CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II)

Table of Contents

Electric current and potential difference Connections

Ohm’s Law
Electrical resistance Building on…..
Resistors • Cells and Simple circuits
Electromotive force and internal resistance
Revision Arriving at……

• Defining and measuring pd and

Specific Objectives
current in circuits
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: • Resistance – verifying Ohm’s Law,
defining resistance, measurement
a) define potential difference and state its units
b) measure potential difference and current in a circuit of resistance and applications of
c) verify Ohm’s law resistors.
d) define resistance and state its unit • Working out calculations involving
e) determine resistance resistor networks, emf and
f) determine experimentally the voltage -current internal resistance of a cell. .
relationships for various conductors
g) define emf and explain internal resistance of a cell Looking forward to….
h) derive the formulae for effective resistance of resistors in
series and in parallel • Electrostatics (II)
i) galvanometer to ammeters and voltmeters • Heating effect of an
j) solve numerical problems involving Ohm’s law, resistors
electric current
in series and in parallel.
• Electromagnetic Induction
(20 Lessons) • Mains Electricity

Content
1. Scale reading: Ammeter, Voltmeter
2. Electric circuits: current, potential difference
3. Ohm’s law (experimental treatment required)
4. Resistance: types of resistors, measurements of resistance and units.
5. Resistivity and potentiometer
6. Electromotive force (emf) and internal resistance of a cell (E = V + ir)
7. Resistors in series and in parallel
8. Problems on Ohm’s law, resistors in series and in parallel
2 Electricity and Magnetism

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Applications of electricity are broad, both commercially and at domestic level.

Many domestic appliances contain electric components wired together in circuits, and the
components draw specified current and voltage for effective operation.
In analysing a circuit, the measurement of current, voltage and resistance must be clearly
understood.

Electric Current and Potential Difference

Electric current
An electric current is the rate of flow of charge through a conductor and is measured by an
ammeter. An ammeter is an instrument of low resistance. When being used to measure
current through a component say a bulb, the ammeter is
connected in series with the bulb so that conventional current
flowing through the bulb also flows through the ammeter. The
correct connection is such that the current enters the
ammeter through its positive terminal and exits through the
negative terminal.

Potential Difference
The potential difference between two points A and B (VAB) of a conductor is defined as the
work done in the moving unit charge from point B to A of the
conductor.
work done W (in joules)
Potential difference =
charge moved Q (im coulombs)
W
VAB =
Q
From the equation, one volt is equal to one joule per coulomb.

Using a Voltmeter
(i) A voltmeter is always connected across (in parallel
to) the device across which the voltage is to be
measured. This is because it is an instrument with
high resistance to flow of current, and therefore
takes little current from the component across which
the voltage is to be measured.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 3

When components are connected in parallel:

(i) the sum of the currents in the circuit is equal to the total current. Thus, the total
current flowing into a junction equals the total current flowing out.
(ii) the same voltage drops across each of them.
In a series arrangement;
(i) The same current flows through each component.
(ii) The sum of the voltage drops across the components is equal to supply voltage.
Examples
1. Find the current passing through L1, given that 0.8 A passes through the battery, 0.28
A through L2 and 0.15 A through L3.
Solution
Current through battery = Current through L1 + Current through L2 + Current through L3
0.8 = I1 + I2 + I3
0.8 = I1 + 0.28 + 0.15
I1 = 0.8 – 0.43
= 0.37 A

2. The figure shows three identical bulbs connected in series-parallel circuit.

(a) Compare the brightness of B1, B2 and B3 and

explain the differences if any.
(b) Relate the voltage drop across the bulbs.
Solution
(a) Since the bulbs B1 and B2 are identical, the total
current is divided equally as it flows through the
bulbs. The brightness of B1 is thus the same as that of B2. Bulb B3 is twice as bright as the
other bulbs considered singly. This is because the current flowing through it is twice the
current flowing through each of the bulbs B1 and B2.
(b) The voltage drop across B1 and B2 is the same since the two bulbs are parallel. It can be
shown that the voltage across B3 is twice the voltage across B1 and B2 and that the sum of
the voltage drops is equal to the supply voltage (V1 & 2 + V3 = VT)

Ohm’s Law
4 Electricity and Magnetism

The relationship between the voltage across a conductor and the current flowing through it is
summarised in what is referred to as Ohm’s law.
Ohm's law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across it, provided the temperature and other physical
conditions are kept constant.
Physical conditions include
pressure and mechanical strain
Experiment to Verify Ohm’s Law.
on the conductor
Apparatus
Two-metre nichrome wire, 2 dry cells, ammeter, voltage,
connecting wires, switch, rheostat.
Procedure
• Using a nichrome wire, make a coil of as many turns
as possible.
• Set up the circuit as shown alongside.
• Set the current flowing in the circuit to the least possible value.
• With the help of the rheostat, vary in steps the current flowing in the circuit and note the
corresponding voltage drop across the coil.
• Record the results in table as shown
alongside.
Observation
As current increases, voltage across the coil also increases.
The graph obtained when voltage is plotted against current is a straight line that passes
through the origin.
Conclusion
(i) Voltage is directly proportional to current.
(ii) The gradient of the graph, i.e., voltage/current is constant. The constant is called the
resistance of the wire used.
voltage (V)
Thus; Resistance R =
current (I)
The SI unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω)
This observation is Ohm's law.

Ohm's law can also be verified using the same

procedure with the coil being replaced by a standard
resistor. The graph of current against voltage is a
straight line through the origin.

∆I
The gradient of the graph, , gives the reciprocal of
∆V
resistance (conductance, whose unit is Ω-1 or Siemens (S)).
1
Thus resistance =
gradient
From V ∝ I:
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 5

V=k I
The constant k is the resistance of the conductor hence;
V = IR, where V is the potential difference, I the current and R resistance.
V V
Thus, Ohm's law can also be expressed as I = or R = .
R I
From Ohm's law, an ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor when a current of I A
flowing through it produces a voltage drop of IV across its ends. The multiples of Ohm's in
common use are:
1 kilo ohm (kΩ) = 1000Ω
1 mega ohm (MΩ) = 1 000 000Ω
Examples
1. A current of 2mA flows through a conductor or resistance 2 kΩ. Calculate the voltage
across the conductor.
Solution
V = IR
= 2 × 10-3 × 2 × 103
=4V
2. In order to start a certain car, a current of 30A must flow through the starter motor.
Calculate the resistance of the motor given that the battery supplies a voltage of 12V.
Ignore the internal resistance of the battery.
Solution
𝑉 12
R= =
𝐼 30
= 0.4 Ω
Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors
Conductors that obey Ohm's law (i.e voltage across is directly proportional to current) are
called Ohmic conductors. Wires drawn from metals, i.e., nichrome wire are ohmic conductors.
Non-Ohmic conductors include a torch filament, an electrolyte, a thermistor, a semi conductor
diode, a thermionic diode or discharged tubes.

Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is the opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current.
It occurs when a charge flowing through a conductor has its movement impeded by collisions
with the atom and impurities in the conductor. These collisions scatter the charges leading to
the loss of their momentum and energy in the form of heat.
A material with high conductance has very low electrical resistance, e.g., copper. The
instrument used for measuring resistance is called the ohmmeter.

Factors that affect the Resistance of a metallic conductor

Temperature
6 Electricity and Magnetism

The resistance of good conductors of electricity, like metals, increases with increase in
temperature.
Heating increases the vibrations of atoms thereby increasing the collisions per cross-section
area of the conductor. The opposition to the flow of electrons thus increases as temperature is
increased.
However, the resistance of, say, copper cannot fall to zero at extremely low temperatures.
Length of the conductor
Experiments show that the resistance R of a uniform conductor of a given material is
directly proportional to its length l, i.e., R ∝ l.
Hence, resistance = constant × length………… (1)
𝑅
So, for a given conductor, =constant. As the length of the conductor increases, so does the
𝑙
resistance. This is because of increase in the number of atoms that impede the flow of
electrons.
Cross sectional area
The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-section area A.
𝑙
Thus, R α .
𝐴
A conductor with a larger cross-section area has many free electrons for conduction, hence
better conductivity.
From the foregoing;
Resistance × cross-section area = constant ……………………………… (2)
For a given conductor therefore, RA = constant.
Combining (1) and (2) for a conductor with uniform cross-section area;
length 𝑙
Resistance = constant × , i.e., R = ρ ( ), where ρ is a constant called the resistivity of the
area A
conductor.
The resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a sample of material of
unit length and unit cross section area at a certain temperature. The unit of ρ is the ohmmeter
(Ωm).
The resistivity of a material is dependant on the temperature. For metal conductors, it
increases with increase in temperature while for semiconductors, it decreases with increase in
temperature.
The table below shows the resistivities (at 20°C) and uses of some common materials.
Material Resisitivity (Ωm) Uses
Silver 1.6 × 10-8 Contacts on some switches
Copper 1.7 × 10-8 Connecting wires
Aluminium 2.8 × 10-8 Power cables
Tungsten 5.5 × 10-8 Lamp filaments
Constantan 49 × 10-8 Resistance boxes, variable resistors
Nichrome 100 × 10-8 Heating elements
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 7

Carbon 3 000 × 10-8 Radio resistors

Glass 10-8 – 1014
Polystyrene 10 15
Example 7
Two wires A and B are such that the radius of A is twice that of B and the length of B is
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
twice that of A. If the two are of same material, determine the ratio
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵
Solution
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝐵 𝐴𝐵
Since = constant, =
𝑙 𝑙𝐴 𝑙𝐵
𝑅𝐴 𝑙𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝑙𝐴 𝑅𝐵2
Thus, = =
𝑅𝐵 𝑙𝐵 𝐴𝐴 𝑙𝐵 𝑅𝐴2
But lB = 2lA and 2RB = RA.
1 2
𝑅𝐴 𝑙𝐴 × ( 𝑅𝐴 )
2
=
𝑅𝐵 2𝑙𝐵 × 𝑅𝐴2
1
=
8

Resistors
Resistors are conductors specially designed to offer particular resistance to the flow of electric
current. They are made from many different materials which include resistance wires, metal
alloys and carbon.
Most wire-wound resistors are made of nichrome wire
covered with an insulating material. Some metals may
not make good resistors because of the effect of
temperature on their resistance. Temperature does not
however show significant effect on the resistance of
some other materials like constantan and manganin.
These metals may be mixed with carbon to make
standard resistors. The graph alongside shows how
resistances of some materials vary with temperature.

Types of Resistors
Fixed resistors.
These resistors are designed to give fixed resistance.
Examples of fixed resistors are the wire wound resistor and the
carbon resistor.
(c) is the symbol for a fixed resistor.

Variable Resistors
These are resistors with a varied range of resistance. They
include:
8 Electricity and Magnetism

Rheostat
A rheostat is a two-terminal variable resistor represented in
electrical circuits by the symbol shown in (a) or (b).
Moving the sliding contact along the length of the resistant
material varies the resistance between points A and B. When the
contact is nearer end A, the resistance of the rheostat is lower.
In some cases, the resistance track
may be circular as shown below .
The resistance between A and B is
proportional to the angle through
which its shaft has moved, (b). Volume
control knobs on radios are essentially
rheostats.

Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a variable resistor with three
terminals. Its symbol is shown alongside.

In potentiometers, a contact is moved to select desired proportions of the total voltage across
them.
If, say, the sliding arm connected to c is moved to the
extreme right, then the resistance between A and C will
be greater than the resistance between B and C because
of more length of the resistance material. Potentiometers
with a circular resistance tracks are used as balance
controls in audio amplifiers.
Potentiometers can also be used as a variable voltage
source, as shown alongside.

Non-Linear Resistors
The current flowing through these resistors does not change linearly with the changes in the
applied voltage. Such resistors include the thermistor and light dependent resistor (LDR).
Thermistor
The thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor. Its resistance decreases with increase in
temperature. The electrical symbol of a themistor is shown alongside.
Thermistors are used in heat-operated circuits.

Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

The resistance of an LDR decreases when it receives light of
increasing intensity. The LDR is used in light-operated switching
circuits.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 9

Measurement of Resistance
(a) Voltmeter-ammeter Method
Experiment to determine the resistance of a resistor
using the voltmeter-ammeter method
Apparatus
Two cells, switch, voltmeter, ammeter, variable resistor,
switch, resistor R.
Procedure
• Set up the circuit as shown.
• With the switch open, record the voltmeter reading V and the corresponding ammeter
reading I.
• Switch on the current and, by adjusting the variable resistor, record at least five other
values of V and the corresponding I.
• Record your results in the table alongside. Voltage V (volts) Current I (Amps) 𝑉 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)
V 𝐼
• Compare values of .
I
• Plot a graph of V (vertical axis) against I. Note the shape of the graph.
• Determine the slope (gradient) of the graph.
Observation
When the switch is open, no current flows through the resistor and therefore both the
ammeter and the voltmeter reading is zero.
When the current through the resistor increases, the voltage across it also increases. An
approximate value of the resistance of the resistor is obtained by dividing the value of the
voltage across the resistor by the corresponding current flowing through it and substituting in
V
the equation R = .
I
The graph of V against I is a straight line whose gradient gives resistance. The resistance
obtained cannot be accurate since the voltmeter takes some little current, thus not all of it
flows through the resistor.
(b) The Wheatstone Bridge Method
The Wheatstone bridge consist of four resistors and a galvanometer, as shown below. The
operation of the bridge involves making adjustments to one or two of the resistors until there
is no deflection in the galvanometer.
The four resistors k, L, M and N are joined as
shown. If K is the unknown resistance, the
values of L, m and N, or the ratio of M to N must
be known. A galvanometer G and a dry cell are
connected as shown.
The variable resistor L (commonly a resistance
box) is adjusted until there is no deflection in G.
The bridge is then said to be balanced.
10 Electricity and Magnetism

No current flows through G at balance and therefore, the p.d. across BD is zero. At the same
time, the potential difference across AB is then equal to that across AD. Also, the same current
I1 flows through K and L and current I2 flows through M and N. Then;
I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
Therefore, I1 K = I2 M (from V = IR)
Similarly, I3L = I4N.
So, I1L = I2N
I1 K I2 M
=
I1 L I2 N
K M
Therefore, = when the bridge is balanced.
L N
The Wheatstone bridge is more accurate in measuring resistance than the voltmeter-ammeter
method because the value obtained does not depend on the accuracy of the current-measuring
instrument (galvanometer) used.
(c) The Metre Bridge

The wire AC of uniform cross-section

area and length 1 m with a resistance of
several Ohm's and made of an alloy
such as constantan. The length AD
represents resistor M while length CD
represents resistor N. The ratio of M to
N is altered by changing the position on
the wire of the movable contact D called
‘jockey’. The other arm of the bridge
contains the unknown resistor K and a
known resistor L. the copper strips of
low resistance connect the various
parts. The position of D is adjusted until there is no deflection in G.
K M resistance of AD
Then; = =
L N resistance of DC
Since the wire is uniform cross-section, its resistance will be proportional to its length and
K AD X1
Hence; = =
L DC X2
LX1
Thus, K =
X2
The resistor L should be chosen to give balance points near the centre of the wire. This gives a
more accurate result. After obtaining the balance, K and L should be interchanged and a second
pair of values for X1 and X2 obtained. This average of the value eliminates errors due to non-
uniformity of the wire and end corrections. In finding the balance point, the cell key or switch
should be closed before the jockey makes contact with the wire. This is necessary because of
the effect known as ‘self-induction’ in which the currents in the circuit take a short time to
grow to their steady values. A high resistance should always be joined in series with the
galvanometer to protect it from damage whilst the balance is being sought.
Example
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 11

In an experiment to determine the resistance of a nichrome wire using the metre bridge,
the balance point was found to be at 38 cm mark. If the value of the resistance in the right
hand gap needed to balance the bridge was 25 Ω, calculate the value of the unknown
resistor.
Solution
Since AB = 100 cm and AC = 38 cm, BC = 100 – 38 = 62 cm;
𝑅 25
=
38 62
38 × 25
R= = 15.32 𝛺
62

Resistor Networks
(i) Resistors connected in series
Since this is a series arrangement, VT = V1 + V2 + V3.
The same current I flows through each of the
resistors.
Using Ohm’s law and the fact that same current
flows through the resistors;
IRT = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Dividing through by I;
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, for resistors connected in series, the
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
Example
The figure below shows three resistors in series connected to a power source. A current of
2 A flows through the circuit.
Calculate the:
(a) voltage drop across each resistor.
(b) voltage across the source.
(c) total resistance in the circuit.
Solution
(a) V1 = IR1 =2×2 =4V
V2 = IR2 =2×6 = 12 V
V3 = IR3 =2×8 = 16 V
(b) the voltage across the source is the sum of the p.d. drops across the resistors.
Thus; VT = 4 + 12 + 16 = 32 V
(c) Total resistance, RT = R1 + R2 + R3
=2+6+8 = 16 Ω
(ii) Resistors connected in
parallel
For resistors in parallel connection, we have;
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ……………………………… (1)
12 Electricity and Magnetism

VT V1 V2 V3
But IT = ; I1 = ; I2 = and I3 = ……………... (2)
RT R1 R2 R3
From (1) and (2);
VT V1 V2 V3
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
Since VT = V1 = V2 = V3 (for resistors in parallel);
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
For n resistors in parallel,
1 1 1 1
= + ……+
RT R1 R2 Rn
If two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance RE is given
by;
1 1 1
= +
RE R1 R2
R1 +R2
=
R1 R2
R1 +R2
So, RE =
R1 R2
Worked Examples
1. The circuit diagram in shows four resistors in parallel connected across a 3 V supply.
Calculate the:
(a) effective resistance.
(b) current through the 8Ω resistor.
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) = + + + = + + +
𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 2 6 8 10
107
=
120
∴ RE = 1.12 Ω

𝑝.𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

(b) Current through the 8 Ω resistor =
8
3
= = 0.375 A
8
2. Several 150 Ω resistors are to be connected so that a current of 2 A flows from a 50 V
source. how many resistors are required and how should they be connected?
Solution
The resistors must be connected in parallel since RE must be lower than 150 Ω.
50
RE = =25 Ω
2
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 13

1 1
= 𝑛 ( ) , where n is the number of resistors.
25 150
150
∴n= =6
25
3. Calculate the current through each resistor the figure below.
Solution
P.d. across the two resistors
8×6 48
=2×( )= V
8+6 7
48
I8Ω = ÷8 = 0.857 A
7
48
I 6Ω = ÷6 = 1.143 A
7

(iii) Series-Parallel Arrangement

To find the effective resistance of a series-parallel arrangement, the network is systematically
reduced into a single resistor.
Worked Examples
1. Calculate the effective resistance for the resistors in the figure below.

Solution
The reduction begins by combining the 5 Ω and 7 Ω
resistors, which are in series, to get 12 Ω. The circuit is
then re-drawn as in (a).
The 12 Ω resistor in parallel with the 8 Ω resistor may be
12 × 8
replaced by RBC = = 4.8 Ω. The circuit is re-drawn as
12 + 8
in (b).

Finally, the 4.8 Ω is in series with the 4 Ω resistor, giving an

equivalent resistance of;
RAC = 4 + 4.8
= 8.8 Ω

2. Two resistors of 6 Ω and 3 Ω in parallel are connected in series to a 4 Ω resistor and a

cell of e.m.f. 1.5 V. Calculate the:
(a) equivalent resistance of the circuit.
(b) current through each of the resistors and the p.d. across each.
Solution
6×3
(a) RAB = =2Ω
6+3
RAC =2+4=6Ω
14 Electricity and Magnetism

(b) To calculate current through either 6 Ω or 3 Ω resistor, the p.d. across them must be found
first. Thus, p.d. across 6 Ω and 3 Ω plus p.d. across 4 Ω = voltage of the supply
Voltage across 4Ω resistor = 0.25 × 4 =1V
Hence, the voltage across (6Ω and 3Ω) is; V = 1.5 – 1 = 0.5 V
0.5
Current through 6 Ω = = 8.33 × 10-2 A
6
0.5
Current through 3 Ω = = 1.67 × 10–1 A
3
3. Four resistors of 5 Ω, 13 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω are connected to 6 V supply, as shown below.
Calculate the:
(a) current through the 13 Ω resistor.
(b) total current in the circuit.
(c) voltage VAB and VBD.
Solution
(a) Current from the supply divides into two parts at
junction A. Part of it flows through the 5 Ω resistor and
the rest through 13 Ω resistor. The current through the 13
Ω divides into two at junction B, some flowing through
the 3 Ω and the rest through the 6 Ω. The 3 Ω and 6 Ω
resistors are in parallel and equivalent to a 2 Ω resistor,
which would then be in series with the 13 Ω resistor.
The circuit is thus reduced to the one in (b).
The 13 Ω and 2 Ω in series form a resistor that is in
parallel with the 5 Ω resistor. The p.d. across the 13 Ω and 2
Ω resistor, is equal to the supply of 6 V.
6 6
Current through 13 Ω= = = 0.4 𝐴
12 + 2 15
(b) Total current = current through 13 Ω resistor +
current through 5 Ω resistor
Current through 13 Ω = 0.4 A
𝑝.𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 5 𝛺 6
Current through 5 Ω = = =1.2 A
5𝛺 5
Therefore, current in the circuit = 0.4 + 1.2 = 1.6 A
(c) VAB = 0.4 × 13= 5.2V
VBD = 0.4 × 2
= 0.8 V
Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a cell is the potential difference between its terminals
when no charge is flowing out of the cell (cell in open circuit).
Below is a circuit that may be used to demonstrate the
difference between e.m.f. of a cell and terminal voltage.
The reading of the voltmeter when the switch is open
is the e.m.f. of the cell.
Once a cell supplies current to an external circuit, the
potential difference across it drops by a value referred
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 15

to as ‘lost voltage’. This loss in voltage is due to the internal resistance of the cell.
The potential difference across the cell when the circuit is closed is referred to as the
terminal voltage of the cell.

A cell or any source of e.m.f. is made up of materials that are not perfect conductors of
electricity. They, therefore, offer some resistance to the flow of current that they generate. This
resistance is usually low and is called the internal resistance of the cell or battery.
Relationship Between E.m.f. and Internal Resistance
If a resistor R is connected in series with a cell as shown, the internal resistance of the cell r is
considered to be connected in series with the external resistor R.
The current flowing in the circuit is therefore given by the
equation;
e.m.f
Current =
total resistance
𝐸
I= , where E is the e.m.f. of the cell.
R+r
Thus, E = I(R + r)
= IR + Ir
= V + Ir
IR is the voltage drop across the external resistor R while Ir is the voltage drop across the
internal resistance.
The voltage across the external resistor is called the terminal voltage while the p.d. drop across
the internal resistance is called the lost voltage.

Experiments to determine the internal resistance of a cell

Method 1
Apparatus
Voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, cells, connecting wires
Procedure
• Connect the apparatus as shown.
• Switch on the circuit and set the current to the
minimum value possible.
• Increase the current in steps and record the
corresponding terminal voltage V in a table as
shown.
• Plot a graph of voltage against current.
16 Electricity and Magnetism

Results and Conclusion

The graph of voltage against current is a straight line
with a negative gradient as shown:
Using the equation E = V + Ir and hence V = E – Ir,
the gradient of the graph gives the internal
resistance r of the cell.
If the graph is extrapolated so as to cut the voltage
axis, the point at which it does so gives the e.m.f. of
the cell.

Method 2
Apparatus
Ammeter, voltmeter, variable resistor, cells,
connecting wires.
Procedure
• Set up the circuit as shown.
• Switch on the circuit and increase the
current in step from a minimum value.
• Record the corresponding voltage V.
• Complete the table alongside.
1
• Plot a graph of against R.
I

Results and Observation

1
The graph of against R is a straight line with a positive
I
gradient
1
The gradient of the graph gives . Internal resistance can
E
be obtained in two ways:
(i) Extrapolating the graph to cut R axis gives r, as
shown alongside.
(ii) If the intercept on axis is A, then,
r
A=
E
So, r = A × E
1
But E =
gradient
1
∴r=A×
gradient
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 17

Worked Examples
1. A cell drives a current of 2.0 A through a 0.6 Ω resistor. When the same cell is connected
to a 0.9 Ω resistor, the current that flows is 1.5 A. Find the internal resistance and the
e.m.f. of the cell.
Solution
Taking E as e.m.f. of the cell and r the internal resistance;
E = IR + Ir
From (a);
E = (2.0 × 0.6) + 2.0r
= 1.2 + 2r…………………………….(1)
From (b);
E = (1.5 × 0.9) + 1.5r
E = 1.35 + 1.5r…………………………(2)
Since the e.m.f. is the same in both circuits;
1.2 + 2r = 1.35 + 1.5r
2r – 1.5r = 1.35 – 1.2
0.5r = 0.15
r = 0.3 Ω
Substituting for r in equation (1);
E = 1.2 + 2r
E = 1.2 + 2 × 0.3
E = 1.2 + 0.6
= 1.8 V
2. A battery consists of two identical cells, each of e.m.f. 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.6
Ω, connected in the parallel. Calculate the current the battery drives through a 0.7 Ω
resistor.
Solution
When identical cells are connected in parallel, the equivalent e.m.f. is equal to that of only one cell.
The equivalent internal resistance is equal to that of two such
resistors connected in parallel.
(a) simplifies to (b).
Equivalent e.m.f. = 1.5 V
𝑟1 𝑟2
Equivalent internal resistance rT =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
0.6 × 0.6
= =0.3 Ω
0.6 + 0.6
𝐸
I=
𝑅+𝑟
1.5
Current through the 0.7 Ω =
0.7 + 0.3
= 1.5 A
18 Electricity and Magnetism

Review Exercise

1. For the resistor network given, determine

(a) the total resistnce
(b) the voltage drop across each resistor
(c) the current through each resistor.
2. The figure below shows four resistors and a source of
voltage of 6 V with internal resistance 0.2 Ω.

(a) Find the effective resistance of the circuit.

(b) Calculate the current through r.

3. Six resistors are connected in a circuit as shown in the figure below.

Calculate the:
(a) total resistance of the circuit.
(b) total current in the circuit.
(c) current through the 3 Ω resistor.
(d) current through the 8 Ω resistor.
4. (a) You are provided with two resistors of
values 4 Ω and 8 Ω.
(i) Draw a circuit diagram showing the resistors in series with each other and with a battery.
(ii) Calculate total resistance of the circuit (assume negligible internal resistance).
(b) Given that the battery has an e.m.f. of 6 V and an internal resistance of 1.33 Ω, calculate the
current through the:
(i) 8 Ω, and,
(ii) 4 Ω resistor, when the two are in parallel.
5 Two resistors, one of resistance 100 Ω and the other of unknown resistance, are connected
in parallel. This combination is then placed in circuit and current passing through the
combination measured for various potential differences. The results of the experiment are
given in the table below.
p.d (V) 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5
Current 0.075 0.150 0.225 0.300 0.375
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (II) 19

(A)
(a) Draw a labelled diagram of the circuit you would use to perform the experiment.
(b) (a) Plot a graph of potential difference against current.
(b) From the graph, calculate the total resistance of the combination of resistors.
(c) Calculate the value of the unknown resistor.
6. The figure below shows a Wheatstone bridge used for comparing resistances.
Explain the:
(a) theory of the Wheatstone bridge method.
(b) reason why the Wheatstone bridge is a
more accurate method for measuring
resistance than the voltmeter– Ammeter
Method
(c) use of galvanometer in the Wheatstone
bridge rather than an ordinary ammeter.
7. The circuit below can be used as a light sensor.
(a) Explain how it works as conditions change from
pitch darkness to bright light.
(b) If the resistance of the LDR in dim light is 1 × 104
Ω, calculate the p.d. across the 1 kΩ resistor.

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