ANTHROPOLOGY optional for WBCS

Paper-2
Chapter-5: Anthropological Approaches to Indian Civilization:

Q. Define Caste and State the salient features of Indian Caste System.
(WBCS- 2018, 2017, 2012, 2007, 2004) (Marks- 15/20/40)

Define Caste :-
Ans :-
 What is Caste:
 Caste is a special form of social class in which membership is determined by
birth. Endogamies is particularly marked within castes and children
automatically belong to their parent’s caste. The classic case of social caste
is the caste structure of India.

 The term caste has been derived from the Portuguese ‘Casta’. It has been
wined to refer to the traditional Hindu-based system of social organization
in an around India. Castes are raised in accordance with the agree of ‘ritual
purity’, ascribed to its members and to their activities. (David Jary and Julia
Jary in Dictionary of sociology).

 Caste is a particular type of social class, in which membership is fairly fixed.

According to Max Weber, caste signifies the enhancement and
transformation of social distance into a religious or more strictly a magical
principle. The Portuguese applied this term to the classes of people in India
known by the name of ‘Jari’ several scholars have tried to define caste,
various definitions are as follows.
C. H. Cooley :- When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste.
M. N. Srinivas :- The idea of hierarchy is central to caste. The customs, rites and
way of life are different among the higher and lower caste.
Nesfield :- Has pointed out that the superiority or inferiority of occupation is
represented in the hierarchy of the caste.

 Caste has also been used to describe the system of racial stratification, in
modern Europe and America. But Indian caste is the best developed and
integrated system. This system has been with the Hindus for the last 2500
years. In, India, we find more than 2800 castes and sub-castes with all their
peculiarities.

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 Characteristic features of Indian Caste system :-

 Introduction :-

The caste system is highly complex in nature. As Dr. G. S. Ghurye says, any
attempt to define caste is brand to fail because of the complexity of the
phenomenon. The rights and duties associates with caste undergo stress social
rules, ‘He describes Seven main characteristics of caste in his work “Caste and
Race in India”. The following are the main traditional features of the caste system.

1. Caste has a name

2. Caste membership is by ascription
3. Caste - As a segmental Division of societies
4. Caste- As a Hierarchical division of society
5. Restrictions on Marriage
6. Restriction on Feeding and Social intercourse
7. Caste panchayats

i) Caste has a name :-

Caste has a name, there is no caste which is un named. Members of a caste
consider themselves Kinemen, although, often it may not be possible to trace
genealogical ties. The name is of great help in maintaining localities and
boundaries. Each caste has its own identification marks like dress, decoration and
others.

ii) Caste membership is by ascription :-

Another feature of caste is its ascriptive membership. Caste membership is by
birth and is inherited and permanent. A caste is a closed limit and a person’s
membership does not undergo any change even if change occur in one’s status,
education, occupation, wealth etc. However, there is no purely closed castes,
mobility has been possible to a contain extant.

iii) Caste - As a segmental Division of societies :-

The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society. It is divided into a number of
segments called ‘castes’. It is not a homogenous societies. Nothing can change

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position of a man in caste structure, thus it is unchangeable, unacquirable,

unattainable and non-transferable.

iv) Caste- As a Hierarchical division of society :-

The Hindu society is a gradational one. It is divided into several small groups
called castes and sub-castes. A sense of ‘highness’ and ‘lowness’ or superiority is
associated with this gradation or ranking.

Aryans Brahmins (Priest)

Kshatriyas (warriors)

Vaisyas (heeders, farmers, merchants)

Non-Aryans
Sudras (servants, labourars)

Schematic representation of division of society

v) Restrictions on Marriage :-
The caste system imposes restrictions on marriage also. Caste is a endogenous
group, Endogenous is a rule of marriage which restricts an individual to marry
within his/her group or caste. Each caste is divided into sub-castes, which are
again endogenous.

vi) Restriction on Feeding and Social intercourse :-

 The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on the food habits of the
members. They differ from caste to caste for example, in North India, a
Bhrahmin would accept ‘pakka’ food (cooked in ghee) only from castes
lower than its own.
 The caste system put restrictions on the range of social redations also. The
idea of ‘pollution makes this point clear. It means that a touch of a lower
caste would pollute a man of higher caste.

vii) Caste panchayats :-

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During the early days in every village every caste used to have its own caste
Panchayat. It performed a number of functions, through five members. – They
teach caste rule and regulations gave punishment for violation of rules etc.
Though this panchayets become weak and ineffective now a days.

Besides this caste has few more features as follows –

viii) Caste, as a system of interaction.
ix) Caste, as a system of political association.
x) Jajmani system :-

 Conclusions :-
The caste and sub-caste together make up the Hindu social system. Still on
some respects each caste is isolated from the other. It is in a way semi-
Sovereign. The caste are a ‘complete world’ for their members. Members are
expects to be loyal to the caste. Caste feeling is hence very strong. It is must
stronger in rural areas than in urban area development of the society.

Q. Briefly enumerate the theory of the origin of Indian Caste System.

(WBCS- 2018, 2017, 2012, 2005) (Marks- 15/20/40)

 Introduction :-
 Caste is a special form of social class in which membership is determined by
birth.
 It is very difficult to say in precise term the exact way in which the caste
system originated. Discussions and researches still going on at the level of
scholars regarding the issue. Dr. D. N. Mazumder pointed out at the
inability of the scholars to arrive at a conclusion in this issue. In spite of the
controversies prevailing over the issue of the origin of the caste system
scholars have established their own theories regarding it.

 Theories of origin of caste system

1. Traditional or Indological theory
2. Racial theory
3. Racial and Functional theory
4. Occupational/Functional theory
5. Religious Theory

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6. Guild Theory
7. Political Theory
8. Mana Theory
9. Multiple – Factor Theory

(I) Traditional or Indological theory :-

Source: Ancient literature of India
As per the divine ‘origin theory’ or traditional or Indological theory the caste
arrangement may be made by an arrangement of divinity. The purushsukta
hymn of Rigveda tell us the emergence of four varnas, after the Purusha
(Brahama) resorted to self- destruction. So that a proper social order could
come into existence. Thus the Brahmins come out form the mouth the
kshatriyas from the arms, the vaiyas from the thighs, and finally the sudras
from the feet of the primordial beings, the mahapurush. According to this
concept, the caste satisfaction of Indian society is best on the chaturvarna
doctrine.

Four varnas and their functions:

i) The Brahmin :- learning, teaching and ritual performance.
ii) The Kshtriyas :- Warriors and defenders.
iii) The Baishyas :- Traders and cultivations.
iv) The Sudros :- Servants, engaged in impure tasks.
Critisism:
 The traditional theory has been criticized on various grounds –
i) It is unscientific and biologically impossible to give birth of a child from
mouth/hand/thigh/feet.
ii) The theory considers four varnas as four castes. If it is accepted, then
varna, and not caste is the unit of caste system. But the real unit of the
caste system is not the varna but Jats, which is a very small endogenous
group.
iii) M. N. Srinivas considers this theory is oversimplified the fact.
iv) It is contradictory within itself.
But in spite of all this criticism, this theory has its own practical
importance.

(II) Racial theory :-

Given by- Herbert Risley

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 He believed that the origin of caste system was due to racial

differences, particularly skin colour between the invading fair
skinned Aryans and indigenous dark skinned people. The Aryans
believed in their own purities and did not give their women in
marriage to the ‘dasas’, but took women from ‘dasas’ as wives. The
children of such intermarriage formed the lowest division and called
‘chandalas’.
 According to Dr. D. N. Mazumder, the caste system took its birth
after the arrival of Aryans in India.
 G. S. Ghurye has pointed out that the important aspect of caste
system specially Brahmanical system has been developed in the
gangetic plains.
 The most significant fact of racial theory is that the theory points out
the contact between two cultures, the Aryans and the indigenous, as
the main force in shopping the caste system.

Criticism :-
i) Hulton said that there is no consistency between the racial interpretation
of this theory and facts.
ii) This theory fails to give proper explanation of untouchability.
iii) This theory is not universal, in some places it is very dominant, but in
other places, it is almost absent.

3) Racial and Functional theory :-

Given By - P. F. Slater,
 It combines both racial and functional origins. He opines that caste
system was created in order to safeguard the professional and
occupational secrets. Then small groups were created having
professional and occupational expertise and marriage within the
group become mandatory.

4) Occupational/Functional theory :-
Given by- Nesfield
 This theory indicates that occupation is responsible for the origin of
caste system. According to Nesfield “function and function alone is
responsible for the origin of caste system.” The differences of

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occupations is alone the basis upon which the whole caste structure
of practice.
 Nesfield has also pointed out that the superiority or inferiority of
occupation is represented in the hierarchy of the castes. Subcaste
including chamar, Teli, Mali, etc are evident in this regard.

Criticism :-
i) this theory fails to explain the difference in the social status of various
caste which practice the same occupation.
ii) It does not takes account of the racial and religious factors.

5) Religious Theory :-
Given by- Hocart and Senart
 According to Hocart, Social stratifications in India originated on
account of religious principles and customs. In ancient India religion
has a prominent role. King was considered to be the image of God.
These Kings accorded different positions to different functional
groups at the top of which were priests.
 Senart has tried to explain the origin of caste system on the basis of
prohibitions regarding Sacramental food . The followers of one
particular deity considered themselves descendants of the same
ancestor and offered a particular kind of food as offering to their
deity.

6) Guild Theory :-
Given by - Denzil Ibbetson
 According to him, castes are the modified forms of guild. Caste system
is the product of the interaction of – Tribes, Guilds and Religion.

7) Political Theory :-
Given by- Abbe Bubois
 Abbe Bubois, an European rank, in 19th century observes the Indian
society and Said that the caste system was developed maintained by
the Brahmins to maintain their ritual status.

 G. S. Ghurya, also agrees with the view of Abbe Dubois. He says that
the restrictions on marriage, regulations on accepting food and water,

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emphasis on purities were all laid down by Brahmins, at first to

maintain their own predominance, but later these spread to other
groups or castes as well and became the features of the caste system.

8) Mana Theory :-
Given by - H. H. Hulton
 He suggested that the primitive belief in ‘Mana’ accumulated for the
origin of caste system. The term ‘Mana’ is a Polynesian word, which
denotes a belief in supernatural powers vested in animals or
inanimate beings, and thus many ‘taboos’ were generated.

9) Multiple – Factor Theory:-

 Sociologists hold that a complex phenomenon like caste cannot be

satisfactorily explained by any one single factor. So they look a
number of factors which were operating together.
 S. C. Roy, R. M. Mukherjee, D. N. Majumdar, Ram Ahuja, have a no. of
factors, which account for the genesisi of caste system in India, these
are as follows –

a) Belief in the racial superiority on the part of Arguer

b) Geographical isolation of various communities.

c) Beliefs in ‘Mana’ and tabors associated with it.

d) Concepts like karma & Dharma.

e) Manipulations by Brahmins.

f) Ideas of pollution and purity.

g) Economic exploitation and forced division of labour

 Conclusion :-

Caste in India is unique mainly because it is a composite institution, having a

complex origin in the combination of geographical, historical, social, economic,
relative and political factors. It is true that caste is a closed group. Caste is closely

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connected with the Hindu philosophy and religion, custom and tradition, marriage
and family, morals and manner of food and dress habits, occupants and hobbies.
It is a deep-rooted and a long- lasting social Institution of India.

Q. Define Jajmani System.

(WBCS- 2018, 2016, 2012, 2014, 2010, 2003) (Marks- 20/40)

 What is Jajmani System:

 The Jajmani system was a very important economic institution in traditional
rural India. It provided a degree of economic security to various hereditary
occupational groups in a related closed and non – monetised economy. In
fact, some traces of Jajmani system are found even today in the
countryside. It consist of exchange of services or goods with or without
money.
Jajman
Served by

Kameen

Potters Priest Carpentar Washerman

 Definitions of Jajmani :-
 According to Oscar Lewis, under this system each caste group within a
village is expected to give curtain standardized services to the families of
other caste.
 Yogendra Singh says that a system governed by relationship based on
reciprocity in inter – caste relations in village is Jajmani system.
 The detailed study of Jajmani system in India was made by W. H. Wiser in
his book, ‘The Hindu Jajmani System’, he did not know that Jajmani system
is almost universal in Indian Villages.
 According to Webster’s Dictionary, a Jajman is a person by whom a
Brahmin is hired to perform religious services.

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 The study of several scholars namely S. C. Dubey, Oscar Lewis, N. S. Reddy

has confirmed the University of this System in rural India.

Characteristic feature of Jajmani system:-

1) Permament relationship under Jajmani system.

2) Jajmani is hereditary.
3) Place and contentment.
4) Goods against services.
5) Scope in factional politics.
6) Difference in the scope of work.

1. Permanent relationship :-
According to S. C. Dubey, while a Kameen had no right to desert this jajman, the
jajman also has no right to replace his kameen. It is a lifelong and permanent
relation. So a village is able to function as a relatively self-sufficient unit.

2. Jajmani is hereditary :-
This system has a hereditary background, these are passed on to sons from his
father, and in case of separation of brothers, these rights are also split among
them. If someone do not have a son, but a daughter, the jajmani rights will pass
to the husband of the daughter. Jajmani rights are equally distributed among
families.

3) Peace and contentment :-

According to W. H. Wiser, jajmani system involves peace and contentment. The
kameens of a jajman feel a sense of security. They are free from worry of finding
employment. The nature of the tasks is well known to them.

4) Goods against Services :-

Under janmani system, jajman is anxious about the needs and welfare of kameen
and kameen serves jajman with devotion and dedication. The kameens are
provided foodgrain, clothing, and accommodation. That is why they prefer
payment in kind rather than in cash.

5) Scope in factional politics :-

A kameen may be expected to help his jajman in rural politics.

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6) Difference in the scope of work :-

Under Jajmani system,the range, scope or spread of activities of any Kameen is
determined by the nature of his activity. It is not necessary that certain Kameens
should work only for a single families or even a single village. A kameen can easily
cater to the needs of a dozen of families. He can even work in more than one
village. It is true that not every type of Kameen is to be found in every village. In
the absence of a particular kameen people performs that task by themselves or
go to other village for it.

 Decline of Jajmani System :-

 The jajmani system has been on the decline ever since the rural economy
underwent changes introduced by the British. The process of the rural
economic transformation and changes in socio-cultural system results in its
decline, which accelerated after independence. The several factor for its
decline are as follows –

i) Monetisation of the economy.

ii) Emergence of commercial altitude.
iii) Establishment of bank and co-operative institutions in rural areas.
iv) Integration of rural markets through means of transportation.
v) Availability of factory made goods.
vi) Political awareness and organization groups to urban centres in search of
better economic opportunities.
vii) Weakening of the association between castes and occupations.

 Conclusion :-
 It is a fact that jajmani system is not free from faults, several scholars have
studied the advantages and disadvantages of jajmani system.
 Oscan Lewis has studied that, it has now become an instrument of
exploitation and discrimination of Kameen by Jajmans, that’s why it is
declining with time.

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