LESSON 1:

7 FUNCTIONS OF LIFE MODERN CELL THEORY

1. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs

within cells.

Ex. A plant cell needs sun energy to survive.

2. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) that is

passed from cell to cell during cell division.

Ex. DNA is passed from one cell to another during

mitosis.

3. All cells are basically the same in chemical

composition in organisms of similar species.

Ex) A cheetah and a panther will have similar cells.

ALL ABOUT CELLS

 ONE CELL: unicellular organisms.

 MANY CELLS: multicellular organisms. THE CELL THEORY IS NOT A UNIVERSAL
TRUTH

PIONEERS: ATYPICAL EXAMPLES:

 ROBERT HOOKE: He discovered the on 1665.  STRIATED MUSCLE: a type of tissue that we use
 ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK: The first man to to change the position of our body.
witness a live cell under a microscope.  The building blocks of this tissue are muscle
 LUDOLPH CHRISTIAN TREVIRANUS & JOHANN fibers.
JACOB PAUL MOLDENHAWER: Collated the  They are surrounded by a membrane and
idea that cells were separable into individual  are formed by division of pre-existing cells.
units.  They are much larger than most animal cells. In
 HENRI DUTROCHET: He formulated one of the humans they have an average length of about
fundamental tenets of modern cell theory by 30 mm.
declaring that "The cell is the fundamental  Instead of having one nucleus they have many,
element of organization”. sometimes as many as several hundred.
 MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN: A botanist, in
1838 determined that all plants consist of cells  FUNGI: It consist of narrow thread-like
 THEODOR SCHWANN: A zoologist, in 1839 structures called hyphae.
determined that all animals consist of cells  In some types of fungi, the hyphae are divided
 RUDOLF VIRCHOW: he proposed the theory up into small cell-like sections by cross walls
that all cells arise from previously existing cells called septa. However, in aseptate fungi there
in 1838. are no septa.

 ALGAE: These are organisms that feed

THE CELL THEORY OR CELL POSTULATE: themselves by photosynthesis and store their
1. All living things are composed of cells. genes inside nuclei
 Many algae consist of one microscopic cell.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in
living things. (Cell are the basic unit of life).

3. New cells are only produced from existing cells.

 The cytoplasm (of both eukaryotes and
prokaryotes) is where the functions for cell
LESSON 2:
expansion, growth, and metabolism are carried
ORGANELLES out.
- Small organs that are specialized substructures
of cell that has a specific function
o In eukaryotic cell, it does not include
TYPES OF CELLS AND THEIR ORGANELLES: the nucleus. The cytoplasm is made up
of the cytosol, the vesicles, the
- PROKARYOTIC CELLS do not possess any
cytoskeleton, the inclusions, and the
membrane-bound organelles.
cellular organelles.
- EUKARYOTES: Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), golgi complex, mitochondria, peroxisome,
o The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is
centrosome, vacuoles, nucleolus, vesicles
that part of the cell between the cell
- Specialized cells: membrane and the nuclear envelope.
o Chloroplast (plants only)
o In prokaryotic cells that do not have a
o Lysosome (animals only)
well-defined nucleus, the cytoplasm is
simply everything enclosed by the cell
MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL membrane. It therefore contains the
cytosol, and all the other cellular
- CELL MEMBRANE
components, including the
The cell membrane also known as plasma chromosome in the nucleoid region.
membrane or plasmalemma is a double-layered
membrane made generally of phospholipids, a
molecule with proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids - NUCLEUS
or fats.
The nucleus is the most noticeable organelle within
It functions as a selective barrier between the cell the eukaryotic cell, and perhaps the most important
and its external environment. and defining feature of the eukaryotic cells.
It allows passage of oxygen, nutrients and wastes • Shape and appearance
for the cell.
o The nucleus is normally around 5-10 μm
Its semi-permeable property controls the in diameter, and the largest organelle in
movement of materials in and out of the cell. the cell. The smallest nuclei are
approximately 1 μm in diameter and
In plant cells, an extension of the cell membrane
are found in yeast cells.
outward is the Cell Wall. This provides additional
protection, rigidity, and shape of the cell.
o Mostly the shape of the nucleus is
spherical or oblong.
- CYTOPLASM
o Usually, cells have one nucleus but
The protoplasm is made up of the cytoplasm many at times there are multinucleated
and the nucleoplasm. cells. Multinucleation in cells may be
due to karyokinesis (when cell
The cytoplasm, in turn, is the protoplasmic undergoes nuclear division) or when
contents between the cell membrane and the cells fuse to form syncytium, like in
nuclear envelope. A jelly-like substance. mature muscle cells.
 o The number of chromosomes is fixed in
an organism.
FUNCTIONS OF THE NUCLEUS
o During mitotic cell division
 Maintains the cell in a working order. chromosomes divide in a manner that
 Co-ordinates the activities of other cell the daughter cells receive identical
organelles. amounts of hereditary matter.
 Takes care of repair work.
 Participates directly in cell division to produce - NUCLEOLUS
genetically identical daughter cells. This o Ribosome synthesis/ assembly
 division is called mitotic cell division. o Production
 Participates in production of meio-gametes and o The prominent structure
meiospores through another type of cell o May be more than one (nucleoli)
division called meiotic cell division. o Has a mass of granules with fiber
 Most of the genetic material (DNA) is contained attached to the chromatin
in the nucleus, while a small amount of it is o Membrane-less
found in mitochondria. o Stores RNA and proteins
o Regulates synthesis activity
THE PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS
- NUCLEOPLASM
- NUCLEAR MATRIX o It is semi-liquid, and fills the empty
o Protein skeleton space in the nucleus.
o Aid in the organization of genes o The nucleoplasm is a type of
- NUCLEAR PORE protoplasm that is made up mostly of
o Small holes that serve as exit water, a mixture of various molecules,
- CHROMATIN and dissolved ions.
o Combo of DNA and proteins o A soluble, fluid component of the
o Stretched chromosomes nucleoplasm is called the nuclear
- NUCLEAR MEMBRANE hyaloplasm.
o A double membrane around the o The main function of the nucleoplasm is
nucleus to serve as a suspension substance for
o Each layer has a phospholipid layer the organelles inside the nucleus.
associated with proteins separated by
20 to 40 nm space:
o OUTER- has ribosomes, OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL
continuous to the cell’s ER
- MITOCHONDRIA
o INNER- attached to proteins
specific to the nucleus
o The powerhouse of the cell, who contains
- NUCLEAR LAMINA
its DNA.
o The protein filament (known as lamin)
o It has a double membrane (inner & outer)
in the inner nuclear membrane
o It transfers energy from organic compounds
o Maintains the structure.
to ATP via chemical RXN'S
- CHROMOSOMES
o It is where the aerobic respiration happens
o The organized unit of DNA
o The DNA coils around protein
complexes called nucleosomes, formed
of proteins called histones, making it - ATP full charge (Adenosine Triphosphate)-3
easier for the chromosome to fit inside - ADP- empty (Adenosine Diphosphate)-2
the nucleus.
 o Cristae: the folds inside that are enlarged o digest protein, carbs, lipid, RNA, DNA,
surface area of inner membrane), where old organelle, virus, and bacteria
Chemical RXN takes place o Suicide bomber
o Rare in plant cells

- RIBOSOMES

o numerous organelles in the cell - CYTOSKELETON

o no membrane
o Composition: 60% RNA, 40% protein. o network of long strands in the cytosol
o when ribosomes are attached to ER: it o Cytosol: a substance that surround
Provides proteins to the membrane and organelles
Proteins are exported o No membrane
o aids in movement of organelles
- ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
THE CYTOSKELETON IS BUILT WITH
o a system of bound sock and membrane  Microfilaments
tubules - threads of protein called actin
o intracellular highway (transport) - Smallest strand that makes up the
cytoskeleton
TYPES
 Microtubles
o ROUGH ER: Exportation - longest stand
- hollow tubes
Inside protein producing cell
- Cell division bundles together and extends
Inserted in cell membrane
 Spindle fiber
o SMOOTH ER: A production / synthesis
- thick bundles
of steroid gland cell
- assist chromosomes during cell division

regulation of calcium breakdown of

- HOW DO CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL
toxic levels MOVES?

- GOLGI APPARATUS
 use hair like structures extending from the
surface
o processing & packaging of secretory
products.
 Short and large quantities = cilia
o built like pancakes (flattened sacs) w/
convex shape in the Cytosol
 Long and small quantities = flagella
o modifies proteins for export
 false feet = pseudopodia
- LYSOSOMES

o small spherical organelle

- OTHER CELLULAR ORGANELLES
o enclosed with enzyme in a single
membrane  CENTROSOME- microtubule assembly
o the digestive organ  VACUOLE- fluid filled internal cavity
 VESICLE- temporary storage
 CHLOROPLAST- site of photosynthesis
 Chlorophyll – green color
 • Pili – Hair-like extensions that enable adherence to
surfaces (attachment pili) or mediate bacterial
conjugation (sex pili)

LESSON 3:
Prokaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a

nucleus ('pro' = before ; 'karyon' = nucleus)

They belong to the kingdom Monera and have been

further classified into two distinct domains:

 Archaebacteria – found in extreme

environments like high temperatures, salt
concentrations or pH (i.e. extremophiles)

 Eubacteria – traditional bacteria including most

known pathogenic forms (e.g. E. coli, S. aureus,
etc.) Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a
Prokaryotic Features nucleus (‘eu’ = good / true ; ‘karyon’ = nucleus)
 Evolved from prokaryotic cells (via
• Cytoplasm – internal fluid component of the cell endosymbiosis)
• Nucleoid – region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is
Eukaryotes can be divided into four distinct kingdoms:
located (DNA strand is circular and called a genophore)

• Plasmids – autonomous circular DNA molecules that • Protista – unicellular organisms; or

may be transferred between bacteria (horizontal gene multicellular organisms without specialized
transfer) tissue
• Fungi – have a cell wall made of chitin and
• Ribosomes – complexes of RNA and protein that are
obtain nutrition via heterotrophic absorption
responsible for polypeptide synthesis
• Plantae – have a cell wall made of cellulose
• Cell membrane – Semi-permeable and selective and obtain nutrition autotrophically (via
barrier surrounding the cell photosynthesis)
• Animalia – no cell wall and obtain nutrition via
• Cell wall – rigid outer covering made of peptidoglycan; heterotrophic ingestion
maintains shape and prevents bursting

• Slime capsule – a thick polysaccharide layer used for Eukaryotic Features

protection against dessication (drying out) and • Ribosomes – Responsible for protein synthesis
phagocytosis (translation)
• Nucleus – Stores genetic information (site of
• Flagella – Long, slender projections containing a transcription)
motor protein that enables movement • Mitochondria – Site of aerobic respiration (ATP
production)
• Endoplasmic reticulum – Transports materials
between organelles
• Golgi complex – Sorts, stores, modifies & exports
secretory products
• Centrosomes – Involved in cell division (mitosis and
meiosis)
Organelles found only in specific cell types include:
• Chloroplasts – Site of photosynthesis (plant cells only)
• Lysosomes – Breakdown of macromolecules (animal
cells)
 A.1.1 APICAL MERISTEMS

o primary growth (length of plant).

o produces new leaves & flowers
o tips of shoot and rods

A.1.2 LATERAL MERISTEMS

o secondary growth (widening of plant)

o occurs in the cambium
o produces bark on trees

A.2 PERMANENT TISSUES

A.2.1 Simple Tissues- made up of only one type of cell

Parenchyma
o a thin cell walls w/ intracellular spore
o packaging storage
o allows for gaseous exchange and
osmosis
o Chlorenchyma – has chlorophyll

Collenchyma

o Unevenly thickened corners

o Support and strength
o Flexible walls
o Can photosynthesis
LESSON 4:
Sclerenchyma
TISSUE
o Evenly thick walls
A tissue is a group of cells with a common o Strength and rigidity
origin, structure and function. Their common origin
means they are derived from the same layer of cells in A.2.2 Complex Tissue- made up of more than one type
the embryo. of cell working together

Xylem

PLANT TISSUES o elongated cell

o pits for lateral water movement
The plant tissues are mainly of two types:
o transports water & minerals (1D) -
1. Meristematic (Gk. meristos : dividing) round and connected (end-end)

2. Permanent (non-dividing) Phloem

A.1 MERISTEMATIC TISSUES o transports surges (2D)

o consists of sieve plates from &
- Composed of immature or undifferentiated cells
companion cells.
without intercellular spaces.
o Spindle & over lapped
- The cells may be rounded, oval or polygonal;
always living and thin walled.
- Each cell has abundant cytoplasm and
prominent nuclei in it.
- Vacuoles may be small or absent.
ANIMAL TISSUES

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

- For protection, secretion, sensory

- Basement membrane
Structural Characteristics

(i) are closely packed with no intercellular space

in between.

(ii) arise from a non-cellular basement

membrane.

(iii) not supplied with blood vessels.

Function: Line the surfaces, help in absorption, secrete,

also bear protoplasmic projections such as the Cilia.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

The connective tissue has two components: (a)

matrix, the ground substance and (b) cells. The matrix
and cells are different in different connective tissues.
A. Proper Connective Tissue

1. Areolar: Most widely spread connective tissue. 2. Adipose tissue: It has specialized cells storing fat
called adipose cells. Help in forming paddings.
The cells forming the tissue are:
3. Fibrous: It is mainly made up of fibroblasts. It forms
(i) Fibroblasts-which form the yellow (elastin)
tendons and ligaments.
and white (collagen fibers in the matrix.
(ii) Macrophages-which help in engulfing
bacteria and micro pathogens.
(iii) Mast cell-which secrets heparin (helps in
clotting of blood).

B. Supporting Connective Tissue

C. Fluid connective tissue

- support; binding organs
Blood and Lymph are the two forms of the fluid
connective tissue.

 Blood: It is a complex of blood cells and plasma.

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)-Transport O2

and CO2
2. White blood cells (Leucocytes)-Function in
defense against bacteria, viruses and other
invaders.
3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)-help in the clotting
of blood. Plasma is the extra cellular fluid of
matrix, the ground substance. It contains large
number of proteins such as Fibrinogen,
Albumin, and Globulin.
MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is composed of long excitable

cells containing parallel microfilaments of contractile The muscle fibers have the following characteristics:
proteins shape. Actin, myosin, troponin and 1. Excitability, (respond to stimulus)
tropomyosin. Because of its elongated shape, muscle 2. Extensibility, (stretch)
cell is called a muscle fiber. 3. Contractility, (contract)
- Movement and locomotion 4. Elasticity, (move back to the original position)

 Lymph: It is a pale fluid that bathes the tissues of an

organism, maintaining fluid balance, and removes
bacteria from tissues; it enters the blood system by NERVOUS TISSUE
way of lymphatic channels and ducts. - conduction of nerve impulses
- coordination of body functions
 the constituents of lymph are lymphocytes and - message pathway
macrophages, the primary cells of the immune
system with which the body defends itself from Tissue Types:
invasion by foreign microorganisms. o Sensory Neuron
- info coming in
o Motor Neuron
- multi-polar
- movement senses
o Relay/ Interneuron
- decision making
 - cell body sits inside

Levels of Organization – Cell to Organism

(i) Cellular Level of Organization– The organization of

the activities by different organelles in a single cell.

(ii) Tissue Level– The aggregates of cells of same origin

and having same function, example, and the surface
epithelium of our skin or the dividing cells at the root
cap of a plant.

(iii) Tissue System– Generally seen in plants where two

or more different cell types combine to perform a
particular activity.

(iv) Organ Level– A distinct recognizable part of the

body, composed of a variety of tissues and performing
one or more special functions which contribute to the
wellbeing of the organism.

(v) Organ System- Combination of a set of organs all of

which are usually devoted to one general function.

(vi) Organism– The complete individual made of

different organ system.

LESSON 5:

CELL DIFFERENTATION

All cells in a multicellular organism share an

identical set of genetic instructions

• Individual instructions (called genes) form a totality

called the genome
GENE PACKAGING

Within the nucleus, active genes are packaged

in an expanded and accessible form called euchromatin

The inactive genes are packaged in a condensed

and inaccessible form called heterochromatin

Differentiated cells will have different regions of

DNA packaged according to their specific function

STEM CELLS

Stem cells are unspecialized cells that possess two key Embryonic stem cells (totipotent/pluripotent)
qualities: can form any cell type, whilst adult stem cells
• Self-Renewal - They can continually divide and (multipotent/unipotent) have a limited capacity for
replicate differentiation

• Potency - They have the capacity to differentiate into

specialized cell types

Stem cells are different from other cells in the

body in three ways:

The activation of different instructions in o They can divide and renew themselves over a long
specific cells will cause these cells to differentiate and time
become specialized (possessing distinctive
functionality). Such as a cell's size, shape, metabolic o They are unspecialized, so they cannot do specific
activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes functions in the body
are largely due to highly-controlled gene expressions
(turning a gene on or off).
o They have the potential to become specialized cells,
such as muscle cells, blood cells, and brain cells
o That is why embryonic stem cell research is much • Unipotent – Cannot differentiate, but are
more promising than adult stem cell research. capable of self-renewal (e.g. progenitor cells, muscle
stem cells)

USES OF STEM CELL

o Stem cells are necessary for embryonic

development as they are an undifferentiated
cell source from which all other cell types may
be derived
o Cell types that are not capable of self-renewal
(e.g. amitotic nerve tissues) are considered to
be non-stem cells
o As these tissues cannot be regenerated or
replaced, stem cells have become a viable
therapeutic option when these tissues become
damaged

TYPES OF STEM CELL STEM CELL THERAPY

There are four main types of stem cells present Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or
at various stages of human development: diseased cells with healthy, functioning ones
• Totipotent – Can form any cell type, as well as o Stem cells are extracted from an
extra-embryonic (placental) tissue (e.g. zygote) appropriate source (embryos, umbilical
cord blood, certain adult tissues)
• Pluripotent – Can form any cell type (e.g., o Biochemical solutions trigger cell
embryonic stem cells) differentiation
• Multipotent – Can differentiate into a number o New cells are implanted into the host's
of closely related cell types (e.g. haematopoeitic adult tissue.
o Immune system is suppressed to
stem cells)
prevent rejection.
o New cells monitored to ensure they are
not cancerous

LESSON 6:
CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is an ordered set of events that

culminates in the division of a cell

Interphase:

o G-Cell growth and metabolism

o S-DNA replication
o G₂-Cell growth and proof-reading

M phase:

o Mitosis (nuclear division)

o Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)

MITOTIS
 4 stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
o Mitosis is the process of nuclear division, Telophase
whereby each pair of sister chromatids are
physically separated into two daughter nuclei The division of the cell (via cytokinesis) occurs
that are genetically identical concurrently with telophase

CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic
division, whereby a cell split into two

CELL CYCLE REGULATION

Cell cycle checkpoints are used to regulate the
progression of a typical cell cycle
o G1 checkpoint ensures cell is prepared for
the replication of DNA (S phase)
o G₂ checkpoint controls mechanisms to
ensure the cell is prepared for mitosis
o M checkpoint ensures cell is ready for
cytokinesis (i.e. checks non-disjunction)

Some cells can enter a quiescent phase (Go)

CYCLINS o After the event has occurred, cyclin is degraded
and the CDK is inactivated
Cyclins are a family of regulatory proteins that
control cell cycle progression

o Cyclins activate cyclin dependent kinases (CDKS)

by forming a complex
o The complex phosphorylates a target protein to
trigger a cell cycle event

CELL DEATH

Cells have a limited proliferative capacity, after which o Cell death can either be uncontrolled (necrosis)

division stops (Hayflick limit) or programmed (apoptosis)

o Cells will enter a senescence (ageing) phase,

leading to eventual cellular death
CANCER

o caused by uncontrolled cell division and can normally function to prevent the occurrence of cancer
occur in any tissue or organ (may promote apoptosis)

o Tumors are the abnormal cellular growths

formed as a result of cancer: LESSON 7

- Primary tumors remain in the originating tissue

(i.e. benign growths)
- Secondary tumors have invaded neighboring
tissues (i.e. malignant growths)

METASTASIS

o is the spread of cancerous tissue from one

location to another

MUTAGEN

o A mutagen is an agent that causes a change in

the genetic material of an organism
o Mutagens that lead to the formation of cancer
are further called carcinogens

ONCOGENE

o An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to

cause cancers

Cancers may be caused by mutations to two basic

classes of genes:

o Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that

promote cell growth and proliferation
o Tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that
repress cell cycle progression

When a proto-oncogene is mutated, it becomes a

cancer-causing oncogene

o Tumor suppressor genes are sometimes

referred to as anti-oncogenes as they