4.

1 Analysis of Functions

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition: A function y = f (x) is increasing on an open interval I = (a, b) if for all

x1, x2  I with x1  x2 , we have
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .
It is decreasing if
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .
If the signs in the above are replaced by < or > respectively, then we shall say f ( x ) is
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing respectively on I.

Theorem: Let f (x) be continuous in [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).

(a) If f  ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b) , then f ( x ) is strictly increasing on [a, b]
(b) If f  ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b) , then f ( x ) is strictly decreasing on [a, b] .

y y

O x O x
Strictly increasing Strictly decreasing

Let x1 and x2 be two points in [a, b] with x1  x2 . By the Mean Value Theorem
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
= f (c)
x2 − x1
for some c  ( x1 , x2 ) . Hence if f  ( c )  0 , then
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )  0
Which means that f ( x ) is increasing.

The sign of derivatives

Investigation of the sign of derivatives will indicate where the function is increasing,
decreasing, has turning points and nature of the curve.
dy
Stationary point: If = 0 at some point of the curve y = f ( x ) , then tangent to the graph is
dx
horizontal there. Such a point is called a stationary point (or turning point).
Critical Point: A point which is either a stationary point or a point at which it is not
differentiable is a critical point.
Example:
Find the critical points of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2

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First we take the derivative:
f '(x) = 10x + 4.
Since f '(x) is defined everywhere, we can move right on to finding the roots of f '(x). We
need to solve the equation
f '(x) = 0.
Here we go:

This means -2/5 is a critical point in fact, our only critical point. If we look at the graph, this
makes sense, so long as we zoom in enough to see what the graph looks like around x = -2/5:

Maximum and Minimum: A point x 0 is a (relative or local) maximum of f ( x ) if

f ( x0 )  f ( x ) for all x sufficiently near x 0 and x 0 is a (relative or local) minimum of f ( x )
if f ( x0 )  f ( x ) .

x0 x0
A Local Minimum A Local Maximum

To find the nature of the relative extrema (maxima or minima) we can use the signs of the
first derivative on either side of the stationary points.

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Concavity: Let f (x) be differentiable on some interval I = (a, b) . Then f ( x ) is concave
upwards if f  ( x ) is increasing on I. It is concave downwards if f  ( x ) is decreasing.
Provided that f ( x ) is twice differentiable, then f  ( x ) is increasing if f  ( x )  0 . Hence if
f  ( x0 )  0 then f ( x ) is concave upwards near x 0 , while if f  ( x0 )  0 then f ( x ) is
concave downwards near x 0 .

is increasing is decreasing
Concave Upwards Concave Downwards

Inflection Point: Inflection points are the points where the function changes concavity. A
point x 0 is a point of inflection of f (x) if f  ( x ) changes sign at via x 0 .

Nature of Relative Extrema

First Derivative Test: Suppose f ( x ) is differentiable and f  ( x0 ) = 0 . Then

(1) If f  ( x ) changes sign from positive to negative at x 0 then f ( x ) has a relative
maximum at x 0 .
(2) If f  ( x ) changes sign from negative to positive at x 0 then f ( x ) has a relative
minimum at x 0 .

Second Derivative Test: Suppose f is twice differentiable. Then

(1) If f  ( x0 ) = 0 and f  ( x0 )  0 then f ( x ) has a maximum at x 0 .
(2) If f  ( x0 ) = 0 and f  ( x0 )  0 then f ( x ) has a minimum at x 0 .
(3) If f  ( x0 ) = 0 and f  ( x0 ) = 0 then the second derivative test is inconclusive.

Example 1:Consider the function f ( x ) = x3 + 3x 2 − 9 x + 1 , then

(a) Find the stationary points.

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 (b) Find the interval(s) on which the function is increasing and decreasing.
(c) Find the points of inflection.
(d) Find the interval(s) on which the function is concave up and concave down.
(e) Discuss the nature of stationary points.
(f) Sketch the graph.

Solution:Given that f ( x ) = x3 + 3x 2 − 9 x + 1
(a) f  ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 6 x − 9
At the stationary points, f  ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 6 x − 9 = 0  x = −3,1

Now, f ( −3) = 28 and f (1) = −4 . So, the stationary points are (-3, 28) and (1, -4).

(b) f  ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 6 x − 9

Intervals Sign of f  ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 6 x − 9 Comment

( −, − 3) positive f(x) is increasing in ( −, − 3)
(−3, 1) negative f(x) is decreasing in (−3, 1)
(1,+ ) positive f(x) is increasing in (1,+ )

(c) f  ( x ) = 6 x + 6
At the points of inflection, f ( x) = 6 x + 6 = 0,  x = −1
Now, f ( −1) = 12 So, the point of inflection is (-1, 12).

(d) f  ( x ) = 6 x + 6

Intervals Sign of f  ( x ) = 6 x + 6 Comment

( −, − 1) negative f(x) is concave down in ( −, − 1)
( −1,+ ) positive f(x) is concave up in ( −1,+ )

(e)

−  f ( x )  0 -3 f ( x )  0 1 f ( x )  0 + 

From the above figure, f ( x ) has a local maxima at (-3, 28) and local minima at (1, -4).

(f)

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 Fig.: Graphs of f ( x ) , f ' ( x ) and f '' ( x )
Applications:

Example 2: The perimeter of a rectangular field is 100 meter. Find the maximum possible
area and the dimensions of the field in this case.

Solution: Let, the length of the rectangular field is x m and the breadth is y m.
So, the area is xy square meter.
Perimeter, 2( x + y ) = 100  x + y = 50  y = 50 − x

So, f ( x ) = x (50 − x ) = 50 x − x 2
Now, f ( x) = 50 − 2 x , f ( x) = −2
For extremum area, f ( x) = 50 − 2 x = 0,  x = 25
At x = 25 , f  ( x ) = −2  0 which indicates that f ( x ) has a maxima at x = 25 .
So, y = 50 – 25 = 25 and maximum area = (25)(25) = 625 square meter.

Exercises 4.1
1. Given (i) f ( x ) = x 3 − 3 x 2 + 1 (ii) f ( x ) = x3 − 6 x 2 + 9 x + 1

(iii) f ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 5 x − 5 (iv) f ( x ) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 9 x + 12

(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 where 0< 𝑥 < 2𝜋

For the above functions,
(a) find the stationary points.
(b) find the interval(s) on which the function is increasing and decreasing.
(c) find the points of inflection.
(d) find the interval(s) on which the function is concave up and concave down.
(e) discuss the nature of stationary points and
(f) sketch the graph.

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Answer: 1. (i) (a) 0, 2 (b) increasing on ( −, 0 ) , ( 2,  ) ; decreasing on ( 0, 2 ) (c) inflection
point 𝑥 = 1, (d) concave up (1,  ) (e) minimum value at x = 0 and no maximum value at 𝑥 =
2,(f)

 5  5 
.(iii) (a) − 3 and 4; (b) increasing on  −, −  and (1,  ) ; decreasing on  − ,1 , (c) − 3, (d)
5 1

 3  3 
 1   1 5
concave up on  − ,   ; concave down on  −, −  (e) maximum at x = − , minimum at
 3   3 3
x = 1 , (f)

2𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
(v) (a) , (b)Increasing on (0, ) and ( 3 , 2𝜋) Decreasing on ( 3 , ), (c) Concave down
3 3 3 3
2𝜋 4𝜋
(0,π) and Concave up (π,2π), (e) Maximum at 𝑥 = and minimum at 𝑥 =
3 3

2. A particle moves along a straight line so that its velocity, v ms-1 , at time t seconds is
given by v = 240 + 20t −10t 2 , for 0  t  6 .
(i) Find the value of t when the speed of the particle is greatest.
(ii) Find the acceleration of the particle when its speed is zero.
Ans: (i)𝑡 = 1, 𝑉 = 120𝑚/𝑠, (ii) 20
3. The following diagram shows the graph of f ( x ) = e − x .
2

The points A, B, C, D and E lie on the graph of f . Two of these are points of inflexion.

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 (a) Identify the two points of inflexion.
(b) (i) Find f ' ( x ) .

( )
Show that f '' ( x ) = 4 x 2 − 2 e − x .
2
(ii)
(c) Find the x-coordinate of each point of inflexion.
(d) Use the second derivative to show that one of these points is a point of inflexion.
1
Ans: a) B,D , c)± .
√2
4. Consider a rectangle of perimeter 12 inches. Form a cylinder by revolving this rectangle
about one of its edges. What dimensions of the rectangle will result in a cylinder of
maximum volume? Ans: (r =4, h =2, volume = 100.53) .
5. An open rectangular box with square base is to be made from 48 ft.2 of material. What
dimensions will result in a box with the largest possible volume? Ans: (x= 4, y=2, v =32).

6. A sheet of cardboard 3 ft. by 4 ft. will be made into a box by cutting equal-sized squares
from each corner and folding up the four edges. What will be the dimensions of the box
with largest volume? Ans: ( x = 0.57, v = 3.03) .