WAVES

Wave Motion, Wave Equation and Solution, and Wave Velocity

Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves
 Put simply, “a wave is a traveling disturbance”.

Longitudinal wave
In longitudinal waves, the particles in a medium
oscillate back and forth about their equilibrium
positions but it is the disturbance which travels, not the
individual particles in the medium.

Transverse wave
In a transverse wave the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. The particles do not move along with the wave; they simply
oscillate up and down about their individual equilibrium positions as the wave
http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html
passes by. http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves-intro/waves-intro.html
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave motion

Lets try to find a link from what we have learnt till now so as to
understand the phenomena of WAVES.

Coupled oscillations form the natural link between simple

harmonic motion (of a single particle) and wave motion
(of a continuous infinity of particles as in a medium)
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave motion
❑ Oscillation of a single particle: One frequency ω0 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑜 𝑡+𝜑)

❑ Oscillation of two coupled particles: Two normal frequencies ω0 , ω1

❑ Oscillation of n coupled particles: n normal frequencies ω0 , ω1…ωn-1

y
T
x
❑ Oscillation of infinite no. of coupled particles (lattice/medium):
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave motion
Consider a Two-Mass, Three-Spring System
Longitudinal Motion (along x-axis):

System equations 𝑑 2 𝑥1
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥1 +𝑘(𝑥1 −𝑥2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑥2
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥2 +𝑘(𝑥2 −𝑥1 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑘
Normal frequencies 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 , 3𝜔𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔𝑜 =
𝑚
Extrapolate to Multiple mass system
Each additional mass adds another natural mode of vibration per axis of motion.
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave motion
a) Lets us extend the concept of oscillations of a coupled spring mass system to a
linear chain of springs and masses.

b) Also, let there be long linear chain of identical springs of stiffness k connecting the
identical blocks of mass m.

c) Suppose we consider the limit when the number of springs and masses tends
continuously to infinity.

d) This kind of limiting case can be envisaged in an elastic rod (which is a continuous
distribution of elasticity and inertia).

e) If longitudinal disturbances are created on such a rod, they propogate much as in a

linear chain of springs and masses, with the discrete system replaced by a
continuous system.
 Elastic Wave

Rod made of elastic substance A

L
Disturbance in the rod

©SB/SPK
 Elasticity : Spring constant
What happens to an elastic solid when it is compressed or stretched?
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Stress is the internal force per unit area, associated with a strain.
𝐴
𝜉 Strain is the relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = applied forces.
𝐿

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌= (𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑌𝐴
𝐹= 𝜉
𝐿

𝐹 = 𝑘𝜉 → 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (magnitude)
Elasticity : Spring constant

i
i-1 i+1

©SB/SPK
 Displacement 𝜉𝑖 of ith mass
Recall

Displacement 𝜉𝑖 of ith mass satisfies differential equation

𝑑 2 𝜉𝑖
𝑚 2 = −𝑘(𝜉𝑖 − 𝜉𝑖+1 ) − 𝑘(𝜉𝑖 − 𝜉𝑖−1 )
𝑑𝑡
i d 2i
m 2 = k ( i +1 −  i ) − k (  i −  i −1 )
i-1 i+1 dt
 Notation of partial derivatives
𝜉 is a function of two continuous variable x and t: 𝜉 = 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝜉(𝑥,𝑡)
: variation of 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡) with t while x is kept constant
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜉(𝑥,𝑡)
: variation of 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡) with x while t is kept constant
𝜕𝑥

Let, a: separation between the masses

a  𝛿𝑥 where 𝛿𝑥 → 0
In the Continuum limit 𝜉𝑖 → 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡)

𝜉𝑖+1 → 𝜉(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)

i
𝜉𝑖−1 → 𝜉(𝑥 − 𝛿𝑥, 𝑡) i-1 i+1
 Taylor series expansion
 1 2  
2
 ( x   x, t ) =  ( x)   x + ( x) + ......
x 2 x 2

A Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of
the function's derivatives at a single point.
d i
2
m 2
= k (i +1 −  i ) − k (i − i −1 )
dt
i +1 ( x, t ) − i ( x, t ) →  ( x +  x, t ) −  ( x, t ) 𝜉𝑖 → 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡)

 1 2  
2 𝜉𝑖+1 → 𝜉(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)

=x + ( x) → (1) 𝜉𝑖−1 → 𝜉(𝑥 − 𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)

x 2 x 2
and Subtract: k[(1) – (2)]
i ( x, t ) − i −1 ( x, t ) →  ( x, t ) −  ( x −  x, t )  2  2
m 2 = k 2 ( x )2
t x
 1 2  
2
= −(− x) − ( x) → (2)  2 k  2
x 2 x 2 = (x ) 2

t 2 m x 2
 Longitudinal wave in elastic rod
Y : Young’s modulus
YA
k= A : Cross sectional area
x  : Mass density

m =  A x

We have:  2 k  2
= ( x )2

t 2 m x 2
Wave equation:  Y 
2 2
=
t 2
 x 2
 2 1  2 𝑌
= 2 2 𝑐𝑠 = cs: wave velocity
x 2
cs t 𝜚
For disturbance propagating in all directions

 2
  2
 2 2
→ 2+ 2+ 2
x 2
x y z
 2 (Laplacian operator)

1  2
  (r , t) = 2 2
2

cs t
Transverse vibrations in strings
Wave equation and solution
 Wave equation and Solution

2
2  
2
Wave equation =c
t 2
x 2

 = f1 (ct − x)
Solutions
 = f 2 (ct + x)
General Solution
 = f1 (ct − x) + f 2 (ct + x)
 Wave equation and Solution
 = f1 (ct − x) + f 2 (ct + x) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑥
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑓1 (𝑢) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑓2 (𝑣) 𝜕𝑣
= + ‘Chain rule’
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥
 
= f1 (ct − x)(−1) + f 2 (ct + x)(+1)
 
= − f1 (ct − x) + f 2 (ct + x)
 2  
= f1 (ct − x) + f 2 (ct + x)
x 2


2
 
= c 2
[ f ( ct − x ) + f 2 (ct + x )]
t 2 1


2
2  
2
Therefore, =c (nothing but wave equation)
t 2
x 2
 Physical significance of  = f(ct-x)
S
Disturbance: ξ = f(x,t) ξ = f(x,t)
(Motion of one wave packet (?) in space)
If we photograph the wave at t=0:

x1
After a time t, the pulse has moved a distance ct
Introduce frame S’ which travels with the pulse
S S’ ξ = f(x’)

x1’ x’ x
ct x1’

x2

x1’ = x2 – ct ➔ In general, x’ = x – ct
For someone at rest in S, the pulse moving to right can be denoted by: ξ = f(x’) = f(x-ct)
Verify that the behavior of ξ = f(x-ct) and ξ = f(ct-x) are similar.
Physical significance of  = f(ct+x)

wave moving to the left

x
 More on solution to Wave equation
For SHO at position x and time t, we can express it as:  = a cos(t −  )
The bracket in  = f(ct-x) has dimension of length.
For this function to be a sine or cosine, its argument must have dimensions of radians.
So, we can write the solution as : Different forms of solution of wave equations
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑥
𝜉 = 𝑎 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) = 𝑎 cos (𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥) 𝜉 = 𝑎 cos (𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥) 𝜉 = 𝑎 cos 2 𝜋 𝜈𝑡 −
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
𝑥
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋 𝜉 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝝃 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙)
𝒄 = 𝝎 = 2𝜋ν; 𝑥 = 𝜑 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑐
where,
𝝀 𝜆 𝜉 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥)

n: frequency of oscillation, k = :wave number (not spring constant!)
𝑐
Recollect the question: How do we know that cs (or c) is the wave velocity?
2𝜋
 = f(ct-x), which satisfies the wave equation, can be written in the form: 𝜉 = 𝑎 cos (𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝜆
𝜔
Here, 𝑐 = , which is nothing but the wave velocity!
𝑘
 Plane wave
2𝜋
𝜉 = 𝑎 cos 𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥 (or cos or exponential function!)
𝜆
x is a point along the x-axis. y and z are not part of the equation because the wave's magnitude and
phase are the same at every point on any given y-z plane. This equation defines what that magnitude
and phase are.

Q: Here, what is a plane composed of?

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plane_Wave_3D_Animation_300x216_255Colors.gif
 More on solution to Wave equation 2 2
c = ; x =
 
For 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 the pattern repeats
𝜆: Wavelength

2𝜋
𝑘= : Wavenumber
𝜆
The number of wavelengths that exist over a specified distance

Other important relations For monochromatic wave in a non-dispersive

2𝜋𝑐
= 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 𝜔 = 𝑘𝑐
medium  = ck What is dispersion?
𝜆 Wait for it…

Plot of dispersion relation
𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 c: wave velocity

Slope (c)  phase velocity of

 1
= = : period of oscillation the wave
c n
k
 Standing waves on a Stretched string
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥

(n-1) nodes between boundaries

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin (kl = nπ)
𝑙
 Wave in Time and Space Frames
(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) (Plane wave)

These are Progressive Wave

𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥 This is standing wave

Visualize a Progressive wave at a given point in SPACE

t
 Wave in Time and Space Frames

Visualize a Progressive wave at a given point in TIME

x
𝜆 2𝜋𝜆 𝜔
𝑐= = =
𝑇 2𝜋𝑇 𝑘
 Wave packet

distribution in   distribution of speed (c)

Wave velocity
 Wave velocity and Particle velocity
𝜉 = 𝑎 sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝜕𝜉
= 𝜔𝑎 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜉
= −𝑘𝑎 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜉 𝜔 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜉
=− = −𝑐 =− HJ Pain, 6th ed. Fig. 5.5
𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Particle velocity about
equilibrium position Wave velocity
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉
= =𝑐 Particle velocity : =-𝑐
𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Particle velocity is the product of wave velocity and the gradient of https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemist
ry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_%28LibreTexts%29/02%3A_The
the wave profile preceded by a negative sign for a right going wave. _Classical_Wave_Equation/2.01%3A_The_One-
Dimensional_Wave_Equation
 WAVES

Phase velocity Group velocity

 Phase velocity

Phase of a plane wave

After the wave has modes a distance x (= λ) in time t (= T), the new position of relative
phase = 0:
at
 Phase velocity
Phase velocity = The speed with which the constant phase moves

𝜆
=
𝑇

𝜔 𝜕𝑥
⇒ = = 𝑣𝑝
𝑘 𝜕𝑡

So far: Monochromatic waves

In reality: Common to have group of component frequencies (White light)

 Group velocity
Superposition of two waves of almost equal frequencies:

cos A + cos B = 2 cos ½ (A + B) cos ½ (A - B)

Phase velocity Group velocity

Phase and Group velocity
vp < vg

t=0
vp < vg

t=1
vp < vg

t=2
vp < vg

t=3
vp < vg

t=4
vp < vg

t=5
vp < vg

t=6
vp < vg

t=7
vp < vg

t=8
vp < vg

t=9
vp < vg

t = 10
vp = vg

t=0
vp = vg

t=1
vp = vg

t=2
vp = vg

t=3
vp = vg

t=4
vp = vg

t=5
vp = vg

t=6
vp = vg

t=7
vp = vg

t=8
vp = vg

t=9
vp = vg

t = 10
vp > vg

t=0
vp > vg

t=1
vp > vg

t=2
vp > vg

t=3
vp > vg

t=4
vp > vg

t=5
vp > vg

t=6
vp > vg

t=7
vp > vg

t=8
vp > vg

t=9
vp > vg

t = 10
 Phase and Group velocity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_velocity

The red dot moves with the phase velocity, and the green dots propagate with the
group velocity.

SUMMARY

Phase velocity: Velocity of the phase of the wave.

Group Velocity: Velocity of the maximum amplitude of the group.

What decides the values of vp and vg?

Wait for it....................... We will discuss later!
 Phase and Group velocity: Many Possibilities
RECAP

Why do all these possibilities arise?

 Phase and Group velocity
We have initially considered superposition of amplitude and phase of two waves
whose phase velocities were equal.
Later we came across cases where vp < vg and vp > vg.
This happens when
1 2

k1 k2
1 −  2 
Then, =
k1 − k 2 k

 1 2
 
k k1 k 2
- The group velocity is different from the individual velocities.
- The superposition is no longer constant and the group profile will change with time.
Now, let us understand the dispersion properties of waves.
 Wave Dispersion

- Simply stated, a dispersion relation is the function ω(k) for a harmonic wave.

- A dispersion relation connects different properties of the wave such as its energy, frequency,
wavelength and wavenumber.

- From these relations the phase velocity and group velocity of the wave can be found and
thereby refractive index of the medium can be determine.

A medium in which phase velocity is frequency dependent is known as a

dispersive medium, and a dispersion relation expresses the variation of  as
a function of k.
 Phase and Group velocity
Non dispersive waves vp = Constant
Signal is propagated without distortion.
More generally, vp is a function of (or k)
 = vpk
𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝜕𝑘
𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜕𝜆 2𝜋 𝜕𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘 𝜆= ⇒ =− 2 =−
𝜕𝜆 𝜕𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝜆
𝜕𝜆
 Wave Dispersion
Normal Dispersion
𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜆 𝜕𝑛
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝜆 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 1+
𝜕𝜆 𝑛 𝜕𝜆

dv p 𝜕𝑛 Normal Dispersion
Usually, is positive or is negative , so that vg < vp
d 𝜕𝜆 red: Refractive index
blue: absorption coefficient
dv p 𝜕𝑛
When, is negative or is positive, so that vg > vp
d 𝜕𝜆
Anomalous Dispersion

When, is constant, so that vg = vp
k
Non-Dispersive medium Normal dispersion occurs for most transparent media in the visible
(Ex: Free space)
spectral region.
Anomalous dispersion sometimes occurs at longer wavelengths, e.g. in
silica for wavelengths longer than ≈ 1.3 μm.
Wave Dispersion