Cell (biology)

Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke
from Micrographia which is the origin of the word "cell" being used to describe the
smallest unit of a living organism

Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green)

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the
smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building
block of life.[1] Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single
cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. (Humans have an estimated
100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm; a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram.)
The largest known cell is an unfertilized ostrich egg cell.[2]

In 1835 before the final cell theory was developed, a Czech Jan Evangelista Purkyně
observed small "granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The
cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann,
states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from
preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain
the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting
information to the next generation of cells.[3]

The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive
name for the smallest living biological structure was chosen by Robert Hooke in a book
he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to
the small rooms monks lived in.[4]

General principles

Mouse cells grown in a culture dish. These cells grow in large clumps, but each
individual cell is about 10 micrometres across

Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in

nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and
reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each
of these activities.

All cells have several different abilities:[5]

 Reproduction by cell division: (binary fission/mitosis or meiosis).

 Use of enzymes and other proteins coded for by DNA genes and made via
messenger RNA intermediates and ribosomes.
  Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components,
converting energy, molecules and releasing by-products. The functioning of a cell
depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic
molecules. This energy is released and then used in metabolic pathways.
 Response to external and internal stimuli such as changes in temperature, pH or
levels of nutrients.
 Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that is made from a
lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it.

Some prokaryotic cells contain important internal membrane-bound compartments,[6] but

eukaryotic cells have a specialized set of internal membrane compartments.

Anatomy of cells

There are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually
independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells

Main article: Prokaryote

Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell

The prokaryote cell is simpler than a eukaryote cell, lacking a nucleus and most of the
other organelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea;
these share a similar overall structure.

A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

  on the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures
(not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and
communication between cells;
 enclosing the cell is the cell envelope - generally consisting of a cell wall covering
a plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer
called a capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior
of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most
prokaryotes have a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria)
and Thermoplasma (archaea)). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria,
and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell
from expanding and finally bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against a
hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote cells (plant cells and fungi cells) also
have a cell wall;
 inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and
ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a
circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi,
which causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is
condensed in a nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements
called plasmids, which are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions,
such as antibiotic resistance.

Eukaryotic cells

Main article: Eukaryote

Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as
1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific
metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a cell
nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is
this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus." Other
differences include:
  The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor
differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA
is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some
eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 Eukaryotes can move using cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex than
those of prokaryotes.

Subcellular components

The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right)

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell,
separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively
permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty
cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary
material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various
proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of
biomolecules in cells. This article will list these primary components of the cell, then
briefly describe their function.

Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundary

Main article: Cell membrane

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The

plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This
membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is
made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and
hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It
may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a
variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different
molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it
can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited
extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins
that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.

Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffold

Main article: Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in
place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and
cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the
cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of
microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great number of
proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling,
and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved
in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.[7]

Genetic material

Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information
storage, but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The
biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence.
RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g.,
ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself. Transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecules are used to add specific amino acids during the process of protein
translation.

Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the

bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic
material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete
nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria
and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).

A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the
mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into
23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a
circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA
is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in
mitochondrial energy production as well as specific tRNAs.

Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into
the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted
into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material
into the genome.

Organelles
Main article: Organelle

The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with
each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called
organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital
functions.

There are several types of organelles within an animal cell. Some (such as the nucleus
and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria,
peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the
gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts - the power generators

Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers,
shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria play a
critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria generate the
cell's energy by the process of oxidative phosphorylation, utilizing oxygen to
release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to
generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two.
Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are broadly called plastids, and are
involved in energy storage through the process of photosynthesis, which utilizes
solar energy to generate carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and
water.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own genome, which is separate
and distinct from the nuclear genome of a cell. Both of these organelles contain
this DNA in circular plasmids, much like prokaryotic cells, strongly supporting
the evolutionary theory of endosymbiosis; since these organelles contain their
own genomes and have other similarities to prokaryotes, they are thought to have
developed through a symbiotic relationship after being engulfed by a primitive
cell.
Ribosomes
The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. This is where
proteins are produced. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to
a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell
membrane in prokaryotes).[8]
Cell nucleus - a cell's information center
The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle
found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's
chromosomes, and is the place where almost all
DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription)
occur. The nucleus is spherical in shape and
separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear
envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from
various molecules that could accidentally damage its
structure or interfere with its processing. During Diagram of a cell nucleus
 processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a
special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then
transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated
into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a
specialized region within the nucleus where
ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes,
DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic reticulum - eukaryotes only
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport
network for molecules targeted for certain
modifications and specific destinations, as compared
to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm.
The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has
ribosomes on its surface and secretes proteins into
the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which lacks
them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium
sequestration and release.

Golgi apparatus - eukaryotes only

The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package the macromolecules such as
proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It
is particularly important in the processing of
proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a
part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic
cells. Vesicles that enter the Golgi apparatus are
processed in a cis to trans direction, meaning they
coalesce on the cis side of the apparatus and after
processing pinch off on the opposite (trans) side to
form a new vesicle in the animal cell. Diagram of an
endomembrane system
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes - eukaryotes only
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or
worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes
have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these
destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.
These organelles are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to
detonate and destroy the cell.
Centrosome - the cytoskeleton organiser
The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell - a key component of the
cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division
and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in
the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often
 described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells,
most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which are able to pump water out
of the cell if there is too much water.

Structures outside the cell wall

Capsule

A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be
polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as bacillus anthracis or
hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules not marked by ordinary stain and can
detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic
function so it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment
of the organism to mucous membranes.

Flagella

Flagella are the organelles of mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through
the cell wall. They are long and thick thread like appendages, protein in nature, formed of
flagellin protein (antigenic). They can not be stained by gram stain. They have a special
stain. According to their arrangement they may be monotrichate, amphitrichate,
lophotrichate, peritrichate.

Fimbriae (pili)

They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic).
Fimbriae are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell
(adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in the process of
conjunction.

Cell functions

Cell growth and metabolism

Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular
metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient
molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks
down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in
which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and
perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be
broken down into a less chemically-complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once inside
the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy,
via two different pathways.
The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic
metabolism. Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be
used to make energy packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used
for converting energy.

The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the
mitochondria and is capable of generating enough ATP to run all the cell functions.

An overview of protein synthesis.

Within the nucleus of the cell (light blue), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into
RNA. This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting
in a mature mRNA (red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
(peach), where it undergoes translation into a protein. mRNA is translated by ribosomes
(purple) that match the three-base codons of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of
the appropriate tRNA. Newly-synthesized proteins (black) are often further modified,
such as by binding to an effector molecule (orange), to become fully active.

Creation of new cells

Main article: Cell division

Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells.
This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation
(vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.
Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of
nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A
diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid
cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.

DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a
cell divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for
carrying out the job.

Protein synthesis

Main article: Protein biosynthesis

Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation
and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein
molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.
Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a

complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA
(mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-
RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into
polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence
based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide
sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets
within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional
protein molecule.

Cell movement or motility

Cells can move during many processes: such as wound healing, the immune response and
cancer metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells that ingest
bacteria move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.
At the same time fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) move there to remodel damaged
structures. In the case of tumor development, cells from a primary tumor move away and
spread to other parts of the body. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking,
bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.[9] The process is divided into three
steps - protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-
adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward.
Each of these steps is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the
cytoskeleton.[10][11]

Evolution
Main article: Evolutionary history of life
The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on
Earth.

Origin of the first cell

Further information: Abiogenesis

There are three leading hypotheses for the source of small molecules that would make up
life in an early Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite).
Another is that they were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized
by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment); although it is not
sure Earth had such an atmosphere. There is essentially no experimental data to tell what
the first self-replicate forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-
replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyze
chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential
to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, like clay or peptide nucleic acid.[12]

Cells emerged at least 3.0–3.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were
heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a
bilayer of lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable
than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to
spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA. But the
first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have
required structural proteins before they could form.[13]

Origin of eukaryotic cells

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic
cells. It is almost certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the
chloroplasts are what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and
cyanobacteria, respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an
ancestral archaean prokaryote cell – a theory termed the endosymbiotic theory.

There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome
predated the origin of mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the
origin of eukaryotic cells.

Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all
extant eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to
eukaryotes. An 'origin of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome
accreted from prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer.
Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized
genomes containing co-evolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed
protection against horizontal infection by more virulent symbionts.[14]