Functions of Organelles in

Cell

INTRODUCTION
Cells, the fundamental units of life, come in two primary types: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. While both exhibit crucial structures to sustain life, they differ significantly
in their complexity and organization of organelles.

In prokaryotic cells, which include bacteria and archaea, organelles are minimal or
nonexistent. These cells lack a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Instead, they feature essential structures like the cell membrane, cytoplasm,
ribosomes, and a singular circular DNA molecule localized in a region called the
nucleoid. Additionally, some prokaryotes possess appendages like flagella or pili for
movement and adhesion.

On the other hand, eukaryotic cells, found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists,
exhibit a higher level of complexity and specialization. These cells are characterized by
a true nucleus, enclosed within a nuclear membrane, and possess a variety of
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membrane-bound organelles that perform specific functions. These organelles include

the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, mitochondria (responsible for
energy production), lysosomes (containing digestive enzymes), vacuoles (storage units
in plant cells), chloroplasts (in plant cells, where photosynthesis occurs), and more.
The cytoskeleton, composed of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate
filaments, provides structural support and facilitates cell movement and division in
eukaryotic cells.

ORGANELLES OF PROKARYOTES
Prokaryotic organisms have varying cell shapes. The most common bacteria shapes are
spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral. Using bacteria as our sample prokaryote, the
following structures and organelles can be found in bacterial cells:

Capsule
Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell when it is
engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to
surfaces and nutrients.

Capsules also act as a sort of magic cloak, protecting bacteria from toxic compounds
and to escape the immune system of the host. As a consequence, capsules are important
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virulence factors, and some capsular types are strongly associated with virulent strains
of human pathogens.

Cell Wall
All prokaryotic cells have a stiff cell wall, located underneath the capsule (if there is
one). This structure maintains the cell’s shape, protects the cell interior, and prevents
the cell from bursting when it takes up water.

The cell wall of most bacteria contains peptidoglycan, a polymer of linked sugars and
polypeptides. Peptidoglycan is unusual in that it contains not only L-amino acids, the
type normally used to make proteins, but also D-amino acids ("mirror images" of the
L-amino acids). Archaeal cell walls don't contain peptidoglycan, but some include a
similar molecule called pseudopeptidoglycan, while others are composed of proteins or
other types of polymers.

Plasma Membrane
Underneath the cell wall lies the plasma membrane. The basic building block of the
plasma membrane is the phospholipid, a lipid composed of a glycerol molecule
attached to a hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate head and to two hydrophobic
(water-repelling) fatty acid tails. The phospholipids of a eukaryotic or bacterial
membrane are organized into two layers, forming a structure called a phospholipid
bilayer.
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The plasma membranes of archaea have some unique properties, different from those of
both bacteria and eukaryotes. For instance, in some species, the opposing phospholipid
tails are joined into a single tail, forming a monolayer instead of a bilayer. This
modification may stabilize the membrane at high temperatures, allowing the archaea to
live happily in boiling hot springs.

It controls what enters and leaves the cell. It is also the site of many metabolic
reactions. For example, cellular respiration and photosynthesis take place in the
plasma membrane.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains
enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules. It contains several
structures, including ribosomes, a cytoskeleton, and genetic material.

It contains several structures, including ribosomes, a cytoskeleton, and genetic

material. The cytoplasm may contain microcompartments as well. These are tiny
structures enclosed by proteins. They contain enzymes and are involved in metabolic
processes. There may also be small, circular pieces of DNA, called plasmids.
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Plasmid
Plasmids are small rings of double-stranded extra-chromosomal ("outside the
chromosome") DNA. Plasmids carry a small number of non-essential genes and are
copied independently of the chromosome inside the cell. They can be transferred to
other prokaryotes in a population, sometimes spreading genes that are beneficial to
survival.

For instance, some plasmids carry genes that make bacteria resistant to antibiotics.
(These genes are called R genes.) When the plasmids carrying R genes are exchanged in
a population, they can quickly make the population resistant to antibiotic drugs. While
beneficial to the bacteria, this process can make it difficult for doctors to treat harmful
bacterial infections.

Nucleoid Region
The nucleoid region is found in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. It contains DNA,
sometimes several copies of it, along with proteins, including enzymes, and RNA.The
function of the nucleoid region is to regulate the activity of the cell. It regulates
processes involved in growth, reproduction, and general cell maintenance.
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Ribosomes
Prokaryotic ribosomes are composed of the 70S (S= Units of Svedberg) ribosomes.
Prokaryotic ribosomes have a key role in the synthesis of protein, which is a highly
demanding substance for the maintenance of all living animals. The 70S ribosome is
composed of 30S and 50S subunits. The 30S is the smaller subunit and the 50S is the
larger subunit of the ribosome. The smaller subunit contains 16S ribosomal RNA
(rRNA). On the other hand, the larger subunit of the ribosome contains 5S rRNA and
23rRNA. The smaller subunit of “prokaryotic ribosomes” is the target place of
antibiotics (gentamicin and tetracycline). The smaller subunit has a part in the mRNA
translation.

Cytoskeleton
The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in
prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons,
but advances in visualization technology and structure determination led to the
discovery of filaments in these cells in the early 1990s. Not only have analogues for all
major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes been found in prokaryotes, cytoskeletal
proteins with no known eukaryotic homologues have also been discovered. Cytoskeletal
elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and
polarity determination in various prokaryotes.
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Flagella
Flagella are long, whip-like protrusions which are primarily used for cell movement and
are found in prokaryotes as well as some eukaryotes. The prokaryotic flagellum spins,
creating forward movement by a corkscrew shaped filament. A prokaryote can have one
or several flagella, localized to one pole or spread out around the cell.

Pili
Pili are short, hair-like structures on the cell surface of prokaryotic cells. They can have
a role in movement, but are more often involved in adherence to surfaces, which
facilitates infection, and is a key virulence characteristic. Pili can also help the bacterial
cells avoid attacks by white blood cells. Pili can also help the bacterial cells avoid
attacks by white blood cells.

The pili are involved in conjugation. This is the transfer of genetic material between
cells, and pili have a hollow core for this purpose. The conjugation pilus, also called sex
pilus or F pilus, has receptors to recognize recipient cells to receive the donor’s genetic
material. The F pilus are found on Escherichia coli. It functions by stabilizing bacteria
during DNA transfer, which occurs via conjugation. Pili can also help the bacterial cells
avoid attacks by white blood cells.
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ORGANELLES OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

Unlike Prokaryotic cells, Eukaryotic cells have several membraned organelles. There are
two types of Eukaryotic cells i.e Plant and Animal cell. There are several differences
between plant and animal cells. Plant cells contain chloroplasts, a central vacuole, and
a cell wall. Animal cells contain centrioles and lysosomes. Below we will discuss about
the organelles of both animal and plant eukaryotic cell:

Cell Wall
Cell wall is only present in plant cells and not animal cells. A plant cell wall is arranged
in layers and contains cellulose microfibrils, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, and soluble
protein. These components are organized into three major layers: the primary cell
wall, the middle lamella, and the secondary cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the
plasma membrane and provides the cell tensile strength and protection against
mechanical and osmotic stress. It also allows cells to develop turgor pressure, which is
the pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall.
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Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is found in both plant and animal cells. It separates the interior of
the cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane provides protection for a cell. It also
provides a fixed environment inside the cell, and that membrane has several different
functions. One is to transport nutrients into the cell and also to transport toxic
substances out of the cell. Another is that the membrane of the cell, which would be the
plasma membrane, will have proteins on it which interact with other cells. Those
proteins can be glycoproteins, meaning there's a sugar and a protein moiety, or they
could be lipid proteins, meaning that there's a fat and a protein. And those proteins
which stick outside of the plasma membrane will allow for one cell to interact with
another cell. The cell membrane also provides some structural support for a cell.

Intercellular Connections
Animal cells communicate through their extracellular matrices and are physically
connected to each other by tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes. Plant cells
are connected and communicate with each other by plasmodesmata.
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Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane, also
called the cell membrane, and the nuclear envelope (a structure to be discussed
shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton,
and various chemicals. Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it
has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However,
proteins are not the only organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other
simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives
of glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other
elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm.

Organelles of cytoplasm carry out complex metabolic reactions which include protein
synthesis and energy production. Facilitating and contributing to the function of the
organelles of the cytoplasm is the cytosol. Cytosol of the cytoplasm has numerous
functions, some of which include signal transduction, transportation of metabolites and
molecules across the cell, provision of structural support for the whole cell.

Vacuole
A vacuole is a membrane-bound cell organelle. In animal cells, vacuoles are generally
small and help sequester waste products. In plant cells, vacuoles help maintain water
balance. Sometimes a single vacuole can take up most of the interior space of the plant
cell. In a way, they are specialised lysosomes. That is to say that their function is really
to handle waste products, and by handle, mean take in waste products and also get rid
of waste products. Sometimes the waste product is water, and therefore a vacuole would
have as its function to maintain the balance of water inside and outside a cell.

Sometimes a vacuole's function is to get rid of harmful toxins or to clear the

extracellular space of those harmful toxins by bringing them into the cell for
conversion; for chemical conversion into more safe compounds. The vacuoles are quite
common in plants and animals, and humans have some of those vacuoles as well. But
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vacuole also has a more generic term, meaning a membrane-bound organelle that's
lysosome-like.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells is made of filamentous proteins, and it provides
mechanical support to the cell and its cytoplasmic constituents. In eukaryotes, it
extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane. All cytoskeletons consist of three
major classes of elements that differ in size and in protein composition i.e is made up of
microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments.

These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In addition,
they provide a basis for movement and cell division. It also aids in excluding
macromolecules from some of the cytosol, it adds to the level of macromolecular
crowding in this compartment.

Microtubules
Microtubules are small tubes made from the protein tubulin. These tubules are found in
cilia and flagella, structures involved in cell movement. They also help provide
pathways for secretory vesicles to move through the cell, and are even involved in cell
division as they are a part of the mitotic spindle, which pulls homologous chromosomes
apart.

Intermediate Filaments
Smaller than the microtubules, but larger than the microfilaments, the intermediate
filaments are made of a variety of proteins such as keratin and/or neurofilament. They
are very stable, and help provide structure to the nuclear envelope and anchor
organelles.

Microfilaments
Microfilaments are the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, and are made of actin [a
highly-conserved protein that is actually the most abundant protein in most eukaryotic
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cells]. Actin is both flexible and strong, making it a useful protein in cell movement. In
the heart, contraction is mediated through an actin-myosin system.

Nucleus
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, which means the cell’s DNA is surrounded by a
membrane. Therefore, the nucleus houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of
proteins and ribosomes, the cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis. The
nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost
portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are
phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the
passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The
nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus where we find the chromatin
and the nucleolus.

Furthermore, Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of
DNA, the hereditary material, and histone proteins. This combination of DNA and
histones is called chromatin. Chromatin is organized into chromosomes. In
eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Chromosomes are only visible and
distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When the cell
is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes resemble an
unwound, jumbled bunch of threads.
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Nucleolus
Within the nucleus is a small subspace known as the nucleolus, a dark stained region. It
is not bound by a membrane, so it is not an organelle. The primary function of the
nucleolus consists in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) transcription, rRNA processing and
ribosome subunit assembly.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic means inside (endo) the cytoplasm (plasm). Reticulum comes from the
Latin word for net. Basically, an endoplasmic reticulum is a plasma membrane found
inside the cell that folds in on itself to create an internal space known as the lumen.
This lumen is actually continuous with the perinuclear space, so we know the
endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the nuclear envelope. There are actually two
different endoplasmic reticulums in a cell: the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so-called because its surface is studded with
ribosomes, the molecules in charge of protein production. When a ribosome finds a
specific RNA segment, that segment may tell the ribosome to travel to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and embed itself. The protein created from this segment will
find itself inside the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where it folds and is
tagged with a (usually carbohydrate) molecule in a process known as glycosylation that
marks the protein for transport to the Golgi apparatus.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with the nuclear envelope, and looks
like a series of canals near the nucleus. Proteins made in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are destined to either be a part of a membrane, or to be secreted from the cell
membrane out of the cell. Without a rough endoplasmic reticulum, it would be a lot
harder to distinguish between proteins that should leave the cell, and proteins that
should remain. Thus, the rough endoplasmic reticulum helps cells specialize and allows
for greater complexity in the organism.
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids, instead of being involved
in protein synthesis. These are fat-based molecules that are important in energy
storage, membrane structure, and communication (steroids can act as hormones). The
smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also responsible for detoxifying the cell. It is more
tubular than the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and is not necessarily continuous with
the nuclear envelope. Every cell has a smooth endoplasmic reticulum, but the amount
will vary with cell function. For example, the liver, which is responsible for most of the
body’s detoxification, has a larger amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed
through an electron microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny
dots floating freely in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes may be attached to either the
cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic
reticulum. Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist of large and small
subunits. Ribosomes are complexes of protein and catalytic ribosomal RNA that are
responsible for protein synthesis.

Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically
every cell, although they are smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant
in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of hemoglobin, which functions in the
transport of oxygen throughout the body.

Mitochondria
Just like a factory can’t run without electricity, a cell can’t run without energy. ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell, and is produced in a process
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known as cellular respiration. Though the process begins in the cytoplasm, the bulk of
the energy produced comes from later steps that take place in the mitochondria.

Like we saw with the nuclear envelope, there are actually two lipid bilayers that
separate the mitochondrial contents from the cytoplasm. We refer to them as the inner
and outer mitochondrial membranes. If we cross both membranes we end up in the
matrix, where pyruvate is sent after it is created from the breakdown of glucose (this is
step 1 of cellular respiration, known as glycolysis).The space between the two
membranes is called the intermembrane space, and it has a low pH (is acidic) because
the electron transport chain embedded in the inner membrane pumps protons (H+) into
it. Energy to make ATP comes from protons moving back into the matrix down their
gradient from the intermembrane space.

Mitochondria are also somewhat unique in that they are self-replicating and have their
own DNA, almost as if they were a completely separate cell. The prevailing theory,
known as the endosymbiotic theory, is that eukaryotes were first formed by large
prokaryotic cells engulfing smaller cells that looked a lot like mitochondria (and
chloroplasts, more on them later). Instead of being digested, the engulfed cells
remained intact and the arrangement turned out to be advantageous to both cells,
which created a symbiotic relationship.
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Golgi Apparatus
If the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula are how we make our product, the Golgi
is the mailroom that sends our product to customers . It is responsible for packing
proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum into membrane-bound vesicles (tiny
compartments of lipid bilayer that store molecules) which then translocate to the cell
membrane. At the cell membrane, the vesicles can fuse with the larger lipid bilayer,
causing the vesicle contents to either become part of the cell membrane or be released
to the outside.

Different molecules actually have different fates upon entering the Golgi. This
determination is done by tagging the proteins with special sugar molecules that act as a
shipping label for the protein. The shipping department identifies the molecule and sets
it on one of 4 paths:

Cytosol: the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake are sent back into the cytosol
(imagine the barcode scanning wrong and the item being returned).

Cell membrane: proteins destined for the cell membrane are processed continuously.
Once the vesicle is made, it moves to the cell membrane and fuses with it. Molecules in
this pathway are often protein channels which allow molecules into or out of the cell, or
cell identifiers which project into the extracellular space and act like a name tag for the
cell.

Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted from the cell to act on other parts of
the body. Before these vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane, they must accumulate
in number, and require a special chemical signal to be released. This way shipments
only go out if they’re worth the cost of sending them (you generally wouldn’t ship just
one toy and expect to profit).

Lysosome: The final destination for proteins coming through the Golgi is the lysosome.
Vesicles sent to this acidic organelle contain enzymes that will hydrolyze the lysosome’s
content.
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Lysosome
The lysosome is the cell’s recycling center. These organelles are spheres full of enzymes
ready to hydrolyze (chop up the chemical bonds of) whatever substance crosses the
membrane, so the cell can reuse the raw material. These disposal enzymes only
function properly in environments with a pH of 5, two orders of magnitude more acidic
than the cell’s internal pH of 7. Lysosomal proteins only being active in an acidic
environment acts as a safety mechanism for the rest of the cell - if the lysosome were to
somehow leak or burst, the degradative enzymes would inactivate before they chopped
up proteins the cell still needed.
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Peroxisome
Like the lysosome, the peroxisome is a spherical organelle responsible for destroying its
contents. Unlike the lysosome, which mostly degrades proteins, the peroxisome is the
site of fatty acid breakdown. It also protects the cell from reactive oxygen species (ROS)
molecules which could seriously damage the cell. ROSs are molecules like oxygen ions
or peroxides that are created as a byproduct of normal cellular metabolism, but also by
radiation, tobacco, and drugs. They cause what is known as oxidative stress in the cell
by reacting with and damaging DNA and lipid-based molecules like cell membranes.
These ROSs are the reason we need antioxidants in our diet.

Plastids
Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found only in the cells of plants
and algae. Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing food. These often
contain pigments that are used in photosynthesis and different types of pigments that
can change the colour of the cell.

There are different types of plastids with their specialized functions. Among them, a
few are mainly classified based on the presence or absence of the biological pigments
and their stages of development.

● Chloroplasts

● Chromoplasts

● Gerontoplasts

● Leucoplasts
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Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are biconvex shaped, semi-porous, double membraned, cell organelle
found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. Chloroplasts produce energy through
photosynthesis and oxygen-release processes, which sustain plant growth and crop
yield. As such, chloroplasts are responsible for the biosynthesis of active compounds
such as amino acids, phytohormones, nucleotides, vitamins, lipids, and secondary
metabolites.

Furthermore, the chloroplast plays a vital role in plant acclimation to environmental

stresses. When plants are in adverse environmental conditions, chloroplasts sense these
stresses and synthesize biologically active compounds and phytohormones, which
protect plants from environmental stresses. In addition, chloroplasts communicate with
the nucleus through plastid-to-nucleus retrograde signaling to acclimate to
environmental stresses.
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Chromoplasts
Chromoplasts is the name given to an area for all the pigments to be kept and
synthesized in the plant. These can be usually found in flowering plants, aging leaves
and fruits. Chloroplasts convert into chromoplasts. Chromoplasts have carotenoid
pigments that allow different colours that you see in leaves and fruits. The main reason
for its different colour is for attracting pollinators.

Gerontoplasts
These are basically chloroplasts that go with the ageing process. Geronoplasts refer to
the chloroplasts of the leaves that help to convert into different other organelles when
the leaf is no longer using photosynthesis usually in an autumn month.

Leucoplasts
These are the non-pigmented organelles which are colourless. Leucoplasts are usually
found in most of the non-photosynthetic parts of the plant like roots. They act as
storage sheds for starches, lipids, and proteins depending on the needs of the plants.
They are mostly used for converting amino acids and fatty acids.
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Leucoplasts are of three types:

● Amyloplasts – Amyloplasts are greatest among all three and they store and
synthesize starch.

● Proteinoplast – Proteinoplasts help in storing the proteins that a plant needs

and can be typically found in seeds.

● Elaioplasts -Elaioplast helps in storing fats and oils that are needed by the
plant.

Centrosome
Found near the nuclei of animal cells, the centrosome is a microtubule-organizing
centre from where all microtubules originate. The centrosome is a pair of centrioles,
two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder of nine
triplets of microtubules.

The centrosome replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles play a role in
pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the
exact function of the centrioles in cell division is not clear, since cells that have the
centrioles removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrioles, are capable of
cell division.
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