1.

REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

1. Determine the output power and frequency of reflex klystron.
2. Plot the relation between repeller voltage and power of reflex klystron.
3. Obtain characteristics between output power and repeller voltage of reflex klystron.
4. Calculate the electron tuning range (ETR) of reflex klystron using mode characteristics.

AIM: To plot the mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron and to calculate the electronic tuning sensitivity
(ETS).
APPARATUS:
1. Reflex Klystron Power Supply
2. Reflex Klystron Tube with mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable attenuator
4. Tunable Frequency Meter
5. Slotted section
6. Tunable detector
7. Ammeter
THEORY: The Reflex Klystron makes the use of velocity modulation to transform continuous electron beam
energy into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the
positive resonator towards the negative reflector, which retards and, finally, reflects the electrons and the
electron turns back through the resonator.
Suppose an RF-Field exists between the resonators, the electrons traveling forward will be accelerated
or retarded, as the voltage at the resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator
at an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at a reduced velocity. The electrons leaving the
resonator will need different times to return, due to changes in velocities.
As a result, returning electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through the
resonator, they interact with voltage at the resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such time that the
electrons are slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator and the Klystron will
oscillate.
The frequency is primarily determined by the dimensions of the resonant cavity. Hence, by changing
the volume of the resonator, mechanical tuning of Klystron is possible. Also, a small frequency change can be
obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called electron tuning.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Cooling fan

Klystron Klystron Variable Tunable

Isolator frequency
Power mount - Attenuator
XL-621 meter XF-
Supply Klystron
tube 710

Slotted
Ammeter Diode Section
(0 to 10 mA) detector

a) Setup for measuring output current and

1|Page
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the reflex Klystron microwave test bench as per the block diagram.
2. Keep the modulator switch in continuous wave (CW) mode.
3. Adjust the repeller voltage (Vᵣ) in the maximum position.
4. Switch on the power supply and HT is ‘ON’ condition.
5. Adjust beam current slowly by increasing the beam voltage (Vₒ) slowly till the beam current reaches
(22mA - 23mA).
6. Vary the repeller voltage in 5 to 7 steps and simultaneously note the output of the detector and also
note the frequency for each mode of operation till you get the dip in the output current in the ammeter
by tuning the frequency meter.
7. Vary the repeller voltage to obtain at least three different modes of the klystron.
8. Plot o/p current vs. repeller voltage and repeller voltage vs. frequency.
9. Calculate the mode number, Q, and Sₒ for constant frequency output.

EXPECTED GRAPH:
Frequency
1007
1002
1000

998
996
Repeller voltage
Output current

400
300
200
100
0
-50 -80 -120 -140 -160 -190 -200 -220 -250 -270
Repeller voltage
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=
Operating frequency f=
Dip current=

2|Page
 S. Repeller voltage(v) Output current Frequency (GHz) No. of
NO. (mA or uA) modes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

CALCULATIONS:
Calculate Electronic Tuning Sensitivity, i.e., the frequency band from one end of the mode to another, from

 ETS= dfdv 
the graph of VR vs. frequency The formula for electronic Tuning sensitivity is given as

MODE Repeller Voltage ETS

ETR
(in Volts)
Mode 1

Mode2

Mode3

3|Page
Note: As the repeller voltage increases mode number decreases and power increases.

RESULT: Hence, the mode characteristics of reflex klystron are plotted.

INFERENCES: The power output is high in the first mode of operation of the reflex klystron. The tuning
range is achieved for different modes of operation as the repeller voltage increases the power output also
increases.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply
of VSWR / Klystron power supplies.
Note: For the klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before switching ‘ON’ to the main supply.
2. The beam knob should be completed in an anticlockwise direction and the repeller voltage knob
should be in a completely clockwise direction.
3. Switch on the main supply and give some warm-up time to get current/accurate reading.
4. After the completion of the experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the
knobs in minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
5. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.)
keep all the knobs in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
6. Don’t increase the repeller voltage more than -70V(i.e.) it should be between -70Vto -
270V.
APPLICATIONS:

This is most widely used in applications where the variable frequency is desired.
1. In radar receivers
2. Local oscillator in microwave receivers
3. A signal source is a microwave generator of variable frequency
4. Pump oscillator in the parametric amplifier.
EXTENSIONS:
1. By taking the values of repeller voltage we can calculate the mode number
N1 = n+3/4 with V2 =
N2 = (n+1)+3/4 with V1 =
N1 , N2 are the respective mode numbers
2. ETS (Electronic Tuning Sensitivity) = f2 - f1 / V2 – V1 MHz / V
TROUBLESHOOTING:
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
1. No output : Check the waveguide alignment

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the operation of the reflex klystron tube.
2. What is the basic principle involved in microwave tubes?
3. What is the difference between velocity modulation and current density modulation?
4. What happens to the power output as the repeller voltage increases?
5. What are the various modes of operation in the reflex klystron?
6. How electronic tuning is achievable in klystron.
7. What changes occur in the frequency due to the repeller voltage variation?
8. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency, and frequency range of the reflex klystron?
9. How bunching is achieved in reflex klystron.
10. What is the advantage of reflex klystron over two-cavity klystron?
*************

4|Page
 2. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Verify V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode.
2. Calculate the modulation depth of the PIN modulator for the Gunn diode. Using square wave modulation?
3. Derive the peak voltage from the V-I characteristics of the Gunn diode.
4. Calculate the threshold voltage from V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.
AIM: To study the characteristics of the Gunn diode oscillator and to determine the threshold voltage.
APPARATUS:
1. Gunn power supply GS-610.
2. Gunn oscillator with micrometer XG-11.
3. Isolator XL-621.
4. Tunable frequency meter XF-710.
5. PIN Modulator XM-55
6. Tunable detector.
7. Ammeter (0-10mA).
8. Matched termination XL-400
THEORY:
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode. Transferred
Electron Devices (TEDs) are bulk devices that do not have any junctions or gates. They are fabricated with the
compounds like GaAs, InP, and CdTe. These operate on hot electrons. The Gunn diode is one such example.
This also exhibits the property of –ve resistance. Gunn observed periodic fluctuations of current passing
through n-type GaAs specimen when the applied voltage exceeded a certain critical value (2.4 kV/ cm). The
basic mechanism involved in the operation of bulk n-type GaAs devices is the transfer of electrons from the
low conduction valley to the upper subsidiary valley the u-valley. The current increases to a certain value and
falls off after crossing a certain voltage level and increases further linearly.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Gunn PIN Tunable
Gunn power frequency
oscillator Isolator XL- Modulator
supply GS- meter XF-
with 621 XM-55
610 710
micrometer

Ammeter Diode
(0 to 10 mA) detector

(a) Setup for Gunn characteristics

Gunn Gunn PIN Tunable

power oscillator Isolator Modulator frequency
supply GS- with XL-621 XM-55 meter XF-
610 micrometer 710

Matched
termination
XL-400
(b) Setup for V-I characteristics of Gunn oscillator

5|Page
PROCEDURE:
1. First, connect the Gunn test bench as shown in block diagram (a). Switch on the Gunn power supply.
2. The gun bias is adjusted to 9V (below 10V).
3. The micrometer of the Gunn oscillator is varied.
4. The tunable frequency meter is tuned until there is a dip in the ammeter.
5. The reading of the frequency meter gives the operating frequency in terms of mm.
6. The Gunn oscillator micrometer reading and the corresponding frequency are shown in the frequency
meter.
7. Similar frequency conversion charts are provided for the frequency meter reading.
8. Note the frequency corresponding to Gunn oscillator micrometer reading and the frequency
corresponding to frequency meter reading.
9. Both the frequency readings should be the same.
10. The above procedure is repeated for different values of the Gunn oscillator micrometer values.
11. For V-I characteristics of Gunn, connect the test bench as a block diagram (b).
12. Vary Gunn supply voltage from minimum (i.e., 0 to 6 V), and note down the corresponding Gunn
current when it is in current (I) mode.
13. Plot graph between Gunn supply voltages vs. Gunn supply current.

OBSERVATIONS:

For setup-A For setup-B

S.NO. Voltage (v) Current (mA) Voltage (v) Current (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

CALCULATIONS: VT (Threshold voltage) = __________, Imax = __________.

6|Page
GRAPH:
Imax

VT
V

RESULT: The V-I characteristics of the Gunn diode have been observed. The threshold voltage is _______

INFERENCE:
1. Thus the characteristics of the Gunn diode had been verified.
2. At the threshold voltage maximum current is observed
3. Negative resistance region is achieved
PRECAUTIONS:
i. Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at the threshold position for more than 10-15
seconds
ii. Reading should be obtained as fast as possible otherwise due to excessive heat Gunn
diode may burn
iii. Care should be taken such that the bias voltage should not exceed above 10V
APPLICATIONS:
1. In radar transmitters.
2. Broadband linear amplifiers.
3. As pump sources in par amp.
4. Low and medium power oscillator in microwave receivers.
5. Fast combinational and sequential logic circuits.
EXTENSION:
1. The Experiment can be carried out from the determination of Tran conductance.
2. The experiment can be carried out from the determination of the negative resistance region.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
1. No reading in meter : waveguide alignment
2. No variation in the current : Vary the pin modulator slowly
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the principle involved in Gunn diode?
2. What are the various characteristics of Gunn diode?
3. How negative resistance region is achieved in the Gunn diode?
4. Explain the two-valley theory.
5. Compare TEDS with microwave transistors.
6. What are the various modes of operation possible in Gunn diode?
7. How domain is formed in Gunn diode?
8. When the transit time-domain mode is formed?
9. What is the principle involved in TEDS?
10. In which mode of operation the power output and efficiency are high.

********

7|Page
 3. FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
AIM: To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide working in TE 10 mode.
APPARATUS:
1. Reflex Klystron Power Supply
2. Reflex Klystron Tube with mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable attenuator
4. Tunable Frequency Meter
5. Tunable detector
6. Ammeter

THEORY: The cut-off frequency relationship shows that the physical size of the waveguide will determine
the propagation of the particular modes of specific orders determined by values of m and n. The minimum cut-
off frequency is obtained for a rectangular waveguide having dimensions a>b, for
values of m=1, n=0, i.e. TE10 mode is the dominant mode since for TMmn modes, n#0 or n#0 the
The lowest-order mode possible is TE10, called the dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide for a>b.
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular waveguide λo, λg and λc are related as below.
1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc² Where λo is the free-space wavelength, λg is the guide wavelength, and λc is cut off
wavelength. For TE10 mode λc = 2a where ‘a’ is the broad dimension of the waveguide.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Cooling fan

Klystron Tunable
Klystron Variable
mount - Isolator XL- frequency
Power Attenuator
Klystron 621 meter XF-
Supply
tube 710

Slotted
Ammeter Diode
Section
(0 to 10 mA) detector

b) Setup for measuring output current and frequency

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in the figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of the klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage – OFF
Mod-switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – Fully anti-clockwise
Repeller voltage – Fully clockwise
AM – Amplitude knob – Around fully clockwise
AM – Frequency knob – Around mid position

8|Page
4. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ’ON’ the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of beam voltage
knob.
6. Adjust the reflector voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO
7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of the power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of the klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO and note down the frequency from the frequency
meter.
11. Replace the termination with a movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with the slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary. Note and record the probe
position, Let it be d1
13. Move the probe to the next minimum position and record the probe position again let it be d 2
14. Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum positions obtained
as above.
15. Measure the waveguide inner board dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.86mm for the x-band.
16. Calculate the frequency by the following equation.

c 1 1
f  c 
o   2
g
2
c

1 1 1
Where   and C = 3x1010 cm/s. i.e. velocity of light.
o ² g ² c ²
17. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency modes
18. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
g  2 x d  2  d 2  d1 
For TE10 mode => λc = 2a
a is waveguide inner broad dimension
a = 2.286cm (given in manual)
λc = 4.6cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=

S . NO. Frequency(f GHz) theoretical Frequency(f GHz) practical Remarks

d1(cm) d2(cm)
S.NO. Calculation of λg
Vmin position Vmax position
1 λg = 2x∆d=2(d2-d1) =

9|Page
CALCULATIONS:

RESULT: Thus the frequency and wavelength of the rectangular waveguide have been determined.
Operating Frequency (fo) = ________
Operating Wave length (λo) = ________

INFERENCES: The power output is high in the first mode of operation of the reflex klystron. The tuning
range is achieved for different modes of operation as the repeller voltage increases the power output also
increases.
PRECAUTIONS:
7. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply of VSWR /
Klystron power supplies.
Note: For the klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before switching ‘ON’ to the main supply.
8. The beam knob should be completed in an anticlockwise direction and the repeller voltage knob should
be in a completely clockwise direction.
9. Switch on the main supply and give some warm-up time to get current/accurate reading.
10. After the completion of the experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
11. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs
in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
12. Don’t increase the repeller voltage by more than -70V(i.e.) it should be between -70Vto - 270V.

TROUBLESHOOTING:
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
1. No output : Check the waveguide alignment

QUESTIONS:
2. How slotted line technique is used to measure frequency and wavelength?
3. What is the purpose of the slotted line in the microwave bench?
4. What type of wave is propagating in the waveguide?
5. What is meant by guide wavelength?
6. Bring out a relationship between the guide wavelength and cut-off wavelength.
7. How the guide wavelength can be determined by using the slotted line?
8. What is the purpose of a crystal detector probe?
9. Which technique is preferable for the measurement of frequency?
10. What is the cut of the wavelength of the dominant mode in the waveguide?
11. How does a waveguide act as a high pass filter?
*************

10 | P a g e
 4. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
1. Calculate the attenuation provided by the variable attenuator using attenuation measurement.
2. Find out attenuation value for different positions of micrometer using attenuation measurement.
3. Calculate the attenuation provided by the power ratio method using attenuation measurement.
AIM: To study the measurement of attenuation of a fixed and variable attenuator.
APPARATUS:
1. Microwave source
2. Isolator
3. Tunable Frequency Meter
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable port
7. Tunable detector mount
8. Matched Termination
9. VSWR Meter
10. Test Fixed and Variable attenuator Accessories

THEORY: The attenuator is a two-port bi-directional device that attenuates some power when inserted into
the transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) =10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1=Power absorbed or detected by the load without the attenuator in the line.
P2=Power absorbed/detected by the load with an attenuator in the line.
The attenuators consist of a rectangular waveguide with a resistive vane inside it to absorb microwave power
according to their position concerning the sidewall of the waveguide. An electric field is maximum at the
center in TE10 mode; the attenuation will be maximum if the vane is placed at the center of the waveguide.
Moving from the center towards the side wall, attenuation decreases in the fixed attenuator, the vane position
is fixed whereas, in the variable attenuator, its position can be changed with the help of a micrometer or by
other methods.
The following characteristics of attenuators can be studied
1. Input VSWR.
2. Insertion loss (in case of variable attenuator).
3. Amount of attenuation offered into the lines.
4. Frequency sensitivity i.e., variation of attenuation at any fixed position of vane and frequency is
changed.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Cooling fan

Klystron Variable Tunable

Klystron Isolator
mount - Attenuator frequency
Power XL-621
Klystron meter XF-
Supply
tube 710

Slotted
Ammeter Diode Section
(0 to 10 mA) detector

a) Setup for variable attenuation measurement

11 | P a g e
 Cooling fan

Klystron Klystron Variable Tunable

mount - Isolator frequency
Power Attenuator
Klystron XL-621 meter
Supply
tube

Slotted
VSWR meter Section

b) Setup for variable attenuation measurement in terms of power(dB)

PROCEDURE:
Attenuation Measurement/Insertion Loss
1. Remove the tuneable probe, attenuator, and matched termination from the slotted section in the above
setup.
2. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line and tune the detector mount also for maximum deflection
on the VSWR meter (The detection mount’s output should be connected to the VSWR meter).
3. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of a variable attenuator (not a test attenuator)
and gain the control knob of the VSWR meter. Let it be P 1.
4. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line, without disturbing any position on the
setup. Place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to other ports of the test
variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of the test variable attenuator to zero and record the
reading of the VSWR meter. Let it be P2. Then the insertion loss of the test attenuator will be P1 – P2
dB.
5. For measurement of attenuation of the fixed and variable attenuator, after step 4 of the above
measurement, carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any
position obtained up to step 3. Place the test attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to other
ports of the test attenuator. Record the reading of the VSWR meter. Let it be P3. Then the attenuation
value of fixed attenuator or attenuation value of variable attenuator for a particular position of
micrometer reading will be P1 – P3 dB.
6. In the case of the variable attenuator, change the micrometer reading and record the VSWR meter
reading. Find out the attenuation value for different positions of the Micrometer reading and plot a
graph.
7. Now change the operating frequency and the whole step should be repeated for finding the frequency
sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuators.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=
Operating frequency f=
Dip current=

12 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO Micrometer Reference level on

reading VSWR meter reading Attenuation (or) Insertion
the VSWR meter
(P2) loss (P2-P1)(dB)
(P1)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

CALCULATIONS:
Insertion loss = observed value – the test value
Attenuation A(dB) = 10 log P2/P1)
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line, P 2 = Power detected by the load with
the attenuator in the line.
GRAPH :
(P1) input in dB

A(dB)

Micrometer reading
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use the fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus.
3. Avoid cross-connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.

13 | P a g e
RESULT:
Thus, various fixed/variable attenuators have been studied.

INFERENCES:
The test attenuator value is approximately equal to the value measured.
APPLICATIONS:
Attenuators mainly used for
1. Measuring power gain or loss in dB
2. For providing isolation between the instruments.
3. For reducing the power input to a particular stage to prevent overloading.
EXTENSIONS:
By placing a precision calibrated attenuator that can be adjusted to obtain some power
as measured by the Test attenuator.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
1. No variation in VSWR meter: check the waveguide alignment
Vary the repeller voltage slowly
2. No dip in VSWR meter: check the match termination
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the purpose of the attenuator in the microwave bench?
2. What is the difference between Flap Attenuator and Movable Vane Attenuator?
3. What type of materials the attenuators are made up of?
4. Where attenuators are mainly used?
5. What is the difference between a fixed attenuator and a variable attenuator?
6. What type of attenuators the vane type attenuator is made up of?
7. Where the rotary vane precision attenuator is preferable?
8. What is the difference between an attenuator and an isolator?
9. List out the applications of the attenuator.
10. With what type of material the glass vane is being coated?

********

14 | P a g e
 5. VSWR MEASUREMENT OF GIVEN LOAD
AIM: To study the VSWR measurement experimentally and to determine the standing-wave ratio and
reflection coefficient of matched load.

APPARATUS:
1. Reflex klystron power supply
2. Reflex klystron tube with mount
3. Isolator or circulator or attenuator
4. VSWR meter
5. Tunable frequency meter
6. Slotted section with tunable probe and movable probe carriage
7. Shorting plate
8. Matched load

THEORY: The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron
beam into microwave power. The electromagnetic field at any point of the transmission line may
be considered as the sum of two traveling waves the instant wave propagates from the generator
and the reflected wave propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by the
reflection of the instant wave from a discontinuity on the line or the load impedance. The
magnitude and face of the reflector wave depends upon the amplitude and face of the reflecting
impedance. The maximum field strength is found where two waves are in the face and minimum
where the two waves add in the opposite face. The distance between two successive minimum (or
maximum) is half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of electrical field strengths of reflected and
incidents wave is called the reflection coefficient.VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) is defined as the ratio
between the maximum and minimum field strength along the line.
VSWR  s  
Vmax
Vmin
Pr
Reflection coefficient  
Pi
Hence, VSWR can be expressed in terms of reflection coefficient as follows
1 
s
1 
When Vmax=Vmin, i.e., there is no reflection (Pr=0 ), the resulting VSWR=1.00, this is the requirement of a
‘matched circuit’. In other words, under given ideal conditions, the VSWR of a matched load is 1.00. Under
extreme mismatch conditions, Vmin = 0, i.e., total reflection, (Vr =Vi), the resulting VSWR =∞. However, in
most cases, VSWR is greater than 1.00. It is not rare to obtain VSWR as low as 1.02 in a well-designed set-up
having matched components

15 | P a g e
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Cooling

Klystron Klystron Variable Tunable

Power mount - Isolator XL- Attenuato frequency
621
Supply Klystron r meter XF-710

tube

Slotted section with

Any loads tunable probe and movable
carriage

Ammeter Diode VSWR

(0 to 10 mA) detector Meter

c) Setup for measuring VSWR

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the reflex klystron microwave test bench as per the block diagram
2. Keep the modulation switch in CW mode
3. Adjust the repeller voltage (vr) in maximum position
4. Switch on the power supply and HT is on condition
5. Adjust beam current slowly, by increasing the beam voltage (vo) slowly, till the beam current reaches 22mA to
23mA. Do not change the beam voltage, repeller voltage, and beam current throughout the experiment
6. Note the output current. Tune the frequency meter and observe the dip in the ammeter and note the corresponding
frequency (i.e, operational frequency)
7. Detune the frequency meter
8. Keep the modulation switch in AM mode
9. Connect the tunable probe of the slotted section and VSWR meter using a BNC cable
10. Connect the required load to the slotted section
11. Keep range switch of VSWR meter in 30 dB or 40 dB position
12. Keep meter selector in normal position and input selection in crystal position
13. Keep the tunable probe at extreme right by using probe carriage pf slotted section.
14. Tune the probe so that the indication in the VSWR meter will move towards 1.
15. Adjust the amplitude and frequency of modulation so that the indicator in the VSWR meter moves towards 1 on the
upper scale.
16. Now adjust the fine and coarse so that the indicator is positioned on ‘1’.
17. Now the probe is in the Vmax position, move the probe carriage such that the indicator is deflected away from ‘1’ and
a dip is observed on the meter. Now the probe is positioned in a Vmin position. The meter reading directly gives the
VSWR.
18. If the range switch is placed on 30dB the reading must be taken from (1 to 3) scale. If the range switch is 40dB
position, (3 to 10) scale is considered. If the variation of probe carriage in the above 2 scales is exceeded then change

16 | P a g e
 the range switch to 50dB and consider the scale(1 to 3) multiplied by 10. If the reading is beyond the scale then
change the range switch to 60dB and consider (3 to 10) scale multiplied by 10.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=
Operating frequency f=

d1(cm) d2(cm)
S.No Load Vmin position VSWR Vmax position
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

CALCULATIONS:
For high VSWR (S>10),

VSWR 
 (d  d )
g

2 1
RESULT: Hence, the VSWR is measured.

APPLICATIONS:
1. Standing wave ratio in transmission.
2. In selecting the load impedance.

QUESTIONS:

1. Define VSWR.
2. Define reflection coefficient
3. What are the maxima and minima values of the reflection coefficient?
4. What are the maxima and minima values of VSWR?
5. Mention the different techniques in measuring the VSWR
6. Which method is used to measure VSWR>10?
7. What is the relation between VSWR and guided wavelength?
8. Explain about SS tuner.
9. Why standing waves are obtained from the transmission?
10. How do reduce standing waves?

17 | P a g e
 6. IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT OF GIVEN LOAD
AIM: To calculate the impedance of the given load and measure the frequency of the klystron.
APPARATUS:
1. Klystron power supply SKPS – 610
2. Klystron tube 2k25
3. Klystron mount XM-251
4. Isolator XI-621
5. Frequency meter XF-710
6. Variable attenuator XA-520
7. Detector mount XD-451
8. Waveguide stands X4-535
9. VSWR meter SW-215
10. Movable short XT-481
11. Matched termination xl-400
12. Slotted section XS-651
13. Tunable probe XP-655
14. Slotted Section with Tunable Probe and Movable Probe Carriage
15. Shorting Plate
16. Loads (Inductive window, capacitive window, Slide screw tuner, Pyramidal horn antenna, H-born antenna,
E-born antenna).

THEORY:
The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into
microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the positive
resonator towards the negative reflector, which reflects the electrons and the electrons turn back through the
resonator. Suppose the RF- field exists between the resonators, the electron accelerated or retarded, as the
voltage at an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. As a result, returning
electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through the resonator, they interact with the
voltage at resonator grids.
If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are slowed down by the voltage then
energy will be delivered to the resonator, and the klystron will oscillate. The frequency is primarily determined
by the dimensions of the resonant cavity. Hence by changing the volume of the resonator, mechanical tuning
of the klystron is possible. A small frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is
called electronic tuning.

18 | P a g e
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Cooling

Klystron Klystron Variable Tunable

mount - Isolator frequency
Power Attenuator
Klystron XL-621 meter XF-
Supply
tube 710

H-arm (or) E- Slotted section with tunable

arm (or) Horn probe and movable carriage
anntena

Ammeter Diode VSWR

(0 to 10 mA) detector Meter

OBSERVATIONS:
Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=
Operating frequency f=

d1 d2
S.No Load Vmin VSWR V max Normalized load Load
position position impedance(z) impedance(ZL)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

19 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the reflex klystron microwave test bench as per the block diagram.
2. Keep the modulator switch in CW mode.
3. Adjust the repeller voltage (Vr) in the maximum position.
4. Switch on the power supply and HT is in ON condition.
5. Adjust the beam current slowly, by increasing the beam voltage (Vo), Slowly the beam current reaches
22mA to 23mA. Do not change the beam voltage, repeller voltage, and beam current throughout the
experiment.
6. Note the output current. Tune the frequency meter and observe the dip in the ammeter and note the
corresponding frequency.
7. Detune the frequency meter.
8. Keep the modulation switch in AM mode.
9. Connect the tunable probe of the slotted section and VSWR meter using a BNC cable.
10. Connect the required load to the slotted section.
11. Keep the range switch off the VSWR meter in the 30db or 40db position.
12. Keep meter selector in normal position and input selection in a flat position.
13. Keep the tunable probe at the extreme right by using the probe carriage of the slotted section.
14. Tune the probe so that the indicator in the SWR meter will move towards ‘1’.
15. Adjust the amplitude and frequency of modulation so that the indicator is deflected away from ‘1’ in the
upper scale.
16. Now adjust the fine and coarse so that the indicator is positioned on ‘1’.
17. Now the probe is in the Vmax position, move the probe carriage such that the indicator is deflected away
from ‘1’ and a dip is observed on the meter. Now the probe is positioned in a Vmin position. The meter
reading directly gives the VSWR.
18. If the range switch is placed on 30db. The reading must be taken from 1 to 3 scales. If the range switch is
in a 40db position, a 3 to 10 scale is considered. If the variation of probe carriage in the above two scales is
exceeded, then change the range switch to 50db and consider the scale 1 to 3 multiplied by 10. If the reading is
beyond the scale then change the range switch to 60db and consider 10 scales multiplied by 10.
19. Plot the smith chart for the observed values of VSWR for corresponding loads and then calculate the
normalized load impedance from the smith chart.
20. Find the required load impedance for the corresponding load according to the given formula.

CALCULATION:
λc = 2
= 120
= 2.25
=
1− |
=
= Normalized load impedance (from the smith chart)

Therefore, load impedance (z1) = zo * Normalized load impedance

20 | P a g e
 g
 Maximum posision ( d 2 ) - Minimun position(d1 ) 
4

X Maximum posision (X 2 ) - Minimun position( X 1 )

 
g g
120
Z0  
   2 
1   0  
  C  
 

X  Maximum posision (X 2 ) - Minimun position( X 1 )

= Normalized load impedance (from the smith chart)

Therefore, load impedance

impeda (z1) = zo * Normalized load impedance

RESULT: The impedance for different loads has been measured.

 7. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study the characteristics of the multi-hole directional coupler by measuring the following parameters:
Coupling factor and directivity of the coupler.

APPARATUS:
1. Klystron power supply SKPS – 610
2. Klystron tube 2k25
3. Klystron mount XM-251
4. Isolator XI-621
5. Frequency meter XF-710
6. Variable attenuator XA-520
7. Detector mount XD-451
8. Waveguide stands X4-535
9. VSWR meter SW-215
10. Movable short XT-481
11. Matched termination XL-400
12. Slotted line XS-651
13. Tunable probe XP-655
14. Multi-hole Directional Coupler XK-620

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected wave
separately.
A. It consists of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm, electro-magnetically
coupled to each other. The power entering the main arm gets divided between ports 2 and 3
and almost no power comes out in port 4. Power entering at port 2 is divided between port 1
and 4. The coupling factor is defined as: Coupling (dB) = 10 log10 [p1/p4] =10 log10 [pi/pf] where port 2
is terminated Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [pi/pb], where Port1 is matched.
B. With built-in termination and power entering at port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a
the measure of separation between incident and reflected wave. Directivity is measured as
follows. Hence Directivity D (dB) = 10 log10 [p4/p3]= 10 log10 [pf/pb] =I-C Mainline VSWR is SWR
measured, looking into the mainline input terminal when the matched loads are placed at all other ports.
C. Auxiliary line VSWR is SWR measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output
terminal when the matched loads are placed on other terminals. Mainline insertion loss is the
attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of the coupler, it is defined as:
Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log10 [p1/p3]

22 | P a g e
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Cooling

Klystron Klystron Variable Tunable

mount - Isolator
Power Attenuator frequency
Klystron XL-621 meter XF-710
Supply
tube

Ammeter Slotted section with tunable

Directional
(0 to 10 mA)
Diode detector probe and movable carriage
(or) coupler
VSWR Meter

Matched
termination

a) Setup for directional coupler

PROCEDURE:

1. Setup the components and equipment as shown in the figure.

2. Energize the microwave source for the particular frequency of operation.
3. Remove the multi-hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the
frequency meter. Tune the detector for maximum output.
4. Set any reference level of power on the VSWR meter with the help of a variable attenuator,
gain control knob of the VSWR meter and note down the reading.
5. Insert the directional coupler as shown in the figure with detector to the auxiliary port 3
and matched termination to port 2, without changing the position of the variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
6. Note down the reading on the VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range –db
switch if required. Let it be ‘Y’
7. Calculate the coupling factor which will be
C (dB) = X – Y
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector from auxiliary port 3 and match termination from port 2 without
disturbing the setup.
9. Now carefully disconnect the detector from auxiliary port 3 and match termination.
10. Connect the matched termination to auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and
measure the reading on the VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
11. Repeat steps from 1 to 4.
12. Connect the directional coupler in reverse directions i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side. Matched
termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3. Without disturbing the position of the variable
attenuator and gaining control knob of the VSWR meter.
13. Measure and note down the reading on the VSWR meter. Let it be Yd. X-Y gives isolation I (dB).

23 | P a g e
14. Compute the directivity as Y-Yd = I-C
C
15. Repeat the same for other frequencies.

Directional coupler symbol:

OBSERVATION:
Beam current IB=
Beam voltage VB=
Repeller voltage VR=
Operating frequency f=

S.N Matched
Input Port Output Port Powerr output
O Termination
1

CALCULATION:
 Coupling (dB) = 10 log10 [p1/p4], where port 2 is terminated
C (dB)= X-Y
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [p1/p3], where Port1 is matched.
I (dB) = X – Yd
Hence Directivity D (dB) = 10 log10 [Pf/Pb]=I-C

RESULT: The multi-hole directional coupler characteristic has been studied by measuring its scattering
parameters.
a) Coupling factor
b) Isolation
c) Insertion loss
d) Directivity

Questions:
1) What is a directional coupler?
2) How many ports does it have?
3) What is the difference between dc to a magic tee?
4) What is Directivity?
5) What is Insertion Loss?
6) What is the Coupling Factor?
7) What is the relation between coupling factor and insertion loss?

25 | P a g e
 8. DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF
OPTICAL FIBRES
AIM :To determine the numerical aperture of the fiber cable.

APPARATUS:
1. Optical Fiber Loss & NA Tester,
2. One–meter PMMA Fiber patch cord (Cable 1)
3. Five/Four–meter PMMA Fiber patch cord (cable 2)
4. In-Line SMA Adaptor
5. Numerical Aperture Measurement Jig
6. Digital meter (3 ½ digits)

THEORY: Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected by
the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the
maximum ray angle.
NA = ni.sin θmax. ni for air is 1, hence NA = sin θmax.
For a step – index fibre, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by
N = sqrt (n 2 - n
core cladding
2)

For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to

NA = ncore sqrt(2∆), where ∆ is the fractional difference in refractive indices.
The experimenter may refer to the specifications of the PMMA fibre given in Appendix 1 and record the
manufacturer’s NA, ncladding, ncore, θ.

BLOCK SCHEMATIC:
The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown below and is self-
explanatory.
 AC
P
W

TESTER
SET P0 NA JIG
L
SET-UP FOR FO NA MEASUREMENT

PROCEDURE:
1: Connect one end of the 1 – Meter FO cable to Po of PHY-166 and the other end to the NA Jig, as
shown.

2: Plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn the set Po knob
clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.
3: Hold the white screen with the 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25 mm diameter) vertically at a
suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fiber coincide with the 10 mm circle. Note that
the circumference of the spot (outermost) must coincide with the circle. A dark room will facilitate good
contrast. Record L, the distance of the screen from the fiber end and note the diameter (W) of the spot.
You may measure the diameter of the circle accurately with a suitable scale.

4: Compute NA from the formula NA = sin θmax = W/(4L2+W2 )1/2. Tabulate the reading and repeat the
experiment for 15mm, 20 mm and 25mm diameters too.
5: In case the fiber is under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed. To ensure
even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twists on the fiber and then wind 5 turns of the fiber on to
the mandrel as shown.
 TO NA JIG
MANDREL

TO P0

Use an adhesive tape to hold the windings in position. Now view the spot. The intensity will be more
evenly distributed within the core.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.N L W NA Θ (degrees)
O (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
RESULT:

28 | P a g e
 9. LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS AT 660NM &
850NM
AIM :ToTo study various types of losses that occurs in optical fibers and measure losses in dB of two
optical fiber patch cordss at two wavelengths, namely, 660nm and 850nm. The coefficients of attenuation
per meter at these wavelengths are to be computed from the results.

APPARATUS:
1. Fiber optic Analogue Transmission Kit– 01No.
2. Fiber optic Analogue Receiver Kit
Kit– 01No.
3. One-meter PMMA Fiber Patch cord (Cable1) – 1No.
4. Five-meter PMMA Fiber Patch cord (Cable2) – 1No.
5. In-Line SMA Adapter – 1No.

THEORY: Attenuation in an optical fiber is a result of a number of effects. We will confine our study to
measurement of attenuation in two cables ((Cable1 and Cable2) employing an SMA-SMA
SMA In
In-line-adapter.
We will also compute loss per meter of fiber in dB. We will also study the spectral response of the fiber at 2
wavelengths, 660nm and 850nm.
The optical power at a distance, L, in an optical fiber is given by PL= PO 10 (-A/10) where PO is the launched
power and is the attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit length. The typical attenuation coefficient value
for the fiber under consideration here is 0.3 dB per meter at a wavelength of 660nm.
660n Loss in fibers
expressed in decibels is given by -10log(P
10log(PO/PF) where, PO is the launched power and PF is power at the far
end of the fiber. Typical losses at connector junctions may vary from 0.3 dB to 0.6 dB.
Losses in fibers occur at fiber-fiber
fiber joint
joints or splices due to axial displacement, angular displacement,
separation (aircore), mismatch of cores diameters, mismatch of numerical apertures, improper cleaving and
cleaning at the ends. The loss equation for a simple Fiber optic link is given as:
Pin (dBm)-Pout
Pout (dBm)= LJ1+LFIB1+LJ2+LFIB2+LJ3 (dB): where, LJ1 (dB) is the loss at the LED
LED-
connector junction, LFIB1 (dB) is the loss in cable1, LJ2 (dB) is the insertion loss at a splice or in-line
adapter, LFIB2 (dB) is the loss in cable2 and LJ3 (dB) is the loss at the connector-detector
detector junction.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
The schematic diagram of the optical fiber loss measurement system is shown below and is self-
explanatory.
FIBER OPTIC ANALOG TRANSMITTER KIT

FIBER OPTIC ANALOG RECEIVER KIT

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect one end of Cable-1 to the LED-1 port of the TX and the other end to the FO PIN port (power
meter).
2. Set the DMM to the 2000 mV range. Turn the DMM on. The power meter is now ready for use.
3. Plug the AC mains for both units. Connect the optical fiber Patch cord, Cable1 securely, as shown,after
relieving all twists and strains on the fiber. While connecting the cable please note that minimumforce
 should be applied. At the same time ensure that the connector is not loosely coupled to the
receptacle. After connecting the optical fiber cable properly, adjust Set Po knob to set power of LED1 toa
suitable value, say, -15.0dBm (the DMM will read 150 mV). Note this as Po1
4. Wind one turn of the fiber on the mandrel, as shown in Experiment 1 and note the new reading of the power
meter Po2. Now the loss due to bending and strain on the plastic fiber is Po1-Po2 dB. For more accurate readout
set the DMM to the 200.0mV range and take the measurement. Typically the loss due to the strain and
bending the fiber is 0.3 to 0.8 dB.
5. Next remove the mandrel and relieve Cable-1 of all twists and strains. Note the reading P01. Repeatthe
measurement with Cable-2 (5 meters) and note the reading Po2. Use the in-line SMA adaptor and connect the
two cables in series as shown. Note the measurement Po3.

6. Repeat the entire experiment with LED2 at 850nm and tabulate

Loss in Cable1=Po3-Po2 –Lila,

Loss in Cable2=Po3-Po1 –Lila,
Assuming a loss of 1.0dB in the in-line adapter (Lila=1.0dB), we obtain the loss in each cable. The
difference in the losses in the two cables will be equal to the loss in 4 meters of fiber (assuming that the
losses at connector junctions are the same for both the cables). The experiment may be repeated in the higher
sensitivity range of 200.0mV. The experiment also may be repeated for other Po settings such as - 15dBm, -
20 dBm, -25dBm etc.
 OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sl Po1 (dBm) Po2 Po3 Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 Loss per meter
No (dBm) (dBm)
Cable1 Cable2 metersfiber (dB)at 660nm
(dB) (dB) (dB)
1 -15.0

2 -20.0

3. -25.0

4.

6: Repeat the entire experiment with LED2 at 850nm and tabulate in 1.4.2
NOTE
The power meter has been calibrated internally to read power in dBm at 660nm. However the calibration
has to be redone manually for measurements at 850nm. The PIN has a 66% higher sensitivity at 850nm as
compared to 660nm for the same input optical power. This corresponds to sensitivity higher by 2.2dB. To
calibrate the power meter at 850nm, deduct 2.2dB from the measured reading. In computing losses in
cables and fibers this gets eliminated while solving the equations.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sl Po1 (dBm) Po2 Po3 Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 Loss per meter
No (dBm) (dBm)
Cable1 Cable2 metersfiber (dB)at 850nm
(dB) (dB) (dB)
1 -15.0

2 -20.0

3. -25.0

4.

RESULT:

32 | P a g e
 10. CHARACTERISATION OF 660 & 850 NM LEDs
AIM: To study the relationship between the LED dc forward current and the LED optical power output
and determines the linearity of the device at 660nm as well as 850nm. The conversion efficiencies of the
two LEDs will also be compared.

APPARATUS:
1. Fiber optic Analogue Transmission Kit– 01No.
2. Fiber optic Analogue Receiver Kit– 01No.
3. One-meter PMMA Fiber Patch cord (Cable1) – 1No.
4. Five-meter PMMA Fiber Patch cord (Cable2) – 1No.
5. In-Line SMA Adapter – 1No.

THEORY: LEDs and laser diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication systems,
whether the system transmits digital or analogue signals. In the case of analogue transmission, direct intensity
modulation of the optical source is possible, provided the optical output from the source can be varied linearly
as a function of the modulating electrical signal amplitude. LEDs have a linear optical output with relation to
the forward current over a certain region of operation. It may be mentioned that in many lowcost, short-haul
and small bandwidth applications, LEDs at 660 nm, 850 nm and 1300nm are popular. While direct intensity
modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is achieved by fm modulating the baseband signal prior to
intensity modulation. The relationship between an LED optical output Po and the LED forward current IF is
given by Po= K.IF, (over a limited range), where K is a constant.

BLOCK SCHEMATIC
The schematic diagram for characterization of the LEDs Converter is shown below and is self-explanatory.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect one end of Cable1 to the LED1 port of TX and the other end to the FO PIN (power meter)
port of RX.
2. Set DMM1 to the 200mV range and connect the marked Po on the RX unit to it. The power meter
is ready for use. Po= (Reading)/10 dBm.
 3. Set DMM2 to the 200.0 mV range and connect it between the (Vo1) and ground in the TX unit.
If1=Vo1 (mV)/100 in ma.
4. Plug the AC mains for both units. Adjust the SET Po knob on the TX unit to the extreme
anticlockwise position to reduce If1 to 0. The reading on the power meter should be out of range.
5. Slowly turn the SET Po knob clockwise to increase If1. The power meter should read –20.0dB
approximately. From here change If1 in suitable steps and note the power meter readings, Po. Record
up to the extreme clockwise position.
6. Repeat the complete experiment for PO LED2 and tabulate the readings for Vo2 & Po. If2=Vo2
(mV)/50 in ma. Apply the correction of 2.2 dB discussed in Experiment1 for the 850nm LED.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR 660NM

Sl V01(mV) If1=Vo1/100(ma) Po (dBm)

No
1
2
3
4
5
6

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR 850 NM

Sl Vo2(mV) If2=Vo2/50(ma) Po (dBm) Po(dBm)

No Correcte
d
1
2
3
4
5
6

RESULT:

34 | P a g e
 11. LASER DIODE CHARACHERISTICS

1. Verify V-I characteristics of Laser Diode.

AIM: To study the characteristics of the Laser diode.

APPARATUS
1. Laser Diode Characteristics Kit
2. Ammeter
3. Voltmeter
4. Connecting Wires

THEORY: A laser diode is electrically a P-i-n diode. The active region of the laser diode is in the Intrinsic (1)
region, and the carriers (electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N and P regions
respectively. While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple - diodes all modern lasers use the
double betere structure implementation, where the Larriers and the photons are confined in order to maximize
their chances for recombination and light generation. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for a laser diode is to
recombine all carriers in the region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using direct bandgap
semiconductors The laser diode epitaxial structure is grown using one of the crystal growth techniques, usually
starting from an N doped substrate, and growing the 1 doped active laver, followed by the P doped cladding,
and a contact layer. The active layer most ofter consists of quantum wells, which provide lower threshold
current and higher efficiency
Laser diodes form of the larger classification of conductor pn junction diodes Forward electrical has across iter
faser diode causes the two species of charge carries- holes and electrom-to the injected from prmite sides of the
p-nies into the depletion region Holes are injected from the p-doped, and electrons from the n-doped
Semiconductor (A depletion region, devoid of any charge carriers, forms as a result of the difference in
electical potential between and p-type semiconductors wherever they aTR physical comact) Due to the use of
charge injection in powering most diode lasers, this class of lasers sometimes termed "injection lasers," or
"injection laser diode (ILD As diode lasers are semiconductor devices, they nity also be classified as
semiconductor lasers Ether designation distinguntes diode lasers sold shite laser

SYMBOL OF LASER DIODE:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure
2. Make forward bias connection
3. Adjust the voltage in steps of suitable increments until the current in ammeter varies.
4. Decrease the voltage applied to the diode in steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE;

S.NO VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

EXPECTED GRAPHS:

RESULT:
 12. MEASUREMENT OF DATA RATE FOR DIGITAL
OPTICAL LINK.
AIM:
To Connect RS232 port of two computers using optical fiber digital link, transmit data from one computer
over this link and receive same data on other computer.

APPARATUS:
1. Measurement of Data Rate for Di
2. gital Link Trainer kit.
3. RS232 Cable.
4. Fiber Optic Cable.
5. Two PC’s

THEORY:Microprocessor is a parallel device. It transfers the 8bit of data simultaneously over the data lines.
The number of data lines depends upon the type of microprocessor used in the system. This is parallel I/O
mode of the data transfer. However, in many situations the parallel data transfer is either impractical or
impossible. This is very expensive and noisy especially when the distances are large. Very important advantage
of serial mode and this is reason behind the fact that serial mode is preferred in many applications.

FUNCTION OF MAX232:
The computer communicates from serial com port which is at RS232 levels, at 12V. Transceiver MAX232
performs the function of converting RS232 signals to TTL levels and versa.

HARDWARE SETTINGS:
 Switch off the power supply of PC.
To perform this experiments, com port of PC is used. On board 9-pin D-type connectors are provided for
interfacing with PC. Two serial cables are provided with the kit. Connect serial connector serial connector
end of one cable to one of the com ports of computer and 9-pin D-type connector end to connector end to
connector on kit. Similar connect other serial cable to other computer serial port and connector of the kit.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect COM1 to PC-1.
2. Connect COM2 to PC-2.
3. Connect Fiber Optic Cable from Transmitter Module to Receiver Module.
4. Switch ON the trainer kit and also the PC’s and configure the computer as below.
5. After switching ON the PC-1 and PC-2
6. Download and Install Hyper Terminal Private Edition from Google.

37 | P a g e
7. After Installation of Hyper terminal Private Edition go to:

START MENU

PROGRAMS

ACCESSORIES

COMMUNICATION

HYPER TERMINAL

8. Double click on HYPER TERMINAL in PC-1 and PC-2, a New window will appear.

9. Enter the Name Tx., and then in PC-2 repeat the same procedure a window will be appeared select
another Icon and name it as Rx and enter OK. The below window will appear
 10. Select the COM Port and configure (in both the PC’s) and enter OK.

11. In PC-1 COM-1 Properties window will be appeared

12. Port setting should be done as shown in the below table and click OK.

Bit per second 19200

Data bits 8
Parity None
Stop bits 1
Flow control X on/X
off

NOTE: For Bits per second setting, you could select them for different speeds. Don’t exceed it above 9500bp
13. After the above setting click OK. The background window will become active.
14. Click on “File”, Save As and save it in the directory, which you want.
 15. To start communicating between two PC’s click on “Transfer” menu and again click on “Send File”.

40 | P a g e
16. A window will be prompted having title send file with file name and protocol.

17. Select browse for the file, which you would like to send to the PC connected, select the file and
click on “Open”, the file name and address will be displayed in small window. Then select
KERMIT or ZMODEM with CRASH RECOVERY Protocol.

18. To receive file on PC click on “Transfer menu” and again click on “Receive File”, a window will
be prompted having title “Receive File” with location at which you want to store the received file
and receiving protocol.
19. Select Browse for the location where you would like to store the received file, select the folder and
click OK, the folder name and address will be displayed in small window. Protocol to be selected
should be KERMIT and same as file transmitting PC.
20. On the PC from which selected file to be transmitted, click on Send. A window will open showing
file transfer status. Immediately at the receiving PC click Receive (otherwise timed out error will be
displayed and communicated will fail). You will see a window showing file is being received in the
form of packets.
21. After file is transferred both the windows in transmitting and receiving PC’s will close. Check for
the received file in the folder where the file is stored.
RESULT:

42 | P a g e
 13. CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
DIODES
AIM: The aim of the experiment is to study
(i) Optical power (Po) of a Laser Diode vs Laser Diode Forward Current(If)
(ii) Monitor Photodiode Current (IM) vs Laser Optical Power Output(Po)

THEORY: LEDs and laser diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication systems,
whether the system transmits digital or analogue signals. In the case of analogue transmission, direct intensity
modulation of the optical source is possible, provided the optical output from the source can be varied
linearly as a function of the modulating electrical signal amplitude. LEDs have a linear optical output with
relation to the forward current over a certain region of operation. It may be mentioned that in many low- cost,
short-haul and small bandwidth applications, LEDs at 660 nm and 850 nm and 1300 nm are popular. While
direct intensity modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is achieved by fm modulating the base-
band signal prior to intensity modulation.
Laser Diodes (LDs) are used in telecom, datacom and video communication applications involving high
speeds and long hauls. All single mode optical fiber communication systems use lasers in the 1300nm and
1550nm windows. Lasers with very small line-widths also facilitate realization of wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM) for high-density communication over a single fiber. The inherent properties of LDs
that make them suitable for such applications are, high-coupled optical power into the fiber (typically greater
than 1 mw), high stability of optical intensity, small line-widths (less than 0.05 nm in special devices), high
speed (several GHz) and high linearity (over a specified region suitable for analogue transmission). Special
lasers also provide for regeneration/amplification of optical signals with in an optical fiber. These fibers are
known as erbium doped fiber amplifiers. LDs for communication applications are available in the wavelength
regions 650nm, 780nm, 980nm, 1300nm and 1550nm.
Even though a variety of laser diode constructions are available there are a number of common features in
all of them. We have selected a very simple device (650nm/ 2.5mw) to demonstrate the functioning of a laser
diode.

Monitor Photo Detector (MPD), Automatic Power control and Automatic Current Control

Modes of Operation:
A laser diode has a built-in photodetector, which one can employ to monitor the optical intensity of the
laser at a specified forward current. This device is also effectively utilized in designing an optical negative
feedback control loop, to stabilize the optical power of a laser in the steep lasing region. The electronic circuit
scheme that employs the monitor photodiode to provide a negative feedback for stabisation of optical power
is known as the automatic power control mode (APC). If a closed loop employs current control alone to set
optical power then this mode is called the automatic current control mode

43 | P a g e
(ACC). The disadvantage of ACC scheme is that the optical power output may not stable at a given current
due to the fact that small shifts in the lasing characteristics occur with temperature changes and ageing. The
disadvantage of the APC is that the optical feedback loop may cause oscillations, if not designed properly.

PROCEDURE FOR PO VS IF EXPERIMENT:

Study of the LD Po as a function of LD forward current IF is self-explanatory.
1. Connect the 2-metre PMMA FO cable to TX Unit of PHY-159 and couple the laser light to the
powermeter on the RX Unit. Select ACC mode of operation.

2. Set DMM1 to the 2000mV range and connect it between Ground terminal to V0(VL) terminal
provided on the TX unit. If =V0/100.

3. Set DMM2 to the 2000 mV range and connect it between (P0) terminals at the Receiver unit. Turn on
it. The power meter is now ready to use. P0=(Reading)/10dBm. Step 4: Adjust the SET IF on the TX
knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce IF to minimum value. The powermeter reading
will normally be below –40dBm or out of range.

4. Slowly turn the SET IF knob clockwise to increase Po. Note Vo (V L) and Po readings. Take closer
readings prior to and above the lase threshold.

5. Plot the graph Po vs IF on a Semilog graph sheet. Determine the slopes prior to lasing and after
lasing. Record the laser threshold current.

6. Take the Po On the Y axis&If On the X axis

Table of Readings: (ACC Mode/PMMA Cable)

Sl.No. VL(mV) IF =VL/100 (mA) Po(dBm)

1
2
3
4

Inferences: From the above table it is seen that the laser optical output does not increase appreciably for IF
below the threshold current Ith. Above Ith, Po increases steeply Po is very steep. The lase threshold may be
determined from the graph or by recording Closer readings.

44 | P a g e
Procedure for IM VS Po Experiment:
Study of monitar photo diode current Vs Po.
1. Connect the 2-metre PMMA FO cable to TX Unit of PHY-159 and couple the laser light to the
powermeter on the RX Unit. Select ACC mode of operation.

2. Set DMM1 to the 2000 mV range and connect it between (VM) and ground terminal on the TX Unit.

3. Set DMM2 to the 2000mV range and it connect between (P0) terminals On the Rx Unit, Turn it on.
The powermeter is now ready for use. Po=(Reading)/10dBm.

4. Adjust the SET IF knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce IM to the minimum value.

5. Change Po in suitable steps and note the VM readings. Record upto the extreme clockwise position.

6. Plot the graph IM vs Po on a semilog graph sheet IM=(VM)/(100k).

7. Take the Po On the Y axis&Im On the X axis.

Table of Readings: ACC/PMMA Cable

Sl.No. Po(dBm) VM (mV) IM =(VM)/100k

Inferences: From the above table it is seen that the photocurrent sharply increases above the threshold Po,
following the pattern of the first part of experiment. The threshold Po and IF(threshold) may be computed
from the plot.
RESULTS:

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHILE HANDLING LASER DIODES

 LASERS ARE HIGHLY ESD SENSITIVE, USE PROPER ESD PROTECTED FACILITY
 NO LASER BEAM SHOULD BE VIEWED DIRECTLY OR FROM A HIGHLY REFELCTING
SURFAC LASERS ARE HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO TRANSIENTS

45 | P a g e