LECTURE 2: WAVE MOTION

Introduction to Waves

A wave is defined, as a disturbance that moves through a medium or a mechanism that

transfers energy from one place to another without transferring any matter is called a wave
e.g. sound waves, light waves and waves on a stretched string.

Types of Waves

There are two main types of waves namely;

a) Transverse wave
 A transverse wave is one where the particles vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of the wave travel (and energy transfer)
 Transverse waves show areas of crests (peaks) and troughs

Diagram of a transverse wave

 Examples of transverse waves are:
o Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
o Vibrations on a guitar string
 These can be shown on a rope

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  Transverse waves can be polarized

b) Longitudinal wave
 A longitudinal wave is one where the particles vibrate parallel to the direction
of the wave travel (and energy transfer)
 Longitudinal waves show areas of compressions and rarefactions

Diagram of a longitudinal wave

 Examples of longitudinal waves are:
o Sound waves
o Ultrasound waves
 These can be shown on a slinky spring

 Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized

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The diagram below shows the equivalent of a wavelength on a longitudinal wave

Wavelength shown on a longitudinal wave

Exam Tip: The definition of transverse and longitudinal waves are often asked as exam
questions, make sure to remember these definitions by heart!

Generally transverse and longitudinal waves are referred to as Progressive or travelling

waves, because these are waves which transfer energy by moving away from the source of
disturbance.

Waves can also be described based on the following:

Medium (Air, water and vacuum)

 Mechanical waves: these are waves that require a medium e.g. Sound waves, waves
on the water surface etc.
 Electromagnetic waves: these are waves that do not require a medium e.g. can travel
through a vacuum. Note that these waves can still travel through a medium e.g. Light
waves, satellite signals etc.

Vibration of Particles

Transverse wave; the vibrations of the particles of the medium move back and forth
perpendicular to the direction of the wave. Longitudinal wave; the vibrations of the particles
of the medium move back and forth in the same direction as the wave.

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Propagation

Progressive wave or travelling wave is a disturbance which carries energy from one place
to another without transferring matter and they do not return the starting point. There are
two types namely, transverse and longitudinal waves.

Stationary (Standing) waves, in a string result from the fact that two progressive waves
of equal frequency and amplitude are travelling in opposite directions. In the resulting
vibration in the figure below:

(i) some points, nodes, are permanently at rest. Midway between the nodes are the
antinodes, where the amplitude of the vibration is a maximum,
(ii) points between successive nodes are all vibrating with the same frequency and
the same phase,
(iii) the distance between successive nodes is 𝜆/2.Vibration energy in this particular
medium is fixed between the points.

Exam Tip: Both transverse and longitudinal waves can look like transverse waves when
plotted on a graph – make sure you read the question and look for whether the wave travels
parallel (longitudinal) or perpendicular (transverse) to the direction of travel to confirm
which type of wave it is.

Wave Terminology

The displacement of a particle on a wave is its distance in a specified direction from the rest
position. Displacement is vector quantity; it can be positive or negative. A transverse wave
may be represented by plotting displacement 𝑦 on the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 against the distance 𝑥 along
the wave, in the direction of energy travel, on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. This is illustrated in the figure
below.

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Diagrams showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

The amplitude (𝑨) of the wave motion is defined as the maximum displacement of a particle
in a wave. In a transverse wave, the amplitude is half the distance between the top of a crest
and the bottom of a trough. Whereas the full distance from the top of the crest to the bottom
of the trough is referred to as the range.

The wavelength (𝝀) (Greek letter lambda) of a periodic wave is the distance between
adjacent wave crests or wavelength is the shortest distance between two peaks or the
shortest distance between two troughs. It is the shortest distance between two points which
are vibrating in phase with each other.

Note: These are all measured in meters (m)

The crest of a transverse wave is the highest or peak point of the wave motion, whereas the
trough is the lowest point of the wave motion.

The period (𝑻) of a wave is the time required for a particle in a wave to complete one
vibration, or one cycle.

Diagram showing the time period of a wave

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The frequency (𝒇) is the number of complete vibrations (cycles) per unit time or frequency
is how many waves go past a point in one second. The higher the frequency, the more energy
in the wave. Therefore frequency has the units (𝑠 −1 ) or Hertz (𝐻𝑧).

As in the case of periodic motion, the unit of wave frequency is the hertz (Hz). Multiples of
the hertz are used for high frequencies:

Wave equation
From the definition of a wavelength 𝝀; in one cycle of the source the wave energy moves a
distance of 𝝀. The time taken for one cycle is the time period 𝑇, measured in seconds (s).
Speed 𝑣 is the distance moved per unit time. Speed (𝑣) and is dependent on the medium in
which the wave is traveling. It varies in solids, liquids and gases.

 The wave equation links the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave
 This is relevant for both transverse and longitudinal waves
The wave equation tells us that for a wave of constant speed:
 As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases
 As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases

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 The relationship between frequency and wavelength of a wave
Properties of Waves
 Although there are many different types of waves (light waves, sound waves,
electrical waves, mechanical waves etc.)
 There are some basic properties which they all have in common. All waves can be
reflected, refracted, diffracted and show interference effects.
Reflection
As the waves strike a plane barrier placed in the water, they are reflected. The angle of
reflection equals the angle of incidence, and there is no change in wavelength as shown in
figure (a) If a curved barrier is used, the waves can be made to converge or diverge as shown
in figure (b).

Ripple tank pattern showing reflection at (a) a plane surface and (b) a curved one

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Refraction
 If a glass block is submerged in water, this produces a sudden change in the depth of
the water.
 The speed of surface ripples on water depends on the depth of the water:
o The shallower the water, the slower the speed.
 Thus, the water waves move more slowly as they pass over the glass block.
 The frequency of the waves remains constant, and so the wavelength decreases.
 If the waves are incident at an angle to the submerged block, they will change
direction, as shown the figure below.

 The change in direction of a wave due to a change in speed is called refraction

Diffraction
 Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier;
refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one
medium to another; and
 Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening
or around a barrier in their path.
 Water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through
openings.
 This ability is most obvious for water waves with longer wavelengths.
 The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing
wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength.

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  In fact, when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no noticeable
diffraction occurs.
 The amount of bending depends on the size of the obstacle and the size of the waves.

Wave interference
This is a phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the same
medium. The two waves do not 'bounce off each other' upon meeting (like two balls would)
they pass through each other, super-positioning upon each other to encompass the
displacement of particles of the medium by both waveforms. Consider two simple pulses of
the same amplitude moving toward one another in the same medium, as shown in figure
below. Eventually, the waves overlap, producing a wave that has twice the amplitude, and
then continue on unaffected by the encounter. The pulses are said to interfere, and this
phenomenon is known as interference.

 Two pulses moving toward one another experience interference. The term
interference refers to what happens when two waves overlap

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Phase
 The phase difference tells us how much a point or a wave is in front or behind
another
 This can be found from the relative position of the crests or troughs of two different
waves of the same frequency
o When the crests or troughs are aligned, the waves are in phase
o When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are in antiphase
 The diagram below shows the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ 𝝀

Two waves ¼ 𝝀 out of phase

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 In contrast, the purple wave is said to lag behind the green wave by ¼ 𝜆
 Phase difference is measured in fractions of a wavelength, degrees or radians
 The phase difference can be calculated from two different points on the same wave or
the same point on two different waves
 The phase difference between two points:
o In phase is 𝟑𝟔𝟎° or 2𝜋 radians
o In anti-phase is 𝟏𝟖𝟎° or 𝜋 radians

Worked example
Plane waves on the surface of the water are represented by the figure below at one
particular instant of time.

The waves have frequency 2.5 Hz.

Determine, for the wave.
(A) The amplitude
(B) The wavelength
(C) The phase difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Solution

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Note: All final answers must be in SI Base units.

Wave Energy
 Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter.
 When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it:
o The points on the wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions.
 Waves that transfer energy are known as progressive waves.
 Waves that do not transfer energy are known as stationary waves.

Wave Intensity
 Progressive waves transfer energy
 The amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit time is the intensity of the
wave
 Therefore, the intensity is defined as power per unit area

Intensity is equal to the power per unit area

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  The area the wave passes through is perpendicular to the direction of its velocity
 The intensity of a progressive wave is also proportional to its amplitude squared and
frequency squared

Intensity is proportional to the 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝟐 and 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝟐

This means that if the frequency or the amplitude is doubled, the intensity increases by a
factor of 4 (22 ).

Worked Example
The intensity of a progressive wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the
wave, it is also proportional to the square of frequency.
The variation with time 𝑡 of displacement 𝑥 of particles when two progressive waves 𝑄 and 𝑃
pass through a medium are shown on the graphs below;

The intensity of wave 𝑄 is I0 , what is the intensity of wave 𝑃?

Solution

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Note:
The key concept with intensity is that it has an inverse square relationship with distance
(not a linear one). This means the energy of a wave decreases very rapidly with increasing
distance
Determination of Frequency & Wavelength of Sound Waves

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

 A Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument used to display, measure and

analyse waveforms of electrical circuits
 An A.C. current on an oscilloscope is represented as a transverse wave. Therefore you
can determine its frequency and amplitude
 The x-axis is the time and the y-axis is the voltage (or y-gain)

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Diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope display showing wavelength and time-base
setting

 The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base This is how many
seconds each division represents measured commonly in s div-1 or s cm-1
 Use as many wavelengths shown on the screen as possible to reduce uncertainties
 Dividing the total time by the number of wavelengths will give the time period T
(Time taken for one complete oscillation)
 The frequency is then determined through 1/T

Worked example

A cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o) is used to display the trace from a sound wave. the time
base is set at 7𝜇s mm−1.

What is the frequency of the sound wave?

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Solution

Exam Tip: The time-base setting varies with units for seconds (commonly ms) and the
unit length (commonly mm). Unit conversions are very important for the calculation of the
time period and frequency.

Measuring Wavelength

 Stationary waves can be produced inside air columns from sound waves
o This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and organs, work
 This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a
loudspeaker at the open end.

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 Wavelength of stationary sound wave in an air column

 At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube,
showing where there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary
wave
 In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end and
a maxima (antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker.
 The wavelength is then determined by the distance between the two antinodes with
two nodes between them (or two nodes with two antinodes between them).

Doppler Effect

Doppler Shift of Sound

 The whistle of a train or the siren of an ambulance appears to increase in frequency

(sounds higher in pitch) as it moves away from you.
 This frequency change due to the relative motion between a source of sound or light
and an observer is known as the Doppler effect (or Doppler shift).
 When the observer (e.g. yourself) and the source of sound (e.g. ambulance siren) are
both stationary, the waves are at the same frequency for both the observer and the
source.

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 Stationary source and observer

 When the source starts to move towards the observer, the wavelength of the waves is
shortened. The sound therefore appears at a higher frequency to the observer.

Moving source and stationary observer

 Notice how the waves are closer together between the source and the observer
compared to point P and the source.
 This also works if the source is moving away from the observer. If the observer was at
point P instead, they would hear the sound at a lower frequency due to the
wavelength of the waves broadening.
o The frequency is increased when the source is moving towards the observer.
o The frequency is decreased when the source is moving away from the observer.

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Worked example

A cyclist rides a bike ringing their bell past a stationary observe. Which of the following
accurately describes the Doppler shift caused by the sound of the bell?

 If the cyclist is riding past the observer, the wavelength of sound waves are going to
become longer
o This rules out options A and C
 A longer wavelength means a lower frequency (from the wave equation)
 Lower frequency creates a lower sound pitch
o Therefore, the answer is row D

Calculating Doppler Shift

When a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary observer, the observed
frequency can be calculated using the equation below:

Doppler shift equation

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  The wave velocity for sound waves is 340 ms−1
 The ± depends on whether the source is moving towards or away from the observer
o If the source is moving towards, the denominator is 𝑣 – 𝑣𝑠
o If the source is moving away, the denominator is 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠

Worked Examples

A police car siren emits a sound wave with a frequency of 450 Hz. The car is travelling
away from an observer at a speed of 45 ms −1 . The speed of sound is 340 ms−1 . Which of
the following is the frequency the observer hears?

Solution

Exam Tip: Be careful as to which frequency and velocity you use in the equation. The
‘source’ is always the object is moving and the ‘observer’ is always stationary.

The Doppler Effect

 The doppler shift is observed by all waves including sound and light
 A frequency change due to the relative motion between a source of sound or light and
an observer is known as the doppler effect (or doppler shift)
 When the observer (e.g. yourself) and the source of sound (e.g. ambulance siren) are
both stationary, the waves are at the same frequency for both the observer and the

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 source When the source starts to move towards the observer, the wavelength of the
waves is shortened
o For sound waves, sound therefore appears at a higher frequency to the
observer
o For light waves, the light shifts towards blue due to its higher frequency

The observer in front observes a blue shift, the observer behind observes a red shift

 When the source starts to move away the observer, the wavelength of the waves is
broadens
For sound waves, sound therefore appears at a lower frequency to the observer
For light waves, the light shifts towards red due to its lower frequency
 For light waves, remember that red light has a longer wavelength than blue light
 Red and blue shift is observed in spectral lines of planets and is used to find the
radius of the planets orbit around distant stars

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

From Radio Waves to Gamma Rays

 The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on their

wavelengths or frequencies
 This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest
frequency) to shortest wavelength (highest frequency)

Energy, wavelength and frequency for each part of the electromagnetic spectrum

 The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
 Radiation with higher energy is highly ionising and is harmful to cells and tissues
causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
 The approximate wavelengths in a vacuum of each radiation is listed in the table
below:

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 EM spectrum wavelengths and frequencies

To alternatively find the range of frequencies, convert the wavelengths using the wave
equation: 𝒄 = 𝒇𝝀 where c is the speed of light: 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦 𝐬−𝟏 .

Worked example

A source is a source emitting microwaves and B is a source emitting X-rays. The table
below suggests the frequencies for A and B. Which row is correct?

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Solution

Exam Tip: You will be expected to memorise the range of wavelengths for each type of
radiation, however you don’t need to learn the frequency ranges by heart. Since all EM
waves travel at the speed of light, you can convert between frequency and wavelength
using the wave equation in an exam question.

Prepared by: Mr. C. Nundwe (Course Lecturer).

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