Prokaryotic cells are also called prokaryotes.

They are a type of biological cell that do not have a cell nucleus or any
membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. That is, neither the DNA of prokaryotic cells nor any of the sites of
metabolic activity within a prokaryotic cell are collected together in a discrete membrane-enclosed area. Instead,
everything is openly accessible within the cell e.g. ribosomes are scattered throughout the cytoplasm (not attached to
the surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum as in animal cells). Examples of prokaryotic cells include the cells of many
bacteria, e.g. vibrio cholerae, the cholera bacterium.

The following table lists parts of a prokaryotic cell - note that this type of cell has no true organelles:

Part or Component of
Prokaryotic Cell:

Notes:

1. Capsule

The outer layer of of prokaryotic cells is a gummy or slimy covering (it is sometimes
labelled as the "slime capsule") that may help bacteria stay together in colonies and/
provide some protection to the cell.

2. Cell Wall

Prokaryotic cell walls have a rigid framework of murein, which is a polysaccharide c

linked by peptide chains. (Compare with plant cell walls which are made mainly of ce
and animal cells which do not have have cell walls.)

See further information about prokaryotic ce

3. Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane (sometimes also called the "cell membrane") is phospholipid
bilayer. Note that it is flexible i.e. non-rigid. See also functions of the plasma membra

4. Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that consists mainly of water. In general cytoplasm

also contain enzymes, salts, cell components (e.g. ribosomes, plasmids, food stores
and various organic molecules.

5. Flagellum (sing.)
the plural form is "flagella"

Flagella are not limited to prokaryotic cells; certain eukaryotic cells also have flagella
there are are differences between the three types of flagella i.e. those found in:

1. Bacterial cells (also called prokaryotes) and the subject of this page
2. Archaeal cells (although archaeal flagella are superficially similar to bacteri
flagella)
3. Eukaryotic cells (e.g. animal cells)

In many cases the flagellum of a prokaryotic cell (e.g. a bacterium) is responsible fo

themotility, i.e. ability to move spontaneously and actively - consuming energy in th
process, of the cell. The flagellum of a prokaryotic cell does not "beat" but rotates ab
"bearing" in the cell wall - resulting in a "corkscrew" motion that drives the cell forwar
much the same way as a propeller propels some ships forwards.

6. Pili (pl.)
the singular form is "pilus"
(also called Fimbriae pl.
or fimbria sing.)

A pilus is a hair-like appendage many of which are present on the surface of many
bacteria. In this context the words "pilus" and "fimbria" are sometimes used
interchangeably.

The words "fimbria" (singular) and fimbriae (plural) are also used in other contexts

biology, with different meanings in each. In the context of prokaryotic cells, a fimbria
apilus) is a protein rod that is sometimes called a proteinaceous appendage. It is sh
and thinner than a flagellum. Fimbriae (or pili) tend to be approx. 3-10 nm in diame
up to several m long. See scientific numbers for more about the units nm and m.
Fimbriae (or pili) help bacterial cells adhere to each other, to animal cells and to ina
objects. A single bacterium can have as many as 1,000 fimbriae.

Some scientists prefer to reserve the word "pilus" for the appendage that is sometim
called the "sex pilus" because it participates in DNA transfer during bacterial
conjugation - the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating.

7. Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic membranes are surfaces on which light-absorbing pigments are
membranes
located.Bacteriochlorophylls are photosynthetic pigments found in phototrophic ba
(photosynthetic =>
photosynthesis i.e.
accepting energy from light)
Photosynthesis and bacterial photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria. It can happe
different ways but always starts by light energy being absorbed
by proteins calledphotosynthetic reaction centers that
contain chlorophylls or chlorophyll-type molecules. In plant cells these proteins a
inside organelles called chloroplasts while in bacteria they are embedded in the pla
membrane - on surfaces called photosynthetic membranes.(Bacterial cells do not con
membrane-bound organelles so they obviously do not contain chloroplasts!)

In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water a
releases oxygen as a waste product. With the exception of cyanobacteria, bacterial
photosynthesis changes light energy into a biologically useful form of
energy without producing oxygen, i.e. they are anoxygenic photosynthetic bac
E.g.s include

purple phototrophic bacteria

green sulphur bacteria
green filamentous bacteria
heliobacteria

8. Mesosomes

Mesosomes are structures of prokaryotic cells formed by folded invaginations (some

described simply as "infoldings") of the plasma membrane. Enzymes associated wi
respiration of the prokaryotic cell, e.g. a bacterium, are located on the infoldings. No
prokaryotic cells have mesosomes.

Both mesosomes and the cristae (folds of the inner-membrane)

of mitochondria participate in the aerobic part of aerobic cellular respiration. As
mesosomes are only found in prokaryotic cells and mitochondria only in eukaryotic c

these structures are sometimes compared when discussing the differences

between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

9. Nuclear body
(genetic material)

The genetic material consists of a circle of double-stranded DNA. The nuclear bod
prokaryotic cells differs from the nucleus of eukaryotic cells in that the nuclear body
(genetic material) of prokaryotic cell is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

10. Plasmids

Plasmids are short pieces of circular DNA. They replicate independently of the cell
genome.

Plasmids are not present in eukaryotic cells (also called eukaryotes, e.g. plant cells
and animal cells).

11. Food Stores

The food stores in prokaryotic cells can be e.g. lipid globules or glycogen granules the slightly different sizes and colours of "food store" particles in the above diagram
prokaryotic cell.

12. Ribosomes

The ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells are much smaller than the ones in eukaryo
cells.The (smaller) ribosomes in prokaryotic cells are the the 70S type, compare
the (larger) ribosomes in eukaryotic cells which are the 80S type.
The ribosomes in bacterial cells are scattered throughout the cytoplasm - as oppose
supported on an endoplasmic reticulum as is usual in eukaryotic cells.

Note: The numbers listed on the left are just for ease of reference to the information in this table. They do not indicate the numbers of pili, rib
etc..

See also the general structure of an animal cell, a comparison of plant, animal and bacterial
cells and cell functions.

C.

PERBEDAAN SEL PROKARIOTIK DAN SEL EUKARIOTIK

Sel prokariot dan eukariot memiliki perbedaan yang sangat signifikan dengan dasar
utama ada tidaknya membrane inti sel. Namun masih ada beberapa perbedaan antara
keduanya yang dapat dilihat pada table 1.6 di bawah ini:
PROKARIOT
Tidak memiliki inti yang sebenarnya, materi
inti tersebar dalam sitoplasma karena tidak
mempunyai membrane inti
Memiliki DNA yang lebih sederhana, lebih
sedikit mengandung pasangan basa
nukleotida, berbentuk sirkuler

EUKARIOT
Memiliki nucleus yang sebenarnya karena
materi inti dilingkupi oleh membrane inti
Memiliki DNA yang lebih kompleks, lebih
banyak mengandung pasangan basa
nukleotida, sehingga harus digulung pada
protein histon (ada histonnya)

Hanya memiliki kromosom tunggal

Memiliki kromosom lebih dari 1 (satu)

Tidak memiliki intron, hanya ekson

Memiliki intron dan ekson

Memiliki operon

Tidak memiliki operon

Proses transkipsi dan translasi dapat terjadi

secara simultan

Transkipsi terjadi di inti, dan translasi terjadi

di sitoplasma. Keduanya tidak dapat berjalan
secara bersamaan.
Transkipsi lebih rumit terjadi, dikarenakan
akses RNA polymerase terhadap DNA lebih
lama akibat DNA dikemas secara kompak
dengan protein histon
Proses regulasi sintesis proteinnya lebih
kompleks

Proses transkipsi terjadi lebih sederhana

Proses regulasi sintesis protein lebih

sederhana

Perbedaan di atas akan dibahas lebih lanjut pada materi di bawah ini. Selain
perbedaan-perbedaan di atas, eukariot dan prokariot memiliki tipe genom yang berbeda.
Dimana genom merupakan kandungan genetic total pada set haploid kromosom.

GENOM PROKARIOT
Untuk prokariot diwakili oleh sel bakteri yang memiliki kromosom tunggal, DNA
atau RNA saja. Genom prokariot merupakan material genetic yang terdapat pada prokariot.
Genom bakteri terdiri dari kromosom sirkular yang disebut nukleoid. Di luar nukleoid
terdapat juga DNA sirkuler lain yang lebih kecil disebut plasmid. Pembentukan badan
nukleoid terkondensasi dengan cara supercoiling dan looping yang tersusun secara rapat.
Plasmid ditemukan pada bakteri. Ukuran bervariasi dan bereplikasi secara otonomi
(origin of replication). Dapat ditransfer dari satu bakteri ke bakteri lainnya ataupun pada
kingdom yang berbeda. Sering digunakan sebagai vector untuk membawa gen yang
diinginkan. Gen yang dibawa oleh plasmid berguna, karena mengkode sifat-sifat ketahanan
terhadap antibiotic atau kemampuan untuk memanfaatkan komponen kompleks seperti
toluene sebagai sumber karbon. Tetapi prokariot dapat bertahan secara efektif tanpa plasmid.
Prokariot menunjukkan keragaman dalam organisasi genom. E. coli memiliki genom
unipartite, tetapi prokariot lainnya lebih kompleks. Kromosom bakteri bereplikasi di dalam
sel dan sel membelah secara biner. Bakteri memiliki DNA yang lebih sederhana, lebih sedikit
mengandung pasangan basa nukleotida dan berbentuk sirkuler.
GENOM EUKARIOT
Genom manusia merupakan model yang baik bagi genom eukariot secara umum.
Genom nuclear eukariotik memiliki molekul DNA linear yang terdapat di dalam kromosom.
Semua eukariot juga memiliki genom yang lebih kecil yang berbentuk sirkular yaitu genom
mitokondria. Pada tumbuhan terdapat genom lain yaitu genom kloroplas.
Genom eukariotik berlokasi pada beberapa kromosom. Selain itu juga terdapat genom
organel. Material kromosom disebut kromatin. Pada kromosom terdapat nukleosome yang
merupakan lilitan DNA pada molekul protein yang disebut protein histon. Nukleosom
terorganisasi ke dalam 30nm benang-benang. Benang-benang terlipat-lipat membentuk

10.000 fold-compaction yang diperlukan untuk membentuk kromosom eukariot di dalam

nucleus.
Walaupun struktur dasar eukariot mirip tetapi satu hal penting yang sangat berbeda
adalah ukuran genom. Genom eukariot yang terkecil berukuran kurang dari 10Mb
panjangnya. Sedangkan genom yang terbesar berukuran lebih dari 100.000 Mb. Eukariot
yang lebih sederhana seperti fungi memiliki genom yang paling kecil, dan eukariot yang lebih
tinggi seperti vertebrata dan tanaman berbunga memiliki genom yang lebih besar.
Eukariot juga memiliki genom mitokondria yang berbentuk sirkular. Terdapat lebih
dari satu. Ukurannya lebih kecil pada sel hewan daripada tumbuhan. Lebih dari 95% protein
mitokondria dikode di genom nuklear. Selain itu juga eukariot memiliki genom kloroplas
dimana banyak protein kloroplas dikode di nukleus.
TRANSKIPSI DAN TRANSLASI PADA PROKARIOT DAN EUKARIOT
Perbedaan yang sangat signifikan lainnya adalah mengenai proses transkipsi dan
translasi. Pada prokariot proses transkipsi dan translasi dapat terjadi secara simultan dan
berlangsung sederhana sedangkan pada eukariot transkipsi terjadi di inti dan translasi terjadi
di sitoplasma, karena keduanya tidak dapat berjalan secara bersamaan. Proses transkipsi lebih
rumit dikarenakan akses RNA polymerase terhadap DNA lebih lama akibat DNA dikemas
secara kompak dengan protein histon.

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

D.
PERSAMAAN SEL PROKARIOTIK DAN SEL EUKARIOTIK
Walau sel eukariotik dan prokariotik sangat berbeda dari struktur dan bentuknya, ada
beberapa struktur yang sama. Salah satunya adalah sama sama memiliki ribosom. Ribosom
ini adalah tempat berlangsungnya sintesis protein, dimana hasil dari sintesis protein ini sangat
penting dalam pembentukan struktur sel lainnya. Selain itu, sel prokariotik dan eukariotik
juga sama sama memiliki membran sel, sitoplasma dan inti sel yang berisi RNA dan DNA,
walaupun dari segi struktur memang agak sedikit berbeda.
Informasi genetik dikode oleh DNA, dengan kode genetik yang indentik.
Reaksi metabolisme
Apparatus yang sama untuk konversi energi kimiawi
prokariot: membran plasma
eukariot: membran mitokondria
Mekanisme fotosintesis yang sama (tumbuhan-sianobakteri)
Mekanisme sintesa dan penyisipan protein membran
Konstruksi proteosom yang sama (tumbuhan-sianobakteri)
KESIMPULAN
Sel prokariotik merupakan sel yang tidak memiliki membrane inti sehingga aktivitas sel
terjadi pada membrane plasma dan di dalam sitoplasma
Sel prokariot biasanya berupa sel tunggal
Sel eukariotik merupakan sel yang memiliki membrane inti sehingga sel ini memiliki inti sel
dan pada sel eukariot terdapat organel-organel sel yang memiliki fungsinya masing-masing
Sel eukariot ada yang berbentuk tunggal dan multiseluler
Selain adanya perbedaan organel sel, terdapat perbedaan genom.
Genom prokariot pada kromosom tunggal, DNA atau RNA saja
Pada eukariot genom inti terdapat pada kromosom dan informasi genetic (genom) organel
terdapat pada mitokondria dan plastid (kloroplas)

8. Dalam proses hidupnya, terdapat perbedaan dalam proses sintesis protein yaitu pada tahap
transkipsi dan translasi
9. Pada prokariot proses transkipsi dan translasi dapat terjadi secara simultan dan berlangsung
sederhana sedangkan pada eukariot transkipsi terjadi di inti dan translasi terjadi di sitoplasma,
karena keduanya tidak dapat berjalan secara bersamaan.
10. Beberapa organel seperti membrane plasma, sitoplasma, dan ribosom sama-sama dimiliki
oleh sel prokariotik dan eukariotik.
11. Kesamaan lain yang terdapat pada sel prokariotik diantaranya adalah informasi genetic yang
dikode oleh DNA, Reaksi metabolisme yaitu apparatus yang sama untuk konvensi energy
kimiawi, mekanisme sintesa dan penyisipan protein membrane, dan kontruksi proteosom
yang sama.
Tabel 1.4 Perbedaan Sel Hewan dan Tumbuhan
SEL HEWAN
SEL TUMBUHAN
Tidak memiliki dinding sel

Memiliki dinding sel

Memiliki vakuola berukuran kecil

Memiliki vakuola berukuran besar

Tidak memiliki plastid

Memiliki sentriol

Memiliki
plastid
(kloroplas,
kromoplas, dan leukoplas)
Tidak memiliki sentriol

Memiliki lisosom

Tidak memiliki lisosom

Mempunyai bentuk tidak tetap

Mempunyai bentuk yang tetap

Perbedaan antara bakteri dan arkae adalah sebagai berikut :

Tabel 1.1 Perbedaan Bakteri dan Arkae
KRITERIA
BAKTERI

ARKAE

Peptidoglikan

Ada

Tidak ada

Lipid membrane

Rantai C tidak bercabang

Rantai C bercabang

Kepekaan antibiotic
tertentu
Sekuen rRNA

Dihambat

Tidak dihambat

Unik

RNA polymerase

Kecil dan sederhana

Beberapa sama dengan

eukariot
Kompleks, mirip eukariot

Intron

Tidak ada

Ada pada gen tertentu

Prokariot memiliki beberapa tipe dalam pemerolehan nutrisi hidupnya antara lain sebagai
berikut :
Tabel 1.2 Pemerolehan Nutrisi Prokariot
TIPE NUTRISI
SUMBER ENERGI
SUMBER KARBON
Fotoautotrof (fotosintetik)

Cahaya matahari

CO2

Kemoautotrof

Senyawa anorganik (H2S, CO2

S, Fe)

Fotoheterotrof

Cahaya matahari

Organic

Kemoheterotrof

Senyawa organic

Organic

Sebagian besar prokariot bersifat kemoheterotrof, contoh Escherichia coli.

Bakteri fotoautotrof contoh : sianobakter, bakteri fotosintetik ungu, bakteri fotosintetik hijau
Index

Cellular Respiration

Reference
Enger &
Ross
The term cellular respiration refers to the biochemical pathway by which cells
Ch 6
release energy from the chemical bonds of food molecules and provide that
energy for the essential processes of life. All living cells must carry out
Audesirk
cellular respiration. It can be aerobic respiration in the presence of oxygen
&
or anaerobic respiration. Prokaryotic cells carry out cellular respiration within
Audesirk
the cytoplasm or on the inner surfaces of the cells. More emphasis here will
Ch 8
be placed oneukaryotic cells where the mitochondria are the site of most of
the reactions. The energy currency of these cells is ATP, and one way to view
Karp
the outcome of cellular respiration is as a production process for ATP.
Ch 5

The graphic below can serve as a reminder of some of the processes involved
in cellular respiration.

These are active graphics: click anywhere.

Cellular respiration produces CO2 as a metabolic waste. This CO2 binds with
water to form carbonic acid, helping to maintain the blood's pH. Since too
much CO2 would lower the blood's pH too much, the removal of the excess
CO2 must be accomplished on an ongoing basis.
Respiratory System

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Aerobic Respiration

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Index

Aerobic respiration, or cell respiration in the presence of oxygen, uses the end
Reference
product of glycolysis (pyruvate) in the TCA cycle to produce much more
Enger &
energy currency in the form of ATP than can be obtained from anyanaerobic
Ross
pathway. Aerobic respiration is characteristic of eukaryotic cellswhen they
Ch 6
have sufficient oxygen and most of it takes place in themitochondria.
Respiratory System

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Index

Anaerobic Respiration

Reference
Enger &
Ross
The first step in cellular respiration in all living cells is glycolysis, which can
Ch 6
take place without the presence of molecular oxygen. If oxygen is present in
the cell, then the cell can subsequently take advantage of aerobic
Karp
respirationvia the TCA cycle to produce much more usable energy in the form
Ch 3
of ATPthan any anaerobic pathway. Nevertheless, the anaerobic pathways are
important and are the sole source of ATP for many anaerobic bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells also resort to anaerobic pathways if their oxygen supply is
low. For example, when muscle cells are working very hard and exhaust their
oxygen supply, they utilize the anaerobic pathway to lactic acid to continue to
provide ATP for cell function.
Glycolysis itself yields two ATP molecules, so it is the first step of anaerobic
respiration. Pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, can be used infermentation to
produce ethanol and NAD+ or for the production of lactate and NAD+. The
production of NAD+ is crucial because glycolysis requires it and would cease
when its supply was exhausted, resulting in cell death. A general sketch of the
anaerobic steps is shown below. It follows Karp's organization.

Anaerobic respiration (both glycolysis and fermentation) takes place in the

fluid portion of the cytoplasm whereas the bulk of the energy yield of aerobic
respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Anaerobic respiration leaves a lot
of energy in the ethanol or lactate molecules that the cell cannot use and must
excrete.

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What limits cell size ?

Different types of cells reach different sizes. In general the reasons for cell size limits are due to the

mechanisms needed for cell survival and how cells' requirements are met by the structures that form
and are contained within cells. (Click on the diagrams on the right for details about the structures of
different types of cells.)

The factors limiting the size of cells include:

Surface area to volume ratio (surface area / volume)

Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
Fragility of cell membrane
Mechanical structures necessary to hold the cell together (and the contents of the cell in
place)
The above limitations affect different types of cells to different extents. Notes about each of the main
limitations of cell size follow.

1. Surface area to volume ratio

When the size of a cell (having a simple *shape) increases:

the cell volume increases to the cube of the linear increase, while
the surface area of the cell increases only to the square of the linear increase. Examples
of simple formulae:

Volume of a Cube:

Surface Area of a Cube:

Volume = r3

Surface Area = 6 r2

where r is the length of each side of the cube.

Volume of a Sphere:

Surface Area of a Sphere:

where r is the radius of the sphere.

The diameter (d) of the sphere is twice the radius so the above
could be re-written in terms of diameter using the relationship d=2r

*As shown on the right, cells have various and often irregular
shapes so it is a simplification to consider the formulae for cubes
and spheres. They are convenient shapes for easy calculations and
comparison. A sphere is the 3-dimensional shape that has the
minimum possible surface area/volume ratio.

Using the above formulae, it is easy to express the ratios of surface area to volume for these very
simple shapes:
Surface Area / Volume
ratio for a Cube:

= 6/r

where r is the length of each side of the cube.

Surface Area / Volume

ratio for a Sphere:

= 3/r= 6/d

where r is the radius of the sphere.

The diameter (d) of the sphere is twice the radius so the above
could be re-written in terms of diameter using the relationship d=2r

So, in the cases of very simple shapes such as cubes and spheres,
the larger the size of the object (r), the smaller it's surface area to volume ratio. Expressed to other
way,
the smaller the size of the object (e.g. a cell), the larger its (surface area) / volume ratio.
A large (surface area) / volume ratio is helpful because nutrients needed to sustain the cell enter via
the surface of the cell (supply) and are needed in quantities related to the cell volume (requirement).
Put another way, more cytoplasm results in higher demands for supplies via the cell membrane.
Surface-area : Volume ratio particularly limits the size of bacterial cells, i.e. prokaryotic cells
This is because, prokaryotic cells are incapable of endocytosis (the process by which small patches of
the cell membrane enclose nutrients in the external environment, breaking-away from the structure of
the cell membrane itself to form membrane-bound vesicles that carry the enclosed nutrients into the
cell.) Endocytosis and exocytosis enable eukaryotic cells to have larger surface-area : volume ratios
than prokaryotic cells because prokaryotic cells rely on simple diffusion to move materials such as
nutrients into the cell - and waste products out of the cell.
Note that some animal cells increase their surface area by forming many tiny projections
called microvilli.

2. Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
Not all cells have a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotic cells (including plant cells and animal cells)
have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells (i.e. bacteria) do not. Nuclei
contain information needed for protein synthesis and so control the activities of the whole cell.
Each nucleus can only control a certain volume of cytoplasm.
This is one of the limitations of the size of certain biological cells.
Some cells overcome this particular limitation by having more than one nucleus, i.e. some special
types of cells have multiple nuclei. Cells that contain multiple nuclei are called multinucleate
cells and are also known asmultinucleated cells and as polynuclear cells. A multinucleate cell is
also called a coenocyte. Examples ofmultinucleate cells include muscle cells in animals and the
hyphae (long, branching filamentous structures - often the main mode of growth) of fungi.

3. Fragility of the cell membrane

All cells have and need a cell membrane (sometimes labelled a "plasma membrane") even if the cell

also has a cell wall. The structure of cell membranes consist of phospholipids, cholesterol and various
proteins. It must be flexible in order to enable important functions of cell membranes such
as exocytosis (movement of the content of secretory vesicles out of the
cell), endocytosis (movement of the content of secretory vesicles into of the cell) etc.. However the
structure of the plasma membrane that enables it to perform its many functions also results in its
fragility to environmental variation e.g. in temperature and water potential.

Temperature: Even small increases in temperature can reduce the (hydrophobic) interactions
between the hydrocarbon tails of the phospholipids - leading to reduced or complete loss of
protein function.
Water potential: Even small reductions in the water potential of the cytoplasm can result in
too much water entering the cytoplasm, causing a fragile animal cell to burst due the outward
pressure from the fluid inside the cell membrane.

As the size of cells increase, the risk of damage to the cell membrane also increases.
This limits the maximum size of cells - especially of animal cells because they do not have cell walls.
See below for more about the effects on cell size of the structures that hold cells together.

4. Structures that hold the cell together

As indicated on the pages about animal cells, plant cells and bacteria cells, the contents and internal
structures of cells vary according to the general type of cell and its specific function within the
organism. Some cells are complex structures that contain 100s or 1000s of structures (including
different types of organelles) within the cell membrane. For example, in a typical animal cell
specialized organelles occupy around 50% of the total cell volume. In order for cells to survive
they must remain intact so sufficient mechanical structures must hold the cell contents together.
The cell membrane (mentioned above) has many important functions including enclosing the contents
of the cell - but it is not solely responsible for providing enough structure to hold the cell together.
Cells need sufficient structural support, which is provided by:
1. Support from outside the cell membrane:
Most cells have some form of "extracellular" support.
Plant cells and bacteria cells have cell walls - although they are different types of cell walls. The
structure of plant cell walls consists of cellulose microfibrils forming a mesh (imagine a fine net)
around the outer surface of the cell membrane and a matrix of polysaccharides including pectins
and hemicelluloses occupying the regions defined by the mesh of microfibrils. The overall effect is
formation of a strong composite structure that supports and protects its contents e.g. against
damage to the cell membrane due to expansion of the cytoplasm due to endocytosis.
Cell walls enable plant cells to be larger than animal cells - plant cells are usually bigger than
animal cells.
So what form of extracellular support do animal cells have ?
Glycocalyx: External to the cell membrane, animal cells have a fine outer-layer of extracellular
polymeric material (glycoprotein) which is called the glycocalyx. It consists of short-chain
polysaccharides and provides some mechanical support - but much less support than that
provided by a cell wall.
Glycocalyx isn't limited to animal cells. It also forms the capsule, or "slime layer" of some bacteria

(prokaryotes).

2. Support from within the cell membrane:

i.e. "intracellular" support.
The cell membrane and the cytoplasm and organelles within it are inter-connected by many
protein structures that, together, form the cytoskeleton of the cell. The functions of the
cytoskeleton include protecting and supporting the structure of the cell as well as helping to
maintain the shape of the cell.
See also cell functions (in general), the functions of the cell membrane and table to compare plant,
animal and bacterial cells

Home

Prokaryotes
Introduction
Prokaryotes include the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms. They are the smallest, simplest organisms. They are
abundant in the air, water, soil, and on most objects.

Structure
Prokaryotes are small (0.5 - 1.5 microns).
A plasma membrane surrounds the cell. As in eukaryotes, the plasma membrane is involved
in the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound organelles such as
a nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, golgi apparatus, or endoplasmic reticulum.
Many enzymes such as those needed in cellular respiration are attached to the plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane may be folded and extend into the cell, and function in

cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, the enzymes needed for cellular respiration are located
within the mitochondrion.
Photosynthetic prokaryotes do have membraneous vesicles where photosynthetic pigments
(chlorophyll molecules) are located. These structures are called thylakoids.
Ribosomes are the only cytoplasmic organelles. They are smaller than eukaryote ribosomes.
The nucleoid is a region where the circular chromosome (DNA) is located.
Plasmids are accessory rings of DNA. Some biotechnology techniques involve the use of
plasmids as vectors to insert foreign DNA into the bacteria. For example, human genes are
inserted into bacteria by first splicing them into a plasmid. The plasmid is then taken up by a
bacterium.
The cell wall prevents bursting or shrinking when the osmotic concentration changes.
The cell is surrounded by a capsule (attached) and/or by a loose gelatinous sheath (slime
layer). This layer helps attach the cell to attach to environmental surfaces. Many prokaryotes
adhere to surfaces by short hair-like structures called fimbriae.
Some move by means of flagella. The flagellum contains a hook and a basal body. It rotates
360 degrees to propel the cell.

Reproduction
Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome that may be 500 times the length of the cell.
The DNA has fewer associated proteins than that of eukaryotes. Proteins enable the DNA to
be coiled and compacted so that it fits within the cell..
Binary Fission
Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission.
Binary fission differs from mitosis in that a spindle is not utilized. The cell does not go
through the stages of mitosis. The spindle apparatus evolved later in eukaryotes.
During cell division, the DNA replicates. The replicating DNA molecules attach to the plasma
membrane. As the cell elongates, the chromosomes are pulled apart.
When cell is approximately twice its original length, the plasma membrane grows inward and
a cell wall forms between the two cells.
Two more chromosomes may start to develop before the first two are separated from each
other.

Genetic Recombination

Sexual reproduction in Eukaryotes combines genes from two different individuals and thus
promotes variation. Prokaryotes do not reproduce sexually but the processes listed below
promote genetic recombination.
Conjugation A cell with DNA called F factor is able to replicate and transfer a copy if
it's DNA to another cell without F factor through a tube called a sex pilus. F factor may exist
as a plasmid or become integrated into the chromosome. If it is integrated into the
chromosome, it may also transfer part of the chromosome. The sex pilus usually breaks
before the entire DNA from the donor cell is transferred. The DNA that is transferred is used
to replace similar genes in the recipient cell. Enzymes destroy the replaced genes.
Transformation - occurs when a bacterium picks up fragments of DNA released by dead
bacteria or secreted by live bacteria.
Transduction is when bacteriophages (viruses) carry portions of bacterial DNA from one cell
to another.
Mutation is a major source of variation in prokaryotes. A rapid mutation rate coupled with
rapid reproduction promotes variation.

Endospores
Some bacteria form endospores when environmental conditions become unfavorable.
Endospores are DNA and a portion of cytoplasm encased in a tough cell wall. They are
resistant to extremes in temperature, drying, and harsh chemicals.

Prokaryotic Diversity
Classification
Traditionally, staining techniques, cell shape, mode of nutrition, and mode of cellular
respiration have been used to classify prokaryotes but these techniques may not reveal
evolutionary relatioinships. These characteristics are useful, however, for identifying
certain kinds of prokaryotes.
Organic Food
Living organisms require organic compounds for food. Organic refers to molecules that
contain carbon and hydrogen. Examples of organic nutrients are carbohydrates (sugars,
starches), lipids, and proteins.
Autotrophs are organisms that make their own organic food. Heterotrophs consume food that
is already present in the environment. For example, plants are autotrophs because they make
their own food by photosynthesis. Animals are heterotrophs because they obtain their food by
eating it.
Autotrophic Prokaryotes
There are two kinds of Autotrophic prokaryotes. Those that make organic food using energy
from sunlight are photosynthetic. Autotrophs that make organic food using energy from

inorganic chemicals are chemosynthetic.

Photoautotrophic Prokaryotes
The first photosynthetic prokaryotes to evolve did not produce oxygen.
Cyanobacteria evolved later with the same kinds of chlorophyll found in plants. During
photosynthesis, water (H2O) molecules are split and O2 molecules are released. The balanced
equation is below.
Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
The green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria do not split water during photosynthesis.
Instead, they split H2S; oxygen is therefore not released.
Photosynthetic prokaryotes have extensions of the plasma membrane called thylakoids. Many
of the molecules needed in the reactions of photosynthesis are found within the thylakoid
membrane.
Chemosynthetic Prokaryotes
Chemosynthetic prokaryotes obtain energy to make their organic food by oxidizing highenergy inorganic compounds (hydrogen gas, ammonia, nitrites, and sulfides) instead of
consuming organic nutrients or using sunlight.
Many chemosynthetic prokaryotes are anaerobic; they are often found deep in the sediments
of lakes and swamps.
Chemosynthetic prokaryotes form the basis of the food chain for some communities 2.5 km
beneath the sea. Energy for these communities comes from hydrothermal (volcanic) vents.
The hot water pouring out of these vents contains high concentrations of inorganic minerals
such as sulfides that can be used as an energy source by the prokaryotes..
Heterotrophic Prokaryotes
Heterotrophic prokaryotes feed on organic matter by secreting enzymes and absorbing the
digested material.
Most heterotrophic prokaryotes are aerobic.
Feeding
Three types of heterotrophs are described below. Each category is determined by the feeding
mode.
Saprotrophic organisms are decomposers. They play a critical role in recycling (releasing)
nutrients that are tied up in the bodies of dead organisms. Most heterotrophic prokaryotes fall
into this category.
Parasites are organisms that live in close association with another species and one species
benefits at the expense of the other. Usually, the smaller species resides within a larger

species and derives its food from the larger organism. Normally, the larger organism is not
killed.
Mutualistic organisms are those that live in close association with another species and both
species benefit as a result of the association. For example, some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live
in nodules on the roots of plants. They convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to a form that is
usable by plants. Plants provide the bacteria with carbohydrates.
Oxygen
Obligate anaerobes are unable to grow in the presence of oxygen.
Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without oxygen.
Aerobic organisms require oxygen. Most bacteria are aerobic.
Staining
Different staining techniques can be used to help classify prokaryotes into different groups.
For example, gram staining can be used to distinguish between gram positive and gram
negative bacteria based on the thickness of the cell wall.
Shape
The shape of a cell is used to help classify bacteria. Round cells are called cocci (sing.
coccus), rod-shaped cells are bacilli (bacillus), and rigid, spiral-shaped cells
are spirilla (spirillum). Flexible, spiral-shaped bacteria are spirochetes.
Below: Cocci X 400. Click on the photograph to view an enlargement, then click "Back" to
return.

Below: Bacilli X 1000. Click on the photograph to view an enlargement, then click "Back" to
return.

Below: Spirilla X 400. Click on the photograph to view an enlargement, then click "Back" to
return.

Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria (sometimes called blue-green algae) are gram-negative bacteria that can
photosynthesize and some can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
The only organisms capable of fixing nitrogen are bacteria, and this is primarily done by the
cyanobacteria. The fixation of nitrogen by cyanobacteria may have allowed plants to invade
the land during the Paleozoic.
Like plants, cyanobacteria have the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll A and they use water
as an electron donor during photosynthesis. When water molecules are split, oxygen is
liberated. This process resulted in oxygen accumulating in the earths early atmosphere.
Unicellular, filamentous, and colonial species of cyanobacteria are
common. Anabaena and Oscillatoria (below are filamentous forms.

Anabaena X 1000 (live) The large cell in the center

are photosynthetic. Click on the photograph to view

Oscillatoria (live)

Oscillatoria X 400 stained.

Gloeocapsa X 400 (stained). Gloeocapsa is a unice

the cells to stick together.

Some Cyanobacteria form symbiotic associations with fungi forming structures

called lichens.
Archaea
Evolutionary Relationships
Analysis of molecules found within the cells suggests that eukaryotes are more closely
related to archaea than to bacteria.

Major Groups of Archaea

Three major groups of archaea are found in extreme habitats.
Methanogens are found in anaerobic environments such as marshes and in the intestinal tracts
of animals. They produce methane as a result of cellular respiration.
Halophiles are found in environments with high salt concentration such as the great salt lake
or soil with a high salt concentration.
Thermophiles live in hot environments such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.

Cellular Respiration, what tissues is the shuttle

mechanism used in?

Ok, I have an assignment to do for biology, and my note is somewhat unclear on a few things. The
assignment involves calculating amounts of ATP, NADH, H2O produced/used under different
circumstances.
With the shuttle mechanism, essentially, the 2 NADH produced per monomer in glycolysis are
transfered from being 2 NADH in the cytoplasm to being 2 FADH2 in the matrix.

I'm pretty sure the shuttle mechanism is used in skeletal muscle, but the note I have on the matter
doesn't clearing state what tissues it is used in.

Is it used in brain tissue? What about in the cells of the heart or liver?
I would really appreciate an answer.

Best Answer Asker's Choice

Peter S answered 5 years ago

The mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH, and this permeability barrier effectively
separates the cytoplasmic from the mitochondrial NADH pools. However, cytoplasmic NADH can be
used for biologic energy production.
Two different shuttles:Glycerophosphate shuttle and the Malate-Aspartate shuttle.

1.Glycerophosphate shuttle - results in 2 FADH2 in the mitochondria. The glycerophosphate shuttle is

heavily used in insect flight muscle (a tissue heavily specialized for conversion of chemical energy to
mechanical energy). Some mammalian tissues use the glycerophosphate shuttle also, but tend to
prefer a more
energy efficient shuttle system that uses malate and aspartate. Found in brain tissue, brown adipose
tissue, and white muscle.

2. malate-aspartate shuttle introduces reducing equivalents from NADH in the cytosol to the electron
transport chain of the mitochondria (NADH2 in the cytoplasm to NADH2 in the mitochondria). This
shuttle mainly occurs in the liver and heart.