Lecture Two: Second Language Acquisition

Module: Applied Linguistics

Level: Master1

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses About Second Language Acquisition

1. The Acquisition-Learning Distinction

This hypothesis states that adults have two distinct and independent ways
of developing competence in a second language. The first way is language
acquisition, a process similar, if not identical, to the way children develop
ability in their first language. Language acquisition is a subconscious process;
language acquirers are not usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring
language, but are only aware of the fact that they are using the language for
communication.

We are generally not consciously aware of the rules of the languages we

have acquired. Instead, we have a "feel" for correctness. Grammatical
sentences "sound" right, or "feel" right, and errors feel wrong, even if we do
not consciously know what rule was violated.

Other ways of describing acquisition include implicit learning, informal

learning, and natural learning. In non-technical language, acquisition is
"picking-up" a language.

The second way to develop competence in a second language is by

language learning. We will use the term "learning" henceforth to refer to
conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of
them, and being able to talk about them. In non-technical terms, learning is

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"knowing about" a language, known to most people as "grammar", or "rules".
Some synonyms include formal knowledge of a language, or explicit learning.

The acquisition-learning hypothesis claims, however, that adults also

acquire, that the ability to "pick-up" languages does not disappear at puberty.
This does not mean that adults will always be able to achieve native-like levels
in a second language. It does mean that adults can access the same natural
"language acquisition device" that children use.

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

One of the most exciting discoveries in language acquisition research in

recent years has been the finding that the acquisition of grammatical
structures proceeds in a predictable order. Acquirers of a given language tend
to acquire certain grammatical structures early, and others later. However,
Morpheme studies offer no indications that second language learners similarly
acquire other linguistic features (phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics)
in any predictable sequence, let alone in any sequence at all.

3.The Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition

and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The Monitor
hypothesis posits that acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways.
Normally, acquisition "initiates" our utterances in a second language and is
jresponsible for our fluency. Learning has only one function, and that is as a
Monitor, or editor. Learning comes into play only to make changes in the form
of our utterance, after is has been "produced" by the acquired system. This can
happen before we speak or write, or after (self-correction).

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 The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning,
play only a limited role in second language performance. The 'monitor' acts in a
planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are
met:

● The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal.

● They focus on form or think about correctness.

● They know the rule.

4.The Input hypothesis

The Input hypothesis could be considered the most influential hypothesis

in L2 acquisition, as it provides theoretical and practical foundations for the
way L2 learners internalize the knowledge. It is exclusively attributed to
acquisition, not learning. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves
and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language
'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. We
acquire, dge of the world, our extra-linguistic information to help us
understand language directed at us where "understand" means that the
acquirer is focused on the meaning and not the form of the message.
5.The Affective Filter

The Affective Filter hypothesis states how affective factors relate to the
second language acquisition process. Research over the last decade has
confirmed that a variety of affective variables relate to success in second
language acquisition.

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 Most of those studied can be placed into one of these three categories: (1)
Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in second
language acquisition. (2) Self-confidence: Performers with self-confidence and
a good self-image tend to do better in second language acquisition. (3) Anxiety:
Low anxiety appears to be conducive to second language acquisition, whether
measured as personal or classroom anxiety.

The Affective Filter hypothesis captures the relationship between affective

variables and the process of second language acquisition by positing that
acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their Affective Filters.
Those whose attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition will not
only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or strong Affective
Filter--even if they understand the message, the input will not reach the part of
the brain responsible for language acquisition, or the language acquisition
device. Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition
will not only seek and obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker
filter. They will be more open to the input, and it will strike "deeper" (Stevick,
1976). It still maintains that input is the primary causative variable in second
language acquisition, affective variables acting to impede or facilitate the
delivery of input to the language acquisition device. The filter hypothesis
explains why it is possible for an acquirer to obtain a great deal of
comprehensible input, and yet stop short (and sometimes well short) of the
native speaker level (or "fossilize"; Selinker, 1972). When this occurs, it is due
to the affective filter.

How do Krashen's Hypotheses apply to the SL/FL classroom?

Explanation of Hypothesis Application for Teaching

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The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis According to this theory, the optimal
way a language is learned is through
According to Krashen, there are two ways of natural communication. As a second
developing language ability. Acquisition language teacher, the ideal is to
involves the subconscious acceptance of create a situation wherein language is
knowledge where information is stored in the used in order to fulfill authentic
brain through the use of communication; this purposes. This is turn, will help
is the process used for developing native students to ‘acquire’ the language
languages. Learning, on the other hand, is the instead of just ‘learning’ it.
conscious acceptance of knowledge ‘about’ a
language (i.e. the grammar or form). Krashen
states that this is often the product of formal
language instruction.
The Monitor hypothesis As an SL teacher it will always be a
challenge to strike a balance between
This hypothesis further explains how encouraging accuracy and fluency in
acquisition and learning are used; the your students. This balance will
acquisition system, initiates an utterance and depend on numerous variables
the learning system ‘monitors’ the utterance including the language level of the
to inspect and correct errors. Krashen states students, the context of language use
that monitoring can make some contribution and the personal goals of each
to the accuracy of an utterance but its use student. This balance is also known
should be limited. He suggests that the as Communicative competency.
‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it
forces the learner to slow down and focus
more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.
The Natural Order hypothesis According to this hypothesis, teachers
should be aware that certain
According to Krashen, learners acquire parts structures of a language are easier to
of language in a predictable order. For any acquire than others and therefore
given language, certain grammatical structures language structures should be taught
are acquired early while others are acquired in an order that is conducive to
later in the process. This hypothesis suggests learning. Teachers should start by
that this natural order of acquisition occurs introducing language concepts that
independently of deliberate teaching and are relatively easy for learners to
therefore teachers cannot change the order of acquire and then use scaffolding to
a grammatical teaching sequence. introduce more difficult concepts.
The Input hypothesis This hypothesis highlights the
importance of using the Target
This hypothesis suggests that language Language in the classroom. The goal
acquisition occurs when learners receive of any language program is for
messages that they can understand, a concept learners to be able to communicate
also known as comprehensible input. effectively. By providing as much
However, Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input as possible,
comprehensible input should be one step especially in situations when learners
beyond the learner’s current language ability,
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 are not exposed to the TL outside of
represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners the classroom, the teacher is able to
to continue to progress with their language create a more effective opportunity
development. for language acquisition.
The Affective Filter hypothesis In any aspect of education it is always
According to Krashen one obstacle that important to create a safe, welcoming
manifests itself during language acquisition is environment in which students can
the affective filter; that is a 'screen' that is learn. In language education this may
influenced by emotional variables that can be especially important since in order
prevent learning. This hypothetical filter does to take in and produce language,
not impact acquisition directly but rather learners need to feel that they are
prevents input from reaching the language able to make mistakes and take risks.
acquisition part of the brain. According to This relates to directly to Krashen’s
Krashen the affective filter can be prompted hypothesis of the affective filter. To
by many different variables including anxiety, learn more about creating a positive
self-confidence, motivation and stress. classroom environment.