7.1.

1 Progressive Waves
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Wave Motion

 Energy is transferred through moving oscillations or vibrations. These can be seen in

vibrations of ropes or springs
 Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

 The oscillations/vibrations can be perpendicular or parallel to the direction of wave

travel:
o When they are perpendicular, they are transverse waves
o When they are parallel, they are longitudinal waves

Ripple tanks

 Waves can also be demonstrated by ripple tanks. These produce a combination of

transverse and longitudinal waves
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 Wave effects can be demonstrated using a ripple tank

 Ripple tanks may be used to demonstrate the wave properties of reflection, refraction and
diffraction

General Wave Properties

 Displacement (x) of a wave is the distance from its equilibrium position. It is a vector
quantity; it can be positive or negative
 Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a particle in the wave from its
equilibrium position
  Wavelength (λ) is the distance between points on successive oscillations of the wave that
are in phase
o These are all measured in metres (m)

Diagrams showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

 Period (T) or time period, is the time taken for one complete oscillation or cycle of the
wave. Measured in seconds (s)

Diagrams showing the time period of a wave

  Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations per unit time. Measured
in Hertz (Hz) or s-1

Frequency equation

 Speed (v) is the distance travelled by the wave per unit time. Measured in metres per
second (m s-1)

Phase

 The phase difference tells us how much a point or a wave is in front or behind
another
 This can be found from the relative positive of the crests or troughs of two different
waves of the same frequency
o When the crests or troughs are aligned, the waves are in phase
o When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are
in antiphase
 The diagram below shows the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ λ
 Two waves ¼ λ out of phase

 In contrast, the purple wave is said to lag behind the green wave by ¼ λ

 Phase difference is measured in fractions of a wavelength, degrees or radians
 The phase difference can be calculated from two different points on the same wave or the
same point on two different waves
 The phase difference between two points:
o In phase is 360o or 2π radians
o In anti-phase is 180o or π radians

Worked Example
Plane waves on the surface of water at a particular instant are represented by the diagram below.

The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz. Determine:

a. The amplitude

b. The wavelength

c. The phase difference between points A and B

Exam Tip
When labelling the wavelength and time period on a diagram, make sure that your arrows go
from the very top of a wave to the very top of the next one. If your arrow is too short, you will
lose marks. The same goes for labelling amplitude, don’t draw an arrow from the bottom to the
top of the wave, this will lose you marks too.

Wave Energy

 Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter

 When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it:
o The points on the wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
  Waves that transfer energy are known as progressive waves
 Waves that do not transfer energy are known as stationary waves

7.1.2 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

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Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

 A Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument used to display, measure and

analyse waveforms of electrical circuits
 An A.C. current on an oscilloscope is represented as a transverse wave. Therefore you
can determine its frequency and amplitude
 The x-axis is the time and the y-axis is the voltage (or y-gain)

Diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope display showing wavelength and time-base setting

 
  The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base This is how many
seconds each division represents measured commonly in s div-1 or s cm-1
 Use as many wavelengths shown on the screen as possible to reduce uncertainties
 Dividing the total time by the number of wavelengths will give the time period T (Time
taken for one complete oscillation)
 The frequency is then determined through 1/T

Worked Example
A cathode-ray oscilloscope(c.r.o.) is used to display the trace from a sound wave. The time-base
is set at 7 µs mm-1.

What is the frequency of the sound wave?A    2.4 Hz          B     24 Hz          C     2.4 kHz       
D     24 kHz
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Exam Tip
The time-base setting varies with units for seconds (commonly ms) and the unit length
(commonly mm). Unit conversions are very important for the calculate of the time period and
frequency
7.1.3 The Wave Equation
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Derivation of v = f λ

 Using the definitions of speed, frequency and wavelength, the wave equation v = fλ can
be derived
 This is an important relationship between three key properties of a wave
 The derivation for this is shown below
 Derivation of v = fλ

 
Exam Tip
You will be expected to remember all the steps for this derivation (but do not need to write the
full definition for each variable). If you are unsure as to where speed = distance/time comes
from, make sure to revisit chapter “2. Kinematics”.
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The Wave Equation

 The wave equation links the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave
 This is relevant for both transverse and longitudinal waves

The Wave Equation

 The wave equation tells us that for a wave of constant speed:

o As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases
o As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases
 

The relationship between frequency and wavelength of a wave

Worked Example
The wave in the diagram below has a speed of 340 m s–1.

What is the wavelength of the wave?

 

Exam Tip
You may also see the wave equation be written as c = fλ where c is the wave speed.
However, c is often used to represent a specific speed ー the speed of light ( 3 x 108 ms-1). Only
electromagnetic waves travel at this speed, therefore it’s best practice to use v for any speed that
isn’t the speed of light instead.
7.1.4 Wave Intensity
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Wave Intensity

 Progressive waves transfer energy

 The amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit time is the intensity of the
wave
 Therefore, the intensity is defined as power per unit area

Intensity is equal to the power per unit area

 The area the wave passes through is perpendicular to the direction of its velocity
 The intensity of a progressive wave is also proportional to its amplitude squared and
frequency squared

Intensity is proportional to the amplitude2 and frequency2

 This means that if the frequency or the amplitude is doubled, the intensity increases by a
factor of 4 (22)
Spherical waves

 A spherical wave is a wave from a point source which spreads out equally in all
directions
 The area the wave passes through is the surface area of a sphere: 4πr2
 As the wave travels further from the source, the energy it carries passes through
increasingly larger areas as shown in the diagram below:
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Intensity is proportional to the amplitude squared

 Assuming there’s no absorption of the wave energy, the intensity I decreases with

increasing distance from the source
 Note the intensity is proportional to 1/r2
o This means when the source is twice as far away, the intensity is 4 times less
 The 1/r2 relationship is known in physics as the inverse square law
 Worked Example
The intensity of a progressive wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave. It
is also proportional to the square of the frequency.The variation with time t of displacement x of
particles when two progressive waves Q and P pass separately through a medium, are shown on
the graphs.

The intensity of wave Q is I0.What is the intensity of wave P?

Exam Tip
The key concept with intensity is that it has an inverse square relationship with distance (not a
linear one). This means the energy of a wave decreases very rapidly with increasing distance
7.1.5 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
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Properties of Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

 In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points

 The direction of oscillations with regards to the direction of wave travel determine what
type of wave it is

 
Transverse waves

 A transverse wave is one where the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of

the wave travel (and energy transfer)
 Transverse waves show areas of crests (peaks) and troughs

Diagram of a transverse wave

 
  Examples of transverse waves are:
o Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
o Vibrations on a guitar string
 These can be shown on a rope
 Transverse waves can be polarised

Longitudinal waves

 A longitudinal wave is one where the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of the
wave travel (and energy transfer)
 Longitudinal waves show areas of compressions and rarefactions

Diagram of a longitudinal wave

 Examples of longitudinal waves are:

o Sound waves
o Ultrasound waves
 These can be shown on a slinky spring
 Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised
 You will have learned how to analyse the properties of a wave, such as amplitude and
wavelength, in “General Wave Properties”
 The diagram below shows the equivalent of a wavelength on a longitudinal wave
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Wavelength shown on a longitudinal wave

 
Exam Tip
The definition of transverse and longitudinal waves are often asked as exam questions, make
sure to remember these definitions by heart!

Graphical Representations of Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Worked Example
The graph shows how the displacement of a particle in a wave varies with time.

Which statement is correct?

A. The wave has an amplitude of 2 cm and could be either transverse or longitudinal.

B. The wave has an amplitude of 2 cm and has a time period of 6 s.

C. The wave has an amplitude of 4 cm and has a time period of 4 s.

D. The wave has an amplitude of 4 cm and must be transverse.

ANSWER:  A

Exam Tip
Both transverse and longitudinal waves can look like transverse waves when plotted on
a graph - make sure you read the question and look for whether the wave
travels parallel (longitudinal) or perpendicular (transverse) to the direction of travel to
confirm which type of wave it is.

7.1.6 Doppler Effect for Sound Waves

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Doppler Shift of Sound

 The whistle of a train or the siren of an ambulance appears to decrease in frequency

(sounds lower in pitch) as it moves further away from you
 This frequency change due to the relative motion between a source of sound or light and
an observer is known as the doppler effect (or doppler shift)
 When the observer (e.g. yourself) and the source of sound (e.g. ambulance siren) are
both stationary, the waves are at the same frequency for both the observer and the
source

Stationary source and observer

 

 When the source starts to move towards the observer, the wavelength of the waves
is shortened. The sound therefore appears at a higher frequency to the observer

Moving source and stationary observer

 Notice how the waves are closer together between the source and the observer compared
to point P and the source
 This also works if the source is moving away from the observer. If the observer was at
point P instead, they would hear the sound at a lower frequency due to the wavelength of
the waves broadening

 The frequency is increased when the source is moving towards the observer

 The frequency is decreased when the source is moving away from the observer
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 Worked Example
A cyclist rides a bike ringing their bell past a stationary observer.Which of the following
accurately describes the doppler shift caused by the sound of the bell?

ANSWER:    D

 If the cyclist is riding past the observer, the wavelength of sound waves are going to
become longer
o This rules out options A and C
 A longer wavelength means a lower frequency (from the wave equation)
 Lower frequency creates a lower sound pitch
o Therefore, the answer is row D

Calculating Doppler Shift

 When a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary observer, the observed
frequency can be calculated using the equation below:

 
 Doppler shift equation

 The wave velocity for sound waves is 340 ms-1

 The ± depends on whether the source is moving towards or away from the observer
o If the source is moving towards, the denominator is v - vs
o If the source is moving away, the denominator is v + vs

Worked Example
A police car siren emits a sound wave with a frequency of 450 Hz. The car is travelling away
from an observer at speed of 45 m s-1. The speed of sound is 340 m s-1.

Which of the following is the frequency the observer hears?

A. 519 Hz               B. 483 Hz               C. 397 Hz               D. 358 Hz

Exam Tip
Be careful as to which frequency and velocity you use in the equation. The ‘source’ is always the
object which is moving and the ‘observer’ is always stationary.
7.2.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

 Visible light is just one part of a much bigger spectrum: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 All electromagnetic waves have the following properties in common:
o They are all transverse waves
o They can all travel in a vacuum
o They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum (free space) — the speed of light 3
× 108 ms-1
 The speed of light in air is approximately the same

Oscillating electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave

 These transverse waves consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles
to each other and to the direction in which the wave is travelling (in 3D space)
 Since they are transverse, all waves in this spectrum can be reflected, refracted,
diffracted, polarised and produce interference patterns
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Uses of electromagnetic waves

 Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised in
the table below
Exam Tip
You will be expected to recall the common properties of all electromagnetic waves in an exam
question, however the speed of light will be given on the data sheet.

From Radio Waves to Gamma Rays

 The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on their wavelengths

or frequencies
 This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to
shortest wavelength (highest frequency)

 
 Energy, wavelength and frequency for each part of the electromagnetic spectrum

 The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation

 Radiation with higher energy is highly ionising and is harmful to cells and tissues causing
cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
 The approximate wavelengths in a vacuum of each radiation is listed in the table below:

EM spectrum wavelengths and frequencies

  To alternatively find the range of frequencies, convert the wavelengths using the wave
equation: c = fλ where c is the speed of light: 3.0 × 108 m s-1

Worked Example
A is a source emitting microwaves and B is a source emitting X-rays.The table suggests the
frequencies for A and B. Which row is correct?
Exam Tip
You will be expected to memorise the range of wavelengths for each type of radiation, however
you don’t need to learn the frequency ranges by heart. Since all EM waves travel at the speed of
light, you can convert between frequency and wavelength using the wave equation in an exam
question.

Visible Light

 Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths (400 - 700 nm) which are visible to
humans
 Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
o However, this is only 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
 In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to
perceive beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light

7.2.2 Polarisation
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Polarisation

 Transverse waves are waves with their displacement perpendicular to their direction of
travel. These oscillations can happen in any plane perpendicular to the propagation
direction
 Transverse waves can be polarised, this means:
o Vibrations are restricted to one direction
o These vibrations are still perpendicular to the direction of propagation/energy
transfer
 The difference between unpolarised and polarised waves are shown in the diagram below
 Diagram showing the displacement of unpolarised and polarised transverse waves

 Longitudinal waves (e.g. sound waves) cannot be polarised since they oscillate parallel to
the direction of travel
 Waves can be polarised through a polariser or polarising filter. This only allows
oscillations in a certain plane to be transmitted
 

Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers

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 Only unpolarised waves can be polarised as shown in diagram A

 When a polarised wave passes through a filter with a transmission axis perpendicular to
the wave (diagram B), none of the wave will pass through
 Light can also be polarised through reflection, refraction and scattering
  An example of polarisation in everyday life is polaroid sunglasses. These reduce glare
caused by sunlight for drivers to see through windows and fishermen to see beneath the
water surface more clearly

Worked Example
The following are statements about waves.Which statement below describes a situation in which
polarisation should happen?

A.   Radio waves pass through a metal grid

B.   Surface water waves are diffracted

C.   Sound waves are reflected

D.   Ultrasound waves pass through a metal grid

ANSWER:   A

 Polarisation only occurs for transverse waves, therefore, C and D can be ruled out as

sound and ultrasound are both longitudinal waves
 Waves are not polarised when diffracted, hence we can also rule out option B
 Radio waves are transverse waves - they can be polarised by a metal grid so only the
waves that fit through the grid will be transmitted, therefore, A is correct

Malus's Law

 The intensity of unpolarised light is reduced as a result of polarisation

 If unpolarised light of intensity I0 passes through a polariser, the intensity of the
transmitted polarised light falls by a half

 The first filter that the unpolarised light goes through is the polariser
 A second filter placed after the first one is known as an analyser 
o If the analyser has the same orientation as the polariser, the light transmitted by
the analyser has the same intensity as the light incident on it
o If they have a different orientation, we must used Malus's law  

 Malus's law states that if the analyser is rotated by an angle θ with respect to the
polariser, the intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is

 
 Malus’s law equation

 Recall that intensity is the power per unit area and measured in W m-2
 If the analyser is rotated by 90° with respect to the polariser (θ = 90°), the intensity of the
light transmitted by the analyser will be zero, since cos(90°) = 0
 Malus's law also explains why, if the polariser and the analyser have the same orientation,
light transmitted by the analyser has the same intensity as light transmitted by the
polariser
o i.e the intensity does not decrease between the polariser and the analyser
o In fact, when θ = 0°, cos(0°) = 1, and I = I0/2
 A polariser will only transmit light that is polarised parallel to its transmission axis
 This is seen in Malus’s law by the angle θ:

Table of transmission depending on polariser orientation

  The change in intensity against the angle of transmission axis is shown in the graph
below

The half rule

 When unpolarised light passes through the first polariser, half the intensity of the wave is
always lost ()

Brewster’s angle

 Brewster’s angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarisation is

perfectly transmitted through a surface
  

 n1 is the refractive index of the initial material (in this case, air)
 n2 is the refractive index of the material scattering the light

Worked Example
Unpolarised light is incident on a polariser.

The light transmitted by the first polariser is then incident on a second polariser.

The polarising(or transmission) axis of the second polariser is 30° to that of the first.The
intensity incident on the first polariser is I.What is the intensity emerging from the second
polariser?A.     0.75 I          B.     0.38 I          C.     0.87 I          D.     0.43 I
ANSWER:   B
Exam Tip
Remember when using Malus’s law to square the cosine of the angle (cos2 θ)

Remember that the unpolarised light coming through will always halve in intensity when it
becomes polarised through an polariser. Only then should you use Malus' law to find the
intensity of the light after it has passed through the analyser. Therefore, the I and I0 in Malus' law
are the intensities of light that are already polarised.
8.1.1 The Principle of Superposition
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The Principle of Superposition

 The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves with the same frequency
travelling in opposite directions overlap, the resultant displacement is the sum of
displacements of each wave
 This principle describes how waves which meet at a point in space interact
 When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude arrive at a point, they superpose
either:
o in phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on both
waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
o or, in anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave line up with
the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
 Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference

 The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e. transverse and longitudinal

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Worked Example
Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The variation with x and
y displacement of the wave is shown in the figure below.

Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.

Exam Tip
The best way to draw the superposition of two waves is to find where the superimposed wave
has its maximum and minimum amplitudes. It is then a case of joining them up to form the wave.
Where the waves intersect determines how much constructive or destructive interference will
occur.
8.1.2 Stationary Waves
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Stationary Waves

 Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the superposition of two waves of the
same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
 This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The superposition produces a
wave pattern where the peaks and troughs do not move

Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end

Stretched strings

 Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound

o This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins, work
  This can be demonstrated by a length of string under tension fixed at one end and vibrations
made by an oscillator:

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Stationary wave on a stretched string

 As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers of minima
(nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form

Microwaves

 A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting plate and a small detector between the
two
 The reflector can be moved to and from the source to vary the stationary wave pattern formed
 By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) of the
stationary wave pattern
 

Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves

Air Columns

 The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by sound waves
o This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and organs, work
 This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a loudspeaker at
the open end
 At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube, showing where
there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary wave
 Stationary wave in an air column

 In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end and a maxima
(antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker

Exam Tip
Always refer back to the experiment or scenario in an exam question e.g. the wave produced by
a loudspeaker reflects at the end of a tube. This reflected wave, with the same frequency,
overlaps the initial wave to create a stationary wave.

Formation of Stationary Waves

 A stationary wave is made up of nodes and antinodes

o Nodes are where there is no vibration
o Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum amplitude
 The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and antinodes only
move in the vertical direction
 Between nodes, all points on the stationary are in phase
 The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a stationary wave at a point
in time
  

 L is the length of the string

 1 wavelength λ  is only a portion of the length of the string

Worked Example
A stretched string is used to demonstrate a stationary wave, as shown in the diagram.

Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X and Y?

ANSWER: C
Exam Tip
The lengths of the strings will only be in whole or ½ wavelengths. For example, a wavelength
could be made up of 3 nodes and 2 antinodes or 2 nodes and 3 antinodes.

Measuring Wavelength

 Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of the vibration and
the situation in which they are created

Two fixed ends

 When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both ends, the simplest wave
pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes and an antinode
 This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the first harmonic
 The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of standing waves possible in the string
depend on its length L  and its speed v
 As you increase the frequency, the higher harmonics begin to appear
 The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave equation
 Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string with corresponding
frequencies

 The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n  + 1 nodes

One or two open ends in air column

 When a stationary wave is formed in an air column with one or two open ends, we see slightly
different wave patterns in each

Diagram showing modes of vibration in pipes with one end closed and the other open or both
ends open

 In Image 1: only one end of the air column is open, so, the fundamental mode is now made up
of a quarter of a wavelength with one node and one antinode
o Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
 In Image 2: the column is open on both ends, so, the fundamental mode is made up one node
and two antinodes
 In summary, a column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and resonant frequency f for
stationary waves to appear is as follows:

Air Column Length & Frequencies Summary Table

 Worked Example
A standing wave is set up in a loudspeaker emits sound with frequency f and is placed at one end
of a pipe with length L. The pipe is closed at the other end.The speed of sound is 340 m s-1.

With a sound wave of wavelength of 10 m, what is the frequency of the second lowest note
produced?
Exam Tip
The fundamental counts as the first harmonic or n = 1 and is the lowest frequency with half or
quarter of a wavelength. A full wavelength with both ends open or both ends closed is
the second harmonic. Make sure to match the correct wavelength with the harmonic asked for in
the question!
8.2.1 Diffraction
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What is Diffraction?

 Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction

o This obstruction is typically a narrow slit (an aperture)
 The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared with the wavelength of the
waves
o Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is approximately equal to
the wavelength

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

 
  Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in the diagram
above
 The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
o This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a gap
 Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around it

 Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound, light, water

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Worked Example
When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates diffraction?

A.   UV radiation through a gate post

B.   Sound waves passing a steel rod

C.   Radio waves passing between human hair

D.   X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid

Answer:    D

 Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size
 UV waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10 -7 – 1 × 10-8 m so won’t be diffracted by a gate post
 Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10 -2 – 17 m so would not be diffracted by the
diffraction grating
 Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 10 6 m so would not be diffracted by human hair
 X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap between atoms in a
crystalline solid
o Therefore, the correct answer is D

Exam Tip
When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength constant. It is only the
amplitude of the wave that changes when diffracted.

Diffraction Experiments

 As discussed above, the effects of diffraction are most prominent when the gap size is
approximately the same or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
 As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the
gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer spread out
 

The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out

 Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water waves

 
 Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple tank

 The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple tank
o The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
o The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
 

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration

Exam Tip
Familiarising yourself with the wavelength of electromagnetic waves is essential for identifying
which wave will cause the greatest diffraction effect for a giving gap width.
8.2.2 Interference & Coherence
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Interference & Coherence

 Interference occurs when waves overlap and their resultant displacement is the sum of the

displacement of each wave
 This result is based on the principle of superposition and the resultant waves may be smaller or
larger than either of the two individual waves
 Interference of two waves can either be:
o In phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on both
waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
o In anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave line up with the
troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
 Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference

 At points where the two waves are neither in phase nor in antiphase, the resultant amplitude is
somewhere in between the two extremes
 Waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and constant phase difference
 Coherent v non-coherent wave. The abrupt change in phase creates an inconsistent phase
difference

 Coherence is vital in order to produce an observable interference pattern

 Laser light is an example of a coherent light source, whereas filament lamps produce incoherent
light waves

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Worked Example
The diagram shows the interferences of coherent waves from two point sources.

Which row in the table correctly identifies the type of interference at points X, Y and Z.

ANSWER: B

 At point X:
o Both peaks of the waves are overlapping. This is constructive interference and rules out
options C and D
 At point Y:
o Both troughs are overlapping and so constructive interference occurs there
 At point Z:
o A peak of one of the waves meets the trough of the other. This
is destructive interference (Row B)

Exam Tip
Think of ‘constructive’ interference as ‘building’ the wave and ‘destructive’ interference as
‘destroying’ the wave
8.2.3 Two Source Interference
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Demonstrating Two Source Interference

 Interference of sound, light and microwaves can be demonstrated with slits or diffraction
gratings

Using Water Waves

 Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks

 The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from two point sources eg.
dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond

Water waves interference pattern from a ripple tank

 

 The two waves interfere causing areas of constructive and destructive interference
 The lines of maximum displacement occur when all the peaks and troughs line up with those on
another wave

Using Sound Waves

 Two source interference for sound waves looks very similar to water waves

Sound wave interference from two speakers

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions and rarefactions
 Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two rarefactions line up and the
sound appears louder
 Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a rarefaction and vice versa.
The sound is quieter
o This is the technology used in noise-cancelling headphones

 
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Using Microwaves

 Two source interference for microwaves can be detected with a moveable microwave detector

Microwave interference experiment

 Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a maximum amplitude

 Destructive interference: regions where the detector picks up no signal

Using Light Waves

 For light rays, such as a laser light through two slits, an interference pattern forms on the screen
 Laser light interference experiment

 Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen

o The highest intensity is in the middle
 Destructive interference is shown as the dark fringes on the screen
o These have zero intensity

Two Source Interference Fringes

 For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave must be:
o Coherent (constant phase difference)
o Monochromatic (single wavelength)
 When two waves interfere, the resultant wave depends on the phase difference between the
two waves
 This is proportional to the path difference between the waves which can be written in terms of
the wavelength λ of the wave
 As seen from the diagram, the wave from slit S 2 has to travel slightly further than that from S 1 to
reach the same point on the screen. The difference in distance is the path difference
 Path difference of constructive and destructive interference is determined by wavelength

 For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be an integer

number of whole wavelengths
 For destructive interference (or minima) it will be an integer number of whole wavelengths
plus a half wavelength
o n is the order of the maxima/minima since there is usually more than one of these
produced by the interference pattern
 An example of the orders of maxima is shown below:
 Interference pattern of light waves shown with orders of maxima

   n = 0 is taken from the middle, n = 1 is one either side and so on

Worked Example
Two coherent sources of sound waves S1 and S2 are situated 65 cm apart in air as shown below.

The two sources vibrate in phase but have different amplitudes of vibration. A microphone M is
situated 150 cm from S1 along the line normal to S1 and S2. The microphone detects maxima and
minima of the intensity of the sound. The wavelength of the sound from S1 to S2 is decreased by
increasing the frequency.Determine which orders of maxima are detected at M as the wavelength
is increased from 3.5 cm to 12.5 cm.
Exam Tip
The path difference is more specifically how much longer, or shorter, one path is than the other.
In other words, the difference in the distances. Make sure not to confuse this with the distance
between the two paths.
8.2.4 Young's Double Slit Experiment
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Double Slit Interference

 Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates how light waves produced an interference pattern
 The experiment is shown below

Young’s double-slit experiment arrangement

 When a monochromatic light source is placed behind a single slit, the light is diffracted
producing two light sources at the double slits A and B
 Since both light sources originate from the same primary source, they are coherent and will
therefore create an observable interference pattern
 Both diffracted light from the double slits create an interference pattern made up of bright and
dark fringes
  The wavelength of the light can be calculated from the interference pattern and experiment set
up. These are related using the double-slit equation

Double slit interference equation with a, x and D represented on a diagram

 The interference pattern on a screen will show as ‘fringes’ which are dark or bright bands
 Constructive interference is shown through bright fringes with varying intensity (most intense in
the middle)
 Destructive interference is shown from dark fringes where no light is seen
 A monochromatic light source makes these fringes clearer and the distance between fringes is
very small due to the short wavelength of visible light

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 Worked Example
A laser is placed in front of a double-slit as shown in the diagram below.

The laser emits light of frequency 750 THz. The separation of the maxima P and Q observed on
the screen is 15 mm. The distance between the double slit and the screen is 4.5 m.Calculate the
separation of the two slits.
Exam Tip
Since a, x and D are all distances, it's easy to mix up which they refer to. Labelling the double
slit diagram in the way given in the notes above will help to remember the order i.e. a and x in
the numerator and D underneath in the denominator.

8.2.5 The Diffraction Grating

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The Grating Equation

 A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel, identical, close-
spaced slits
 When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of narrow bright fringes is
produced on a screen

Diagram of diffraction grating used to obtain a fringe pattern

  

 The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are produced can be
deduced by the diffraction grating equation
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Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes

 Exam questions sometime state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm etc.) on the grating which is
represented by the symbol N
 d can be calculated from N using the equation

Angular Separation

 The angular separation of each maxima is calculated by rearranging the grating equation to
make θ the subject
 The angle θ is taken from the centre meaning the higher orders are at greater angles
 Angular separation

 The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the smaller angle from the
larger one
 The angular separation between the first and second maxima n 1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1

Orders of Maxima

 The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right angles to the
diffraction grating
o This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1
 The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the equation:

 Note that since n must be an integer, if the value is a decimal it must be rounded down

o E.g If n is calculated as 2.7 then n = 2 is the highest order visible

Worked Example
An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a diffraction grating with a slit
spacing of 1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a screen. The wavelength of the light is
550 nm.

Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.

Exam Tip
Take care that the angle θ is the correct angle taken from the centre and not the angle taken
between two orders of maxima.

Determining the Wavelength of Light

Method

 The wavelength of light can be determined by rearranging the grating equation to make the
wavelength λ  the subject
 The value of θ, the angle to the specific order of maximum measured from the centre, can be
calculated through trigonometry
 The distance from the grating to the screen is marked as D
 The distance between the centre and the order of maxima (e.g. n = 2 in the diagram) on the
screen is labelled as h -  the fringe spacing
 Measure both these values with a ruler
 This makes a right-angled triangle with the angle θ as the ratio of the h/D = tanθ
 The wavelength of light is calculated by the angle to the order of maximum

 Remember to find the inverse of tan to find θ =  tan-1(h/D)

 This value of θ can then be substituted back into the diffraction grating equation to find the
value of the wavelength (with the corresponding order n)

Improving experiment and reducing uncertainties

 The fringe spacing can be subjective depending on its intensity on the screen. Take multiple
measurements of h (between 3-8) and finding the average
 Use a Vernier scale to record h, in order to reduce percentage uncertainty
 Reduce the uncertainty in h by measuring across all fringes and dividing by the number of
fringes
 Increase the grating to screen distance D  to increase the fringe separation (although this may
decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen)
 Conduct the experiment in a darkened room, so the fringes are clearer
 Use grating with more lines per mm, so values of h are greater to lower percentage uncertainty