend on the distance from the radiation source
 is independent on the power flow direction: it is the same when the antenna is used to
transmit and when it is used to receive radiowaves
 is usually different for different frequencies and different polarizations of radio wave
radiated/ received

How antenna beam width and heights are determined

 An antenna plot tells you where the radiation is concentrated.
 Patterns are usually referenced to the outer edge of the plot, which is the maximum gain of the
antenna. This makes it easy to determine other important antenna characteristics directly from the
plot.
 Most antenna users are interested in the directivity or beamwidth of the antenna. This is usually
referred to as the "half-power" or 3 dB beamwidth, the points between which half the power is
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 radiated or concentrated, and specified in degrees. As an example, the typical half-power beamwidths
of a 3, 6 and 10 element Yagi are 60°, 40° and 30° respectively.

 Beam width is a function of design, which has to incorporate all the relevant (and related!) factors to
achieve the optimal result: gain, VSWR ( voltage standing wave ratio), front-to-back ratio, operating
frequency, & bandwidth. Antenna Experts antennas have excellent operating characteristics in that
they are broadband, have a VSWR of 1.5:1 or less, a high front-to-back, and very consistent gain
across the operating frequency.
 If you require more coverage, choose an antenna with more beamwidth. However, more beamwidth
can imply a lower nominal gain at the same frequency than an antenna with a narrow beamwidth.

Types of Radiation patterns

The common types of Radiation patterns are −
 Omni-directional pattern (also called non-directional pattern): The pattern usually has a doughnut
shape in three-dimensional view. However, in two-dimensional view, it forms a figure-of-eight
pattern.
 Pencil-beam pattern − The beam has a sharp directional pencil shaped pattern.
 Fan-beam pattern − The beam has a fan-shaped pattern.
 Shaped beam pattern − The beam, which is non-uniform and patternless is known as shaped
beam.
A referential point for all these types of radiation is the isotropic radiation. It is important to consider the
isotropic radiation even though it is impractical.

ANTENNA POLARIZATION
The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the wave radiated by the antenna. At a given position,
the polarization describes the orientation of the electric field.
Some antennas are vertically polarised, others horizontal, and yet other antenna types have different
forms of polarisation.

When designing an antenna, deciding on a particular form of antenna, it is important to understand which
way it needs to be polarised. Radio antennas with a particular polarisation will not be effective receiving
electromagnetic wave signals with a different polarisation.

A vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically polarised signals best and
similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarised signals.
There are several categories of polarisation, and within each type there are several sub categories. Along
with this the relevant antennas have corresponding polarisations.

 Linear polarisation: Linear polarisation is the most common form of antenna polarisation. It is
characterised by the fact that all of the radiation is in one plane - hence the term linear:

 Horizontal polarisation: This form of antenna polarisation has horizontal elements. It picks up
and radiates horizontally polarised signals, i.e. electromagnetic waves with the electric field in the
horizontal plane.
 Vertical polarisation: This form of antenna is typified by the vertical elements within the
antenna. It could be a single vertical element. One of the reasons for using vertical polarisation is
that antennas comprising of a single vertical element can radiate equally around it in the
horizontal plane. Typically vertically polarised antennas have what is termed a low angle of
radiation enabling a large proportion of their power to be radiated at an angle close to the earth’s
surface. Vertically polarised antennas are also very convenient for use with automobiles.

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  Slant polarisation: This is a form of radio antenna polarisation that is at an angle to the
horizontal or vertical planes. In this way both vertical and horizontally polarised antennas are able
to receive the signal.
 Circular polarisation: This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it
helps overcome the effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that
occur on many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear
polarisation. However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that
is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it
travels away from the antenna.

 Right hand circular polarisation: In this form of polarisation the vector rotates in a right handed
fashion.
 Left hand circular polarisation : In this form of polarisation the vector rotates in a left handed
fashion, i.e. opposite to right handed.
 Mixed polarisation: Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when
there is a mix of linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the
electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.
It is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and vice versa. The
strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted vertically, horizontally or in any
other plane but directed towards the arriving signal.

Typical Applications

Vertical polarization is most often used when it is desired to radiate a radio signal in all directions such
as widely distributed mobile units. Vertical polarization also works well in the suburbs or out in the
country, especially where hills are present. As a result, nowadays most two-way Earth to Earth
communications in the frequency range above 30 MHz use vertical polarization.

Horizontal polarization is used to broadcast television in the USA. Some say that horizontal polarization
was originally chosen because there was an advantage to not have TV reception interfered with by
vertically polarized stations such as mobile radio. Also, man made radio noise is predominantly vertically
polarized and the use of horizontal polarization would provide some discrimination against interference
from noise.
In the early days of FM radio in the 88-108 MHz spectrum, the radio stations broadcasted horizontal
polarization. However, in the 1960's, FM radios became popular in automobiles which used vertical
polarized receiving whip antennas. As a result, the FCC modified Part 73 of the rules and regulations to
allow FM stations to broadcast RHC or elliptical polarization to improve reception to vertical receiving
antennas as long as the horizontal component was dominant.

Circular polarization is most often use on satellite communications. This is particularly desired since the
polarization of a linear polarized radio wave may be rotated as the signal passes through any anomalies
(such as Faraday rotation) in the ionosphere. Furthermore, due to the position of the Earth with respect to
the satellite, geometric differences may vary especially if the satellite appears to move with respect to the
fixed Earth bound station. Circular polarization will keep the signal constant regardless of these
anomalies.

Near and Far Fields

The radiation intensity when measured nearer to the antenna, differs from what is away from the antenna.
Though the area is away from the antenna, it is considered effective, as the radiation intensity is still high
there.

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Near Field
The field, which is nearer to the antenna, is called as near-field. It has an inductive effect and hence it is
also known as inductive field, though it has some radiation components.

Far field
The field, which is far from the antenna, is called as far-field. It is also called as radiation field, as the
radiation effect is high in this area. Many of the antenna parameters along with the antenna directivity and
the radiation pattern of the antenna are considered in this region only.

Field Pattern
The field distribution can be quantifying in terms of field intensity is referred to as field pattern. That
means, the radiated power from the antenna when plotted, is expressed in terms of electric field, E (v/m).
Hence, it is known as field pattern. If it is quantified in terms of power (W), then it is known as power
pattern.

The field pattern can be classified as −

 Reactive near-field region and Radiating near-field region – both termed as nearfield.
 Radiating far-field region – simply called as far-field.
The field, which is very near to the antenna is reactive near field or non-radiative field where the
radiation is not pre-dominant. The region next to it can be termed as radiating near field or Fresnel’s
field as the radiation predominates and the angular field distribution, depends on the physical distance
from the antenna.
The region next to it is radiating far-field region. In this region, field distribution is independent of the
distance from antenna. The effective radiation pattern is observed in this region.

Beam Width
Beam width is the aperture angle from where most of the power is radiated. The two main considerations
of this beam width are Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) and First Null Beam Width (FNBW).
Half-Power Beam Width
According to the standard definition, “The angular separation, in which the magnitude of the radiation
pattern decreases by 50% (or -3dB) from the peak of the main beam, is the Half Power Beam Width.”
In other words, Beam width is the area where most of the power is radiated, which is the peak power.
Half power beam width is the angle in which relative power is more than 50% of the peak power, in the
effective radiated field of the antenna.

Indication of HPBW
When a line is drawn between radiation pattern’s origin and the half power points on the major lobe, on
both the sides, the angle between those two vectors is termed as HPBW, half power beam width. This can
be well understood with the help of the following diagram.

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Reciprocity
An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. While using so, we may
come across a question whether the properties of the antenna might change as its operating mode is
changed. Fortunately, we need not worry about that. The properties of antenna being unchangeable is
called as the property of reciprocity.

Properties under Reciprocity

The properties of transmitting and receiving antenna that exhibit the reciprocity are −
 Equality of Directional patterns.
 Equality of Directivities.
 Equality of Effective lengths.
 Equality of Antenna impedances.

Equality of Directional patterns

The radiation pattern of transmitting antenna1, which transmits to the receiving antenna2 is equal to the
radiation pattern of antenna2, if it transmits and antenna1 receives the signal.

Equality of Directivities
Directivity is same for both transmitting and receiving antennas, if the value of directivity is same for
both the cases i.e. the directivities are same whether calculated from transmitting antenna’s power or
receiving antenna’s power.

Equality of Effective lengths

The value of maximum effective aperture is same for both transmitting and receiving antennas. Equality
in the lengths of both transmitting and receiving antennas is maintained according to the value of the
wavelength.

Equality in Antenna Impedances

The output impedance of a transmitting antenna and the input impedance of a receiving antenna are equal
in an effective communication.
These properties will not change though the same antenna is operated as a transmitter or as a receiver.
Hence, the property of reciprocity is followed.

Mounting hardware
The factors that determine the type, size, and shape of the antenna are
(1) the frequency of operation of the transmitter,
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(2) the amount of power to be radiated, and
(3) the general direction of the receiving set.

 All the materials used for mounting hardware are made of either stainless steel or galvanized mild
steel with powder coating.
 All fasteners supplied with the antenna are made of high quality stainless steel.
 All the antennas are supplied with stainless steel mounting hardware, unless if there is any special or
custom mounting required by the customer.

Grounding
 Lightning protection must be examined from four distinct directions.
 the place where the antenna is mounted (such as on a tower) is important.
 there must be input protection from the lightning strike itself, typically in the form of a huge and
rapid build up of voltage and current at the input to the radio.
 a proper ground system must be employed to rapidly conduct the lightning bolt energy away from the
radio.
 If at all possible, don't mount your antenna on the highest building or tower. Place it a few feet lower
and hopefully the fickle lightning bolt, if it generates a direct hit, will not discharge through the
antenna.
 The mast should be grounded to the mast or tower. Don't forget to ground wires that are used on
stabilize towers. They are just as likely to be hit since they extend over a wide area around the tower.
 The most important lightning protection is good low impedance Earth/ground connection to the
associated equipment.
 The Earth ground connection should be a copper plated rod preferably at least 3-4 meters in length
driven into the ground.
 This ground rod should be located as close to the equipment as possible, typically just outside of a
building at the entry point of the antenna feed-lines.

How to determine the wind load of antenna for mounting requirements

WIND LOAD = 1/2 x AIR DENSITY x (WIND VELOCITY)2 x (CROSS SECTIONAL AREA)