UNIT

Seven Environmental Principles Ecosystem Services

1
ENVIRONMENT — The composition of biological diversity naturally changes slowly but the
• immediate surroundings of an individual rate of transition has become faster due to factors such as habitat
• is a complex system that deals with a network of living and non-living destruction.
entities — Deforestation may diminish forest species such as birds that are
vulnerable to modification of their home.
Includes: — Pollution of waters reduces the quantity of fishes, shells, algae and other
• Physical Components (air, water, land, energy) aquatic life.
• Biological Components (plants, animals) — Over harvesting of natural products likewise contributes to the
• Socio-Economic Components (people, communities, institutions, values) unsustainable use of food and material resources.

ECOSYSTEM 3. Everything must go somewhere.

• is the basic functional unit of nature. — The by-products of consumption go back to the environment.
• is the interaction of the community (living components) and the non- Everything that we throw away have to go somewhere. Even plants and
living environment. animals have their own wastes. It is the law of nature that the by-products of
metabolism return to the soil and then converted into minerals, to be again
The Seven Environmental Principles : Barry Commoner absorbed by plants and eaten by animals. But what happens if what we throw
1. Everything is connected to everything else. is an artificial product such as plastic?
—The complex relationships of various elements of the ecosystem bind
the components together into one functional unit. — Industries have their own responsibility in reducing their effluents.
a. The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids, birds, insects and —The “polluters pay” principle adopted by governments intensifies the
mammals. When these plants and animals die, their products of campaign for clean land, water and air.
decomposition contribute to soil fertility. — Waste exchange programs by industry turn wastes of one industry into
b. Plants provide oxygen to animals for aerobic respiration while animals raw products of another. In that way, habitats for organisms are not
furnish carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis. The quality of destroyed or deteriorate.
the soil determines the type of vegetation that exists while
vegetation contributes to the minerals of the soil when they die. 4. Ours is a finite earth.
— Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters the ecosystems. The — Everything that we need is provided by nature in abundance – food,
waste we improperly dispose of brings about the deterioration of land and water, energy, minerals and air. However, some resources that we depend
water quality. upon nowadays are extracted excessively but are slow to replace.
— These non-renewable resources experience limits of supply. For
2. All forms of life are important. instance, fossil fuels produced over thousands of years may be exhausted in a
— All living organisms were created for a purpose in relation to hundred years.
humans, other species on earth and global ecosystem in general. The variety of — The increasing population decreases the amount of resources
life forms, manifested by the different levels of biological diversity – available to each person. Carrying capacity, or the ability of the ecosystem to
community, species and genes – contributes to the stability of the support a number of people, may be influenced by limit of resources due to an
environment. increasing population. Competition increases as the carrying capacity is reached.
— Per capita consumption must also be taken into account because
Biological Diversity or Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms on Earth people in Northern countries generally consume more food, energy and
(plants, animals, microorganisms). resources than people in the developing Southern countries. Carrying capacity
• Ecosystems diversity - interdependence within species may be addressed two ways: increase resources and reduce population
• Species diversity – Variation between species “variety of species ” growth.
• Genetic Diversity – variation within species “variety of genes” — Pollution reduces the absorbing capacity of air and water. Pollution
— The Philippines ranks high among the biodiversity hotspots – the likewise reduces the availability of land and water to produce food for human
richest but the most threatened of terrestrial ecosystems in the world. consumption
Sustainable Development Ecosystems Services
• development that meets the needs of the present without • Ecosystems Services refers to the benefits provided by ecosystems
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own that contribute to making human life both possible and worth living.
needs.” — Wildlife is important to the heritage, culture, and heart of a country,
and we want to preserve it as a legacy for our children.
5. Nature knows best. —We have a stronger economy, diverse food products, and
— Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to maintain balance advancements in medical research as a result of wildlife and natural
and remain in a state of equilibrium. ecosystems.
— Biogeochemical cycles. — The value of nature to people has long been recognized, but in recent
— The flow of energy from the sun enables light to be converted into years, the concept of ecosystem services has been developed to describe
sugar in plants through photosynthesis, and later for consumer organisms to these various benefits. An ecosystem service is any positive benefit that
obtain energy from plant starch. wildlife or ecosystems provide to people. The benefits can be direct or
— Food chains and food webs allow transfer of energy from producers and indirect—small or large.
consumers and provide the means for all living organisms to acquire
nutrition. FOUR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
— Population control also occurs naturally through predator – prey 1. PROVISIONING SERVICES
relationships. — A provisioning service is any type of benefit to people that can be
— The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if humans intervene, extracted from nature. Fruits, vegetables, trees, fish, and livestock are
unforeseen negative impacts known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods available to us as direct products of ecosystems. Along with food, other
are often times backlashes of excessive felling of trees. types of provisioning services include drinking water, timber, wood fuel,
— The importation of golden kuhol, that became a pest, reminds us that natural gas, oils, plants that can be made into clothes and other
biological organisms may not acclimatize in a new environment or may cause materials, and medicinal benefits.
harm to indigenous species.
2. REGULATING SERVICES
6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation. — A regulating service is the benefit provided by ecosystem
— Creation presumes the existence of a Creator. The beautiful nature processes that moderate natural phenomena. Regulating services include
around us, perfect by itself, has deteriorated due to the negative impacts of pollination, decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood control,
human use. and carbon storage and climate regulation. All these processes work
— Religion is one of the most influential aspects that affect values and together to make ecosystems clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient
environment. to change.
— The goal of environmental education and biodiversity conservation
education to motivate target audiences towards developing an eco- 3. CULTURAL SERVICES
spirituality that moves them into a more meaningful relationship with nature — A cultural service is a non-material benefit that contributes to
and a greater participation in the biophysical economic processes that make the development and cultural advancement of people, including how
this world a better place to live in. ecosystems play a role in local, national, and global cultures; the building
of knowledge and the spreading of ideas; creativity born from interactions
7. Everything changes. with nature (music, art, architecture); and recreation.
— Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally. — As we interact and alter nature, the natural world has in turn
— Metamorphosis of caterpillars to butterflies illustrates morphological altered us. It has guided our cultural, intellectual, and social development
changes that occur in living forms. by being a constant force present in our lives.
— Random changes manifested by natural catastrophe such as typhoons and
volcanic eruptions destroy forests, coral reefs and mangroves. 4. SUPPORTING SERVICES
— Human-induced alterations, such as climate change and land use change, — Ecosystems themselves couldn't be sustained without the
change the composition of vegetation and animals. consistency of underlying natural processes, such as photosynthesis,
— Environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a tool for the nutrient cycling, the creation of soils, and the water cycle. These processes
projection, planning and management of change brought about by allow the Earth to sustain basic life forms, let alone whole ecosystems
industrialization and human settlement expansion. Effluents can be managed and people. Without supporting services, provisional, regulating, and
through policy and pollution control techniques by both industry and cultural services wouldn't exist.
government to achieve clean air and water.
 UNIT

2
An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere

THE SCOPE OF ECOLOGY BIOTIC FACTORS

• Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the • Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include:
environment. – Interactions with other species
• These interactions determine distribution of organisms and their abundance. – Predation
• Ecologists work at levels ranging from individual organisms to the planet / – Competition
biosphere.
• Ecology integrates all areas of biological research and informs environmental ABIOTIC FACTORS
decision making. • Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms include:
– Temperature
• ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY – Water
- studies how an organism’s structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior – Sunlight
meet environmental challenges ... Adaptations ... – Wind
– Rocks and soil
• A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area. – pH
• POPULATION ECOLOGY
- focuses on factors affecting how many individuals of a species live in an area. TEMPERATURE
• Environmental temperature is an important factor in distribution of
• A community is a group of populations of different species in an area. organisms because of its effects on biological processes.
• COMMUNITY ECOLOGY • Cells may freeze and rupture below 0°C, while most proteins
- deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community. denature above 45°C.
• Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate their internal
• An ecosystem is the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors temperature.
with which they interact.
• ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the WATER AND SALINITY
various biotic and abiotic components. • Water availability in habitats is another important factor in species
distribution.
• A landscape is a mosaic of connected ecosystems. • Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water conservation.
• LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY • Salt concentration affects water balance of organisms through ,
- deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they are arranged in a geographic osmosis.
region. • Few terrestrial organisms are adapted to high-salinity habitats.

• The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems. SUNLIGHT
• GLOBAL ECOLOGY • Light intensity and quality affect photosynthesis.
- examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the • Water absorbs light, thus in aquatic environments most
biosphere. photosynthesis occurs near the surface.
• In deserts, high light levels increase temperature and can stress
— Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of plants and animals.
species
• Ecologists have long recognized global and regional patterns of distribution of ROCKS AND SOIL
organisms within the biosphere. • Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and thus the
• Biogeography is a good starting point for understanding what limits geographic animals that feed upon them:
distribution of species. – Physical structure
• Ecologists recognize two kinds of factors that determine distribution: – pH
biotic = living factors – Mineral composition
abiotic = nonliving factors / physical environment.
Climate: temperature, water, sunlight, and wind • Water is too deep in the limnetic zone to support rooted aquatic
• Four major abiotic components of climate are temperature, water, sunlight, and plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton graze on the
wind. phytoplankton.
• CLIMATE - the long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area constitute
• Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global, regional, and local level. WETLANDS
• Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the • A wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some
community of organisms underneath a fallen log. of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated
soil.
GLOBAL CLIMATE PATTERNS • Wetlands can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river
• Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar energy and the planet’s banks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas.
movement in space.
• Sunlight intensity plays a major part in determining the Earth’s climate patterns. An oligotrophic lake: nutrient poor
• More heat and light per unit of surface area reach the tropics than the high A eutrophic lake: nutrient rich oxygen rich often oxygen poor
latitudes.
ESTUARIES
MOUNTAINS • An estuary is a transition area between river
• Mountains have a significant effect on: and sea.
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area • Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides.
– Local temperature • Estuaries are nutrient rich and highly productive.
– Rainfall • An abundant supply of food attracts marine invertebrates and
• Rising air releases moisture on the windward side of a peak and creates a “rain fish.
shadow” as it absorbs moisture on the leeward side.
INTERTIDAL ZONES
— Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover 75% of the Earth • An intertidal zone is periodically submerged
• Biomes are the major ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of and exposed by the tides.
land or water. • Intertidal organisms are challenged by variations in temperature
• Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic factors determine the nature of biomes. and salinity and by the mechanical forces of wave action.
• Aquatic biomes account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area. They • Many animals of rocky intertidal environments have structural
can contain fresh water or salt water (marine). adaptations that enable them to attach to the hard substrate.
• Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or layers defined by light penetration,
temperature, and depth. OCEANIC PELAGIC ZONE
• The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water,
• The upper photic zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis while the lower aphotic constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents.
zone receives little light. • This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface.
• The organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones is called the • Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in
benthic zone. The communities of organisms in the benthic zone are collectively called the this biome; also found are free-swimming animals.
benthos.
• Detritus, dead organic matter, falls from the productive surface water and is an CORAL REEFS
important source of food. • Coral reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of
• The most extensive part of the ocean is the abyssal zone with a depth of 2,000 to corals (phylum Cnidaria).
6,000 m. • Corals require a solid substrate for attachment.
• Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals and form a
AQUATIC BIOMES mutualistic relationship that provides the corals with organic
Major aquatic biomes can be characterized by their physical environment, chemical molecules.
environment, geological features, photosynthetic organisms, and heterotrophs.
Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally
oxygen-rich.
• Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter.
• Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in the shallow and well-lighted littoral zone of
the lake.
MARINE BENTHIC ZONE SAVANNA
The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of • Savanna precipitation and temperature are
the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone. seasonal.
• Organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous • Grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cove.r
cold and extremely high water pressure. • Common inhabitants include insects and mammals such as wildebeests,
• Unique assemblages of organisms are associated with deep-sea hydrothermal zebras, lions, and hyenas.
vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges; here the autotrophs are
chemoautotrophic prokaryotes. CHAPARRAL
• Chaparral climate is highly seasonal, with cool
Chemosynthetic Bacteria are the Autotrophs and rainy winters and hot dry summers.
A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community • The chaparral is dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; many
plants are adapted to fire and drought.
— The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by • Animals include amphibians, birds and other reptiles, insects, small mammals
climate and disturbance and browsing mammals.
• Climate is very important in determining the terrestrial biomes in certain
areas. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
• Biome patterns can be modified by disturbance such as a storm, fire, or human • Temperate grasslands are found on many
activity. continents.
• Climate has a great impact on the distribution of organisms. • Winters are cold and dry, while summers are wet and hot.
• This can be illustrated with a climograph, a plot of the temperature and • The dominant plants, grasses and forbs, are adapted to droughts and fire.
precipitation in a region. • Native mammals include large grazers and small burrowers.

General Features of Terrestrial Biomes and the Role of Disturbance Northern Coniferous Forest = Taiga
• Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical or climatic factors and • The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, extends across northern North
for vegetation. America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth.
• Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries. • Winters are cold and long while summers may be hot.
• The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may be wide or narrow. • The conical shape of conifers prevents too much snow
• Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by distribution, precipitation, from accumulating and breaking their branches.
temperature, plants, and animals. • Animals include migratory and resident birds, and large mammals.

• Vertical layering is an important feature of terrestrial biomes, and in a forest Temperate Broadleaf Forest
it might consist of an upper canopy, low-tree layer, shrub understory, ground • Winters are cool, while summers are hot and humid; significant
layer of herbaceous plants, forest floor, and root layer. precipitation falls year round as rain and snow.
• Layering of vegetation in all biomes provides diverse habitats for animals. • A mature temperate broadleaf forest has vertical layers dominated by
• Biomes are dynamic and usually exhibit extensive patchiness. deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in
Australia.
TROPICAL FORESTS • Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest.
• In tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively constant, while in tropical dry • In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter.
forests precipitation is highly seasonal.
• Tropical forests are vertically layered and competition for light is intense. Temperate deciduous Forest
• Tropical forests are home to millions of animal species, including an estimated • Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina
5–30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods.
Tundra
DESERT • Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine
• Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year; tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes.
deserts may be hot or cold • Winters are long and cold while summers are relatively cool; precipitation
• Desert plants are adapted for heat and desiccation tolerance, water storage, varies.
and reduced leaf surface area. • Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration.
• Common desert animals include many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, • Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees,
ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents; many are and lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators.
nocturnal
 ✔

THE HUMAN POPULATION •Fertility Rates

- The number of babies born each year per 1,000 women in a population
Population ecology •Migration
— is the study of populations in relation to environment, including - The movement of individuals between areas.
environmental influences on density and distribution, age structure, and
population size. DECLINING DEATH RATES
• Death rates are declining faster than birth rates
•A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same • Life Expectancy – The average number of years a person is likely to live.
general area.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
Density - the number of individuals per unit area or volume resulted — is a phenomenon and theory which refers to the historical shift from high birth
from immigration and emigration. rates and high infant death rates in societies with minimal technology, education
Dispersion - the pattern of spacing among individuals within the (especially of women) and economic development, to low birth rates and low death
boundaries of the population can be clumped, uniform, or random dispersion rates in societies with advanced technology, education and economic development, as
well as the stages between these two scenarios.
Studying Human Populations • Stages of Demographic Transition
•Demography is the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they • Women and Fertility
change over time.
•Death rates and birth rates are of particular interest to demographers. Stages of the Transition
•Human population is growing fast in 20th century. •Rapid growth leads to • Stage 1 – Preindustrial
environmental problems. • Stage 2 – Transitional
• Stage 3 – Industrial
Country Categories • Stage 4 – Postindustrial

Developed Countries Women and Fertility

• Higher average income • Factors relating to decline in birthrate are:
• Diverse industrial economics Increasing education of women
• Slower population growth Economic independence of women
Don’t need to have as many children
Developing Countries
• Lower average income INFRASTRUCTURE
• Simple and agricultural-based economic — The basic facilities and services that support a community
• Rapid population growth Such as:
• Public water supplies
The Human Population Over Time • Power plants
• Exponential Growth – population growths increased during each decade • Roads
• Schools
Forecasting Population Size
•Age Structure PROBLEMS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH
- The distribution of ages in a specific population at a certain time • Urbanization
•Survivorship
- the percentage of members of a group that are likely to survive A Demographically Diverse World
any given age. • More Developed Countries
Type I: low death rates during early and middle life, then an • Less Developed Countries
increase among older age groups • Least Developed Countries
Type II: the death rate is constant over the organism’s life Few signs of development
span Increasing death rates
Type III: high death rates for the young, then a slower death High birth rates
rate for survivors
Projections to 2050
— World Population at 9 Billion by 2050