CpE 413 – Computer

Architecture and
Organization

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PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
NOT FOR SALE
CpE 413 – Computer Architecture and Organization
First Edition, 2022

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Learning Module Development Team

Assigned
Title Author
Chapter
Chapter 1: History and Overview of Computer Architecture
Chapter 2: Instruction Set Architecture
Chapter 3: Measuring Performance
Chapter 4: Computer Arithmetic
Dionisio M. Martin Jr.
Chapter 5: Processor Organization
Chapter 6: Memory System Organization and Architectures
Chapter 7: Input/Output Interfacing and Communication
Chapter 8: Peripheral Subsystems
Chapter 9: Multi/Many-Core Architectures
Chapter 10: Distributed System Architectures

Evaluators:

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position
(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position
Course Overview
Introduction

Computer Architecture and Organization is a four-unit professional course (three-unit lecture

and one-unit laboratory), which discusses the evolution of computer architecture and the factors
influencing the design of hardware and software elements of computer systems. The focus is
on the understanding of the design issues specifically the instruction set architecture and
hardware architecture.

This course of study is also intended to discuss the measuring performance, processor
organization, memory organization, I/O interfacing and communication, and multi/many-core
architecture and distributed system architecture.

Course General Objectives

At the end of the semester, 85% of the students have attained 90% level of understanding for
being aware in the computer engineering, locally and globally.
1. Understand the basic concepts of computer architecture and organization.
2. Apply the principles of computer architecture in a digital computer design through
development of Simple-As-Possible-1 system.
3. Understand the hierarchical level of computer architecture specifically on the SAP
family design.

Course Details:
• Course Code: CpE 413
• Course Title: Computer Architecture and Organization
• No. of Units: 4-unit lecture
• Classification: Lecture-Laboratory-based
• Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: CpE 313
• Semester and Academic Year: 1st Semester, AY 2022-2023
• Schedule: BSCpE 2A – Tuesday and Thursday, 7:30AM-9:00 AM)
• Name of Faculty: Dionisio M. Martin Jr.
• Contact Details
Email: dmmartinjr@prmsu.edu.com
Mobile Number: 0939-906-0585
FB Account: Dionisio Martin Jr.
• Consultation
Day: MWF
Time: 2:00-3:00PM

Learning Management System

The University LMS will be used for asynchronous learning and assessment. The link and class
code for LMS will be provided at the start of class through the class’ official Facebook Group.
 • Edmodo
• Google Classroom
• University LMS

Assessment with Rubrics

Students will be assessed in a regular basis thru quizzes, assignments, individual/group outputs
using synchronous and/or asynchronous modalities or submission of SLM exercises. Rubrics
are also provided for evaluation of individual/group outputs.

Major examinations will be given as scheduled. The scope and coverage of the examination
will be based on the lessons/topics as plotted in the course syllabus.
 0323

Module Overview
Introduction

This module is intended for 4th year Computer Engineering students whose concern is the
study of computer architecture and organization. The chapters include the discussion on the
computer architecture evolution and also the effects of instruction set to its organization for
processing an operation. It discusses also the design performance of computer system and the
processor organization in relation to the architecture of the system.

Memory/I/O addressing and interfacing is integrated to the designing process as well as the
peripheral identification and connectivity for the computer system.

Design studies are also included in the later part of the course outline as to understand the
design of SAP-1 computer system. Practical approach to the development of the said system
using the basic gates and programming.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: History and Overview of Computer Architecture

Chapter 2: Instruction Set Architecture
Chapter 3: Measuring Performance
Chapter 4: Computer Arithmetic
Chapter 5: Processor Organization
Chapter 6: Memory System Organization and Architectures
Chapter 7: Input/Output Interfacing and Communication
Chapter 8: Peripheral Subsystems
Chapter 9: Multi/Many-Core Architectures
Chapter 10: Distributed System Architectures
 Computer Architecture and
Organization

Chapter 1

History and Overview of

Computer Architecture
Chapter 1

History and Overview of Computer Architecture

Introduction

In describing computers, a distinction is often made between computer architecture and computer
organization. Although it is difficult to give precise definitions for these terms, a consensus exists about
the general areas covered by each purpose, the nature and characteristics of modern-day computers.

There is a tremendous variety of products, from single-chip microcomputers to supercomputers, that

can rightly claim the name computer. Variety is exhibited not only in cost, but also in size, performance,
and application. The rapid pace of change that has always characterized computer technology continues
with no letup. These changes cover all aspects of computer technology, from the underlying integrated
circuit technology used to construct computer components to the increasing use of parallel organization
concepts in combining those components.

The evolution of computers has been characterized by increasing processor speed, decreasing
component size, increasing memory size, and increasing I/O capacity and speed. A critical issue in
computer system design is balancing the performance of the various elements so that gains in
performance in one area are not handicapped by a lag in other areas. In particular, processor speed has
increased more rapidly than memory access time. A variety of techniques is used to compensate for this
mismatch, including caches, wider data paths from memory to processor, and more intelligent memory
chips.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

- define the concept of the computer as a hierarchical system
- view the structure of components and its function described in terms of the collective function
of its cooperating components
- discuss the history of computer technology is an easy and interesting way of being introduced
to the basic concepts of computer organization and architecture
- identify the technology trends that have made performance the focus of computer system design
- enumerate the various techniques and strategies that are used to achieve balanced, efficient
computer performance

Duration

Chapter 1: History and Overview of Computer Architecture = 6 hours

(5-hours discussion;
1-hour assessment)

_____________________________________________

Computer Architecture and Organization

Computer Architecture – is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware technology
standards interact to form a computer system or platform.
– refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible with.
 – refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a
program. Attributes are visible to the programmer. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
– have three categories:
a. System Design: This includes all hardware components in the system, including data
processors aside from the CPU, such as the graphics processing unit and direct
memory access. It also includes memory controllers, data paths and miscellaneous
things like multiprocessing and virtualization.
b. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): This is the embedded programming language of
the central processing unit. It defines the CPU's functions and capabilities based on
what programming it can perform or process. This includes the word size, processor
register types, memory addressing modes, data formats and the instruction set that
programmers use.
c. Microarchitecture: Otherwise known as computer organization, this type of
architecture defines the data paths, data processing and storage elements, as well as
how they should be implemented in the ISA.

Computer Organization – refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications. Examples are things that are transparent to the programmer:
- control signals
- interfaces between computer and peripherals
- the memory technology being used

Computer Architecture vs. Computer Organization

Computer Architecture Computer Organization
Concerned with the way hardware components Concerned with the structure and behavior of a
are connected together to form a computer computer system as seen by the user.
system.
It acts as the interface between hardware and It deals with the components of a connection in
software. a system.
Helps us to understand the functionalities of a Tells us how exactly all the units in the system
system. are arranged and interconnected.
A programmer can view architecture in terms of Whereas Organization expresses the realization
instructions, addressing modes and registers. of architecture.
While designing a computer system, architecture An organization is done on the basis of
is considered first. architecture.
Deals with high-level design issues. Deals with low-level design issues.
Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Organization involves Physical Components
Addressing modes, Data types, Cache (Circuit design, Adders, Signals, Peripherals)
optimization)

Structure and Function

• Structure – is the way in which components relate to each other.
• Function – is the operation of individual components as part of the structure.

Basic Functions of Computer

In general, computer functions are:
• Data processing: Computer must be able to process data which may take a wide variety of
forms and the range of processing requirements is broad.
• Data storage: Computer stores data either temporarily or permanently.
• Data movement: Computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world.
 • Control: Computer must have a control of the above three functions.

Operating environment
(source and destination of data)

Data
movement
apparatus

Control
mechanism

Data Data
storage processing
facility facility

A Functional View of the Computer

Four Possible Types of Computer Operations

The figure below shows the different operations performed by the computer and described as follows:
(a) The computer can function as a data movement device, simply transferring data from one
peripheral or communications line to another.
(b) The computer can also function as a data storage device, with data transferred from the
external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write).
(c) The computer operations involving data processing either in storage.
(d) The computer operations involving data processing in route between storage and the external
environment.
Internal Structure of Computer

The Computer Top-Level Structure

Four main structural components:
• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O. A common example of system interconnection is by means of a
system bus.

System Bus – is consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all the other components attach.

CPU Structural Components

Four major structural components:
• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions
• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU
• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control
unit, ALU, and registers

Computer Evolution
I. The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
Computers developed between 1946 – 1959, are the first generation of computers. They were large and
limited to basic calculations. They consisted of large devices like the vacuum tubes. The input method of
these computers was a machine language known as the 1GL or the first generation language. The
physical methods of using punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used to enter data into these
computers.
Examples of the first generation computers include ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IAS, IBM-701, and
IBM-650. These computers were large and very unreliable. They would heat up and frequently shut down
and could only be used for very basic computations.

Vacuum tube – is an electronic device that controls the flow of

electrons in a vacuum. It is also called as electron tube or
valve. John Ambrose Fleming developed the first vacuum
tube in 1904. Fleming’s diode allows the flow of electric
current in only one direction (from cathode to anode) and
blocks the electric current in another direction (from anode
to cathode).

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) – was designed and constructed at the
University of Pennsylvania and the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer.
– is a project used to response the U.S. needs during World War II wherein the Army’s
Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL), an agency responsible for developing range and trajectory
tables for new weapons, was having difficulty supplying these tables accurately and within a
reasonable time frame.
– was proposed by John Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of
Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his graduate students, using vacuum tubes for the BRL’s
application in 1943 and completed in 1946.
– was enormous, weighing 30 tons, occupying 1500 square feet of floor space, and containing
more than 18,000 vacuum tubes.
– consumed 140 kilowatts of power when operates.
 Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

– substantially faster than any electromechanical computer, capable of 5,000 additions per
second.
– is decimal rather than a binary machine in which numbers were represented in decimal
form, and arithmetic was performed in the decimal system.
– has memory consisted of 20 accumulators, each capable of holding a 10-digit decimal
number.
– has major drawback that it had to be programmed manually by setting switches and
plugging and unplugging cables.
– was too late to be used in the war effort, instead, its first task was to perform a series of
complex calculations that were used to help determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb.
– continued to operate under BRL management until 1955, when it was disassembled.

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) – was introduced in 1945 with a
stored-program concept as proposed by John von Neumann, a most notably the mathematician,
who was also a consultant on the ENIAC project.
– implemented the idea of storing instruction codes as well as data in an electrically alterable
memory.

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/

IAS computer – began in 1946 by von Neumann and his colleagues the design as a new stored-
program computer at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies.

Source: https://fudzilla.com/media/k2/items/
 – was not completed until 1952 and become the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose
computers.
– has general structure consists of:
• A main memory, which stores both data and instructions
• An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data
• A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be
executed
• Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit

Structure of the IAS Computer

– has memory consists of 1000 storage locations of 40 binary digits (bits) each called words.
Words can be a data and/or instructions and follows in different format:
• Numbers are represented in binary form, and each instruction is a binary code.
• Number word is represented by a sign bit and a 39-bit value.
• Instruction word may contain two 20-bit instructions, with each instruction consisting
of an 8-bit operation code (opcode) specifying the operation to be performed and a
12-bit address designating one of the words in memory (numbered from 0 to 999).

IAS Memory Format

Registers – are storage locations both on the control unit and the ALU and defined as follows:
• Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O
unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit.
• Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address in memory of the word to be
written from or read into the MBR.
• Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed.
• Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right hand instruction
from a word in memory.
 • Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction-pair to be fetched
from memory.
• Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily operands
and results of ALU operations. The most significant 40 bits are stored in the AC and the
least significant in the MQ.

Expanded Structure of IAS Computer

Instruction Cycle – is the processing performed by a CPU to execute a single instruction. Each
instruction cycle consists of two sub-cycles:
a. Fetch Cycle – is a portion of the instruction cycle during which the CPU fetches from
memory the instruction to be executed. The opcode of the next instruction is loaded into
the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR. This instruction may be taken
from the IBR, or it can be obtained from memory by loading a word into the MBR, and
then down to the IBR, IR, and MAR.
b. Execute Cycle – is a portion of the instruction cycle during which the CPU performs the
operation specified by the instruction opcode. The control circuitry interprets the opcode
and executes the instruction by sending out the appropriate control signals to cause data to
be moved or an operation to be performed by the ALU. And these can be grouped as
follows:
• Data transfer: Move data between memory and ALU registers or between two
ALU registers.
• Unconditional branch: Normally, the control unit executes instructions in
sequence from memory. This sequence can be changed by a branch instruction,
which facilitates repetitive operations.
 • Conditional branch: The branch can be made dependent on a condition, thus
allowing decision points.
• Arithmetic: Operations performed by the ALU.
• Address modify: Permits addresses to be computed in the ALU and then inserted
into instructions stored in memory. This allows a program considerable
addressing flexibility.

UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) – is the first successful commercial computer

commissioned by the Bureau of the Census in 1950 and intended for both scientific and
commercial applications.

Source: https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/
– was manufactured in 1947 by the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation and later became
part of the UNIVAC division of Sperry-Rand Corporation, which went on to build a series of
successor machines.
– could perform matrix algebraic computations, statistical problems, premium billings for a
life insurance company, and logistical problems.

UNIVAC II – was delivered in the late 1950s with greater memory capacity and higher performance
than the UNIVAC I.
– illustrates several trends that have remained characteristic of the computer industry today:
1. Advances in technology allow companies to continue to build larger, more powerful
computers.
2. Each company tries to make its new machines backward compatible with the older
machines. This means that the programs written for the older machines can be
executed on the new machine.

Source: https://digital.hagley.org/

UNIVAC 1100 series – is a computer development began by the UNIVAC division, which was to be
its major source of revenue.
– has first model named the UNIVAC 1103 and its successors were primarily intended for
scientific applications, involving long and complex calculations.
IBM – is then major manufacturer of punched-card processing equipment, delivered its first electronic
stored-program computer, the 701, in 1953 and intended primarily for scientific applications.
– introduced the companion 702 product in 1955, which had a number of hardware features
that suited it to business applications.
– established the long series of 700/7000 computers as the overwhelmingly dominant
computer manufacturer.

II. The Second Generation: Transistors

Computers developed between 1959-1965 the second generation computers. These computers were more
reliable and in place of vacuum tubes, used transistors. This made them far more compact than the first
generation computers. The input for these computers were higher level languages like COBOL,
FORTRAN etc. In these computers, primary memory was stored on the magnetic cores and magnetic
tape and they used magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
Examples of the second generation computers include PDP-1, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC
3600, UNIVAC 1108. As a result, they worked on AC and therefore were faster than their predecessors.

Transistor – defines the second generation of computers.

– is the first major change in the electronic computer came as the
replacement of the vacuum tube.
– is smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube but
can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to construct computers.
– is a solid-state device, made from silicon.
– was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 and by the 1950s had launched an
electronic revolution. It was not until the late 1950s, however, that fully transistorized computers
were commercially available.

PDP-1 – delivered by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1957 as its first computer
manufactured.
– was become remarkable for DEC in second generation because they began the
minicomputer phenomenon that would become so prominent in the third generation.

Source: https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/althistory/images/

IBM 7094 – includes an Instruction Backup Register, used to buffer the next instruction.
– is included in the following IBM 700/7000 series:
CPU Memory Cycle Number Number Hardwired I/O Instruction Speed
Model First Memory
Techno- Techno- Time of of Index Floating- Overlap Fetch (relative
Number Delivery Size (K)
logy logy (μs) Opcodes Registers Point (Channels) Overlap to 701)
701 1952 Vacuum Electrostatic 30 2–4 24 0 no no no 1
tubes tubes
704 1955 Vacuum Core 12 4–32 80 3 yes no no 2.5
tubes
 709 1958 Vacuum Core 12 32 140 3 yes yes no 4
tubes
7090 1960 Transistor Core 2.18 32 169 3 yes yes no 25
7094 I 1962 Transistor Core 2 32 185 7 yes (double yes yes 30
precision)
7094 II 1964 Transistor Core 1.4 32 185 7 yes (double yes yes 50
precision)

– uses data channels and multiplexor for large configuration of peripherals.

Source: https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/

Data channel – is an independent I/O module with its own processor and its own instruction set. The
CPU initiates an I/O transfer by sending a control signal to the data channel, instructing it to
execute a sequence of instructions in memory. The data channel performs its task independently
of the CPU and signals the CPU when the operation is complete. This arrangement relieves the
CPU of a considerable processing burden.

Multiplexor – is the central termination point for data channels, the CPU, and memory.
– schedules access to the memory from the CPU and data channels, allowing these devices to
act independently.

An IBM 7094 Configuration

III. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
Computers developed during the period of 1965 – 1971, the third generation of computers. These
computers differed from the first and the second generations simply by the fact that a new circuit element
like IC’s (Integrated Circuits) was used. An integrated circuit is a small device that can contain thousands
and thousands of devices like transistors, resistances and other circuit elements that make up a computer.
Jack Kilby is credited with the invention of the Integrated Circuit or the IC chips. With the invention of
IC’s, it became possible to fit thousands of circuit elements into a small region and hence the size of the
computers eventually became smaller and smaller.
Another salient feature of these computers was that they were much more reliable and consumed far less
power. The input languages for such computers were COBOL, FORTRAN-II up to FORTRAN-IV,
PASCAL, ALGOL-68, BASIC, etc. These languages were much better and could represent more
information. Consequently, more and more complex calculations are possible
Examples of the third generation computers include IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP
(Personal Data Processor)-8, and IBM-370/168.

Discrete component – is a single, self-contained transistor.

– was manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired
together onto circuit boards, which were then installed in computers, oscilloscopes, and other
electronic equipment.

The basic elements of a digital computer:

• storage
• movement
• processing
• control

Two fundamental types of components:

• gates – is a device that implements a simple Boolean or logical function.
• memory cells – is a device that can store one bit of data; that is, the device can be in one of
two stable states at any time.

Fundamental Computer Elements

Four basic functions as follows:

• Data storage: Provided by memory cells.
• Data processing: Provided by gates.
• Data movement: The paths among components are used to move data from memory to
memory and from memory through gates to memory.
• Control: The paths among components can carry control signals.

The incremental figure of the number of transistors that could be put on a single chip reflects the
famous Moore’s law, which was propounded by Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, in 1965. The
consequences of Moore’s law are profound:
 1. The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged during this period of rapid growth in
density. This means that the cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen at a
dramatic rate.
2. Because logic and memory elements are placed closer together on more densely packed chips,
the electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed.
3. The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety of
environments.
4. There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
5. The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than solder connections.
With more circuitry on each chip, there are fewer interchip connections.

Relationship among Wafer, Chip, and Gate

SYSTEM/360 – announced by IBM in 1964 as a new family of computer products.

– was incompatible with older IBM machines.
– remains to this day the architecture of IBM’s mainframe computer.
– was the industry’s first planned family of computers which covered a wide range of
performance and cost.

Source: https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/images/icp/
mainframe – is larger, most powerful computers other than supercomputers. Typical characteristics of
are:
a. supports a large database
b. elaborate I/O hardware
c. used a central data processing facility

The System/360 indicates some of the key characteristics of the various models in 1965 (each member
of the family is distinguished by a model number) as follows:

Model Model Model Model Model

Characteristics
30 40 50 65 75
Maximum memory size (bytes) 64K 256K 256K 512K 512K
Data rate from memory (Mbytes/sec) 0.5 0.8 2.0 8.0 16.0
Processor cycle time (μs) 1.0 0.625 0.5 0.25 0.2
Relative speed 1 3.5 10 21 50
Maximum number of data channels 3 3 4 6 6
Maximum data rate on one channel (Kbytes/s) 250 400 800 1250 1250

The characteristics of a family are as follows:

1. Similar or identical instruction set
2. Similar or identical operating system
3. Increasing speed
4. Increasing number of I/O ports
5. Increasing memory size
6. Increasing cost

PDP-8 – from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

– was small enough that it could be placed on top of a lab bench or be built into other
equipment.
– was cheap enough for each lab technician to have one compared to the System/360 series of
mainframe computers.
– used a structure that is now virtually universal for microcomputers: the bus structure, called
the Omnibus, consists of 96 separate signal paths, used to carry control, address, and data signals.

PDP-8 Bus Structure

– has the following evolution:

Data Rate
First Volume
Model from Memory Innovations and Improvements
Shipped (cubic feet)
(words/µsec)
PDP-8 4/65 1.26 8.0 Automatic wire-wrapping production
PDP-8/5 9/66 0.08 3.2 Serial instruction implementation
PDP-8/1 4/68 1.34 8.0 Medium scale integrated circuits
PDP-8/L 11/68 1.26 2.0 Smaller cabinet
PDP-8/E 3/71 1.52 2.2 Omnibus
PDP-8/M 6/7 1.52 1.8 Half-size cabinet with fewer slots than 8/E
PDP-8/A 1/75 1.34 1.2 Semiconductor memory; floating-point processor
IV. The Fourth Generation: Microprocessor
Fourth Generation of computers was between 1971 – 1980. These computers used the VLSI technology
or the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits technology. Therefore, they were also known as the
microprocessors. Intel was the first company to develop a microprocessor. The first “personal computer”
or PC developed by IBM, belonged to this generation. VLSI circuits had almost about 5000 transistors on
a very small chip and were capable of performing many high-level tasks and computations. These
computers were thus very compact and thereby required a small amount of electricity to run.
Examples are STAR 1000, CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer), DEC 10, PDP 11, CRAY-1. They were also
used in networking and also used higher and more complicated languages as their inputs. The computer
languages like languages like C, C+, C++, DBASE etc. were the input for these computers.
With the rapid pace of technology, the high rate of introduction of new products, and the importance
of software and communications as well as hardware, the classification by generation becomes less
clear and less meaningful. Two important developments are being considered in this generation: the
memory and the processor.

Semiconductor Memory – is a type of semiconductor device tasked with storing data.

– have mainly two types:
a. random-access memory (RAM) – is a temporary data storage domain and used as
temporary storage for the operating system and the applications, and lose its data
when they are powered off.
b. read-only memory (ROM) – serves as a semi-permanent storage domain and used for
retrieving stored data that are permanently fixed and cannot be rewritten.
– stores bit of binary data in a tiny circuit called a memory cell consisting of one to
several transistors and the 1-bit memory cells are grouped in small units called words which are
accessed together as a single memory address.
– is manufactured in word length that is usually a power of two, typically N=1, 2, 4 or 8 bits.
– can accessed its data by means of a binary number called a memory address applied to the
chip's address pins, which specifies which word in the chip is to be accessed.
– has memory storage capacity for M number of address lines is given by 2M N bit word,
which is usually in power of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and 512 and measured in kilobits,
megabits, gigabits or terabits, etc.

Microprocessor – is a component that performs the instructions and tasks involved in computer
processing.
– is the central unit that executes and manages the logical instructions passed to it.
– may also be called a processor or central processing unit, but it is actually more advanced in
terms of architectural design and is built over a silicon microchip.
– is the most important unit within a computer system and is responsible for processing the
unique set of instructions and processes.
– is designed to execute logical and computational tasks with typical operations such as
addition/subtraction, interprocess and device communication, input/output management, etc.
– is composed of integrated circuits that hold thousands of transistors; exactly how many
depends on its relative computing power.
– are generally classified according to the number of instructions they can process within a
given time, their clock speed measured in megahertz and the number of bits used per instruction.
– was born when Intel developed the 4004 in 1971, the first chip to contain all of the
components of a CPU on a single chip.
– has data bus width that defines the number of bits of data that can be brought into or sent
out of the processor at a time.
V. Later Generations
This is the present generation of computers and is the most advanced one. The generation began
somewhere around 1981 and is the present generation of computers. The methods of input include the
modern high-level languages like Python, R, C#, Java etc. These are extremely reliable and employ the
ULSI or the Ultra Large Scale Integration technology. These computers are at the frontiers of the modern
scientific calculations and are used to develop the Artificial Intelligence or AI components that will have
the ability to think for themselves.
Examples include: Intel P 4, i 3 – i10, AMD Athlon, etc.

Computer Generations
Generation Approximate Dates Technology
1 1946-1959 Vacuum tube
2 1959-1965 Transistor
3 1965-1971 Integrated circuit
4 1971-1980 Very large scale integration
5 1981-Onward Ultra large scale integration

Improvements in Chip Organization and Architecture

There are three approaches to achieving increased processor speed:
1. Increase the hardware speed of the processor.
2. Increase the size and speed of caches that are interposed between the processor and main
memory.
3. Changes the processor organization and architecture that increase the effective speed of
instruction execution.

The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture

x86 – represent the results of the design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs).
– incorporates the sophisticated design principles once found only on mainframes and
supercomputers and serves as an excellent example of CISC design.
– has the following highlights of evolution of the Intel product line of the previous
generations:
• 8080 – is the world’s first general-purpose microprocessor.
– is was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit data path to memory.
– was used in the first personal computer, the Altair.
• 8086 – is introduced in 1978 and far more powerful, 16-bit machine.
– has a wider data path and larger registers, sported an instruction cache, or queue, that
prefetches a few instructions before they are executed.
– has a clock speed of 5 MHz and had 29,000 transistors.
– is the first appearance of the x86 architecture.
• 8088 – is a variant of 8086 processor and was used in IBM’s first personal computer, securing
the success of Intel.
• 80286 – is an extension of the 8086 which enabled addressing of a 16-MByte memory instead
of just 1-MByte.
• 80386 – is the Intel’s first 32-bit machine, and a major overhaul of the product.
– is a 32-bit architecture and rivaled the complexity and power of minicomputers and
mainframes introduced just a few years earlier.
– was the first Intel processor to support multitasking, meaning it could run multiple
programs at the same time.
• 80486 – introduced the use of much more sophisticated and powerful cache technology and
sophisticated instruction pipelining.
– offered a built-in math coprocessor, offloading complex math operations from the
main CPU.
• Pentium – introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to
execute in parallel.
• Pentium Pro – has continued the move into superscalar organization begun with the Pentium,
with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and
speculative execution.
• Pentium II – has incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to
process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently.
• Pentium III – has incorporates additional floating-point instructions to support 3D graphics
software.
• Pentium 4 – The Pentium 4 includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for
multimedia.
• Core – is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core, referring to the implementation
of two processors on a single chip.
• Core 2 – is introduced in 2008 and extends the architecture to 64 bits.
– has provides four processors on a single chip called quad-core.
– operates at 3 GHz, a speedup of a factor of 600, and has 820 million transistors, about
28,000 times as many as the 8086.
– is slightly larger package than the 8086 and has a comparable cost.
 Embedded Systems and the ARM
Embedded system – is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps additional
mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a dedicated function.
– is part of a larger system or product in most cases.
– refers to the use of electronics and software within a product, as opposed to a general-
purpose computer, such as a laptop or desktop system encompassing a broad range of
applications.
– have widely varying requirements and constraints, such as the following:
a. small to large systems, implying very different cost constraints, thus different needs
for optimization and reuse
b. relaxed to very strict requirements and combinations of different quality
requirements, for example, with respect to safety, reliability, real-time, flexibility, and
legislation
c. short to long life times
d. different environmental conditions in terms of, for example, radiation, vibrations, and
humidity
e. different application characteristics resulting in static versus dynamic loads, slow to
fast speed, compute versus interface intensive tasks, and/or combinations thereof
f. different models of computation ranging from discrete-event systems to those
involving continuous time dynamics (usually referred to as hybrid systems)
g. tightly coupled to the environment that can give rise to real-time constraints imposed
by the need to interact with the environment
h. required speeds of motion, required precision of measurement, and required time
durations, dictate the timing of software operations are considered constraints.

Examples of Embedded Systems and Their Markets

Market Embedded Device
Automotive Ignition system
Engine control
Brake system
Consumer electronics Digital and analog televisions
Set-top boxes (DVDs,VCRs, Cable boxes)
Personal digital assistants (PDAs)
Kitchen appliances (refrigerators, toasters,
microwave ovens)
Automobiles
Toys/games
Telephones/cell phones/pagers
Cameras
 Global positioning systems
Industrial control Robotics and controls systems for manufacturing
Sensors
Medical Infusion pumps
Dialysis machines
Prosthetic devices
Cardiac monitors
Office automation Fax machine
Photocopier
Printers
Monitors
Scanners

Embedded System Organization

In addition to the processor and memory, there are a number of elements that differ from the typical
desktop or laptop computer:
1. There may be a variety of interfaces that enable the system to measure, manipulate, and
otherwise interact with the external environment.
2. The human interface may be as simple as a flashing light or as complicated as real-time
robotic vision.
3. The diagnostic port may be used for diagnosing the system that is being controlled—not just
for diagnosing the computer.
4. Special-purpose field programmable (FPGA), application specific (ASIC), or even non-digital
hardware may be used to increase performance or safety.
5. Software often has a fixed function and is specific to the application.

Possible Organization of an Embedded System

ARM – is a family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed by ARM Inc.,

Cambridge, England. a company doesn’t make processors but instead designs microprocessor and
multicore architectures and licenses to manufacturers.
– are high-speed processors that are known for their small die size and low power
requirements.
– are widely used in PDAs and other handheld devices, including games and phones as well
as a large variety of consumer products.
– are the processors in Apple’s popular iPod and iPhone devices.
 – is probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and indeed the most
widely used processor architecture of any kind in the world.
– design matched a growing commercial need for a high-performance, low-power-
consumption, small-size and low-cost processor for embedded applications.
– has the following evolution:
Family Notable Features Cache Typical MIPS @ MHz
ARM1 32-bit RISC None
ARM2 Multiply and swap instructions; None 7 MIPS @ 12 MHz
Integrated memory management unit,
graphics and I/O processor
ARM3 First use of processor cache 4 KB unified 12 MIPS @ 25 MHz
ARM6 First to support 32-bit addresses; 4 KB unified 28 MIPS @ 33 MHz
floating-point unit
ARM7 Integrated SoC 8 KB unified 60 MIPS @ 60 MHz
ARM8 5-stage pipeline; static branch prediction 8 KB unified 84 MIPS @ 72 MHz
ARM9 16 KB/16 KB 300 MIPS @ 300 MHz
ARM9E Enhanced DSP instructions 16 KB/16 KB 220 MIPS @ 200 MHz
ARM10E 6-stage pipeline 32 KB/32 KB
ARM11 9-stage pipeline Variable 740 MIPS @ 665 MHz
Cortex 13-stage superscalar pipeline Variable 2000 MIPS @ 1 GHz
XScale Applications processor; 7-stage pipeline 32 KB/32 KB L1 1000 MIPS @ 1.25 GHz
512 KB L2

– are designed to meet the needs of three system categories:

• Embedded real-time systems: Systems for storage, automotive body and power-train,
industrial, and networking applications
• Application platforms: Devices running open operating systems including Linux,
Palm OS, Symbian OS, and Windows CE in wireless, consumer entertainment and
digital imaging applications
• Secure applications: Smart cards, SIM cards, and payment terminals

_____________________________________________

References/Additional Resources/Readings

https://witscad.com/course/computer-architecture/chapter/introduction-to-functional-computer

https://witscad.com/course/computer-architecture/chapter/fundamentals-of-architectural-design
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

Name: ______________________Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________

Direction: Identify the following.

________________ 1. Refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical
execution of a program.
________________ 2. Smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube but can be
used in the same way as a vacuum tube to construct computers.
________________ 3. A combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps additional
mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a dedicated function.
________________ 4. The microprocessor is the central unit of a computer system that performs
arithmetic and logic operations, which generally include adding, subtracting,
transferring numbers from one area to another, and comparing two numbers.
________________ 5. An independent I/O module with its own processor and its own instruction
set.
________________ 6. An electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a vacuum.
________________ 7. The central termination points for data channels, the CPU, and memory.
________________ 8. Refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications.
________________ 9. Storage locations both on the control unit and the ALU.
________________ 10. Larger, most powerful computers other than supercomputers which used to
support a large database.

Direction: Match the items in column A to their descriptions in column B. write only the letter of your
choice on the space provided.
A B
_____ 1. 4004 a. John von Neumann
_____ 2. PDP-8 b. ARM
_____ 3. EDVAC c. Intel
_____ 4. System/360 d. IBM
_____ 5. Cortex e. DEC

Direction: Give the complete terms for the following abbreviated words.
1. ENIAC
2. EDVAC
3. IAS
4. UNIVAC
5. IBM
6. DEC
7. CISC
8. RISC
 9. CPU
10. PDP
Direction: Place a Check (✓) mark on the corresponding column if the given computer is either in I-
First Generation, II-Second Generation, III-Third Generation, IV-Fourth Generation, or V-Fifth
Generation.

I II III IV V
1. PDP-8
2. EDVAC 1103
3. ENIAC
4. Core 2
5. 7094
6. System/360
7. Altair 8800
8. PDP-11
9. i3
10. UNIVAC 1108

Direction: Give 3 each of the following:

1. Categories of computer architecture

2. System categories of ARM

3. Four main structural components of computer

4. Basic elements of digital computer

5. Programming languages used in third generation computers

Assignment
ASSIGNMENT 1

Name: ______________________Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________

Direction: Write your answer clear and concise.

1. What, in general terms, is the distinction between computer organization and computer
architecture?

2. What, in general terms, is the distinction between computer structure and computer
function?

3. What are the four main functions of a computer?

4. List and briefly define the main structural components of a computer.

5. List and briefly define the main structural components of a processor.

6. What is a stored program computer?

7. What are the four main components of any general-purpose computer?

8. At the integrated circuit level, what are the three principal constituents of a computer
system?

9. List and explain the key characteristics of a computer family.

10. What is the key distinguishing feature of a microprocessor?

Assessment (Rubrics)
Each question will be graded based on these five (5) points rubrics.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION

Well written and very organized.

Excellent grammar mechanics.
5 - Outstanding Clear and concise statements.
Excellent effort and presentation with detail.
Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the topic.

Writes fairly clear.

Good grammar mechanics.
4 - Good
Good presentation and organization.
Sufficient effort and detail.

Minimal effort.
Minimal grammar mechanics.
3 - Fair
Fair presentation.
Few supporting details

Somewhat unclear.
Shows little effort.
2 - Poor Poor grammar mechanics.
Confusing and choppy, incomplete sentences.
No organization of thoughts.

Very poor grammar mechanics.

Very unclear.
1 - Very Poor
Does not address topic.
Limited attempt.
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Year Level : ___________ Section: ____________
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