Module Eight

Crisis Management

Number of hours: 16 Number of Days: 02

1
 Table of Content

1. The basics of Crisis Management

i. The concept of crisis
ii. The concept of Hazard
iii. The concept of Vulnerability
iv. The concept of Disaster
v. The concept of Risk
vi. The concept of Capacity
vii. The concept of Mitigating Impact
viii. Relation between different concept in a disaster situation
2. Different Crisis situation and how to respond to different Crisis situations
i. Earthquake
ii. Floods
iii. Flash-floods
iv. Land Slide
v. Tsunami
vi. Fire Accidents
vii. Conflict
viii. Mass Casualty
ix. Disease Outbreak
3. Assessment in emergencies
i. Understanding Needs Assessment
ii. Types of Needs Assessment and Assessment Process
iii. Participatory Needs Assessment Tools
4. Roles, Responsibilities and Management of CFMR
5. Coordination mechanisms

2
3
Basics of Disaster Management

Objective : To make participants understand disaster management terminology.

Content:

Definitions
Hazard: A dangerous phenomenon,
substance, human activity or condition that
may cause loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental
damage.
Example: Cyclone, Earthquake, Drought,
etc.

Vulnerability: The characteristics and

circumstances of a community, system or
asset that make it susceptible to the
damaging effects of a hazard.
Example:
1. Houses on coast in cyclone prone area.
2. Villages situated in flood prone area.

Disaster: A serious disruption of the

functioning of a community or a society
involving widespread human, material,
economic or environmental losses and
impacts, which exceeds the ability of the
affected community or society to cope
using its own resources.

Risk: The potential disaster losses, in lives,

health status, livelihoods, assets and
services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time
period.

Capacity: The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a
community, society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals

4
Mitigation Measure: Measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effects of a disaster or
threatening disaster situation.

Relationship between various terms:

Example:

Session plan
Time Topic Methodology
20 min Disaster management Terms Question and answers
and their relationship
Discussion using Power point
animation on flood and fire to
understand hazard,
vulnerability, disaster and
mitigation.

Tools : LCD Projector, Flip charts, Markers, powerpoint presentation.

Key Messages :
Hazard, vulnerability, capacity and risk/disaster are interrelated terms. Elemination of hazard,
reduction in vulnerability and increase in capacity of the communities can reduce the impact or even
can prevent disaster.

Reference Materials:
1. PowerPoint presentation ‘1. Basics of Disaster Management’

5
Different disaster context and comparative study of these contexts to
understand the needs of affected people

Objective : To make participants understand that each disaster context is peculiar in

nature and requires tailor made response to address needs of the affected
people.

Facilitator should choose the relevant disasters from the content below for FMR training based
on the hazard profile and vulnerability of a particular district/state.

Content :

Sub topic: Earthquake

What is Earthquake?
An earthquake is a series of vibrations on the earth’s surface caused by the generation of elastic
(seismic) waves due to sudden rupture within the earth during release of accumulated strain energy.

Tectonics plate’s theory: North America and other continents seem to stay at the same location year
after year. Actually however continents are moving slowly in relative to one another. In the past 200
million years the contents have moved. The theory of tectonic plates accounts for this move.
According to this theory, the continents and ocean floors are part of around 30 plates. Each plate
partly consists of crust (the outermost layer of the earth), partly of mantle (a thick layer of hard
rocks), the plates slide on asthenosphere. The layer of mental is so hard that it floats even though it
is solid. 200 million years ago continents were part of single
land mass called Pangaea. Pangaea broke apart in two parts
viz. Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Intern Lauracia and
Gondwanaland broke apart. One piece of Gondwana land i.e.
India joined Asia. [Play Video]

How energy is stored in rocks and released?

 When plates moves, rock along the fault line bend
until the strength of the rock is exceeded.
 Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an
un-deformed shape
 Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the
fault

What is focus?
The point within Earth where faulting begins is the focus, or
hypocenter

What is epicentre?

6
The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicentre
What are Seismic waves?
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

Types of Seismic Waves:

The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the
earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on
water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

Body waves:
Travelling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by
an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

P or Primary waves
- These are fastest waves.
- Travels through solids, liquids, or gases
- These are Compressional wave which moves
material in the same direction as wave
movement.

S or Secondary waves
- These waves are slower than P waves.
- S waves travels through solids only.
- These are shear waves which moves
material perpendicular to wave movement.

Surface waves

- Surface waves travels just below or along the ground surface.

- These are slower than body waves and as rolling and side to side movement.
- These waves especially damages buildings.

7
Earthquake Hazard zoning of India:
- Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that
suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The state
of Kashmir, Punjab, the western and central Himalayas, the
North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this
zone.
- Zone 4 is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas
liable to MSK VIII. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of
the country (Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In
Maharashtra Patan area(Koyananager) also in zone 4. but
East Delhi is an earthquake prone area.
- Zone 3 is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is
liable to MSK VII. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of
Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone.
- Zone 2 is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone.

Group work:
Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer the
following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group will present their answers.

1. What is the impact of earthquake on the communities? (10 min)

2. What assistance earthquake affected people may need? (10 min)
3. As a First Medical Responder, how will you respond to such situation? (10 min) and 5 min for
each group to present

Do’s and Don’ts

1. If you are in your house then stay there without panicking and drop down under the strong
table. Cover your head with one hand and hold on to the table with the other. DROP-COVER-
HOLD
2. If you are on your bed or in the school then you can use pillow or school bag to cover your
head.
3. If you are outside then stay away from the buildings, trees, electric pole and other such tall
fixtures.
4. If you are in a vehicle then park your vehicle on the side of the road and go to an open place.
5. Never use an elevator during the earthquake. You may use the stairs. But be careful and do
not panic.
6. During the earthquake things may fall or break but don’t be afraid.
7. You must also check yourselves for scratches or wound after the earthquake.

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
10 min What is earthquake? Question and answers,
2 min Tectonic plate theory Video (length: 1.2 min)
20 min Understanding how earthquake PowerPoint presentation

8
 Time Topic Methodology
happens and related terms.
Understanding earthquake
zone map of India
4 min Scenario building for group Video(length: 3.20 min)
work showing impact of disaster
60 min Group work Participants will be divided in
four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given three
questions within their group
and come up with answers.
Each group will get 30 min for
this exercise. Each group will
write their answers on flip
charts for presentation. Five
minutes will be given to each
group for presentation which
will be followed by Q&A.
3 min Do’s and Don’ts Video

Tools : LCD, Videos, Flip charts, Markers

9
Sub Topic: Floods

Facts:
Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in India and cause
huge losses to lives, proper ties, livelihood systems,
infrastructure and public utilities.

India’s high risk and vulnerability is highlighted by the fact that

40 million hectares out of a geographical area of 3290 lakh
hectares is prone to floods.

On an average ever y year, 75 lakh hectares of land is affected,

1600 lives are lost and the damage caused to crops, houses
and public utilities is Rs. 1805 crores due to floods.

The frequency of major floods is more than once in five years.

Floods have also occurred in areas, which were earlier not considered flood prone.

Causes of Flood:
Eighty per cent of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months from June to September. The
rivers bring heavy sediment load from the catchments. These, coupled with inadequate carrying
capacity of the rivers are responsible for causing floods, drainage congestion and erosion of river-
banks.

Cyclones, cyclonic circulations and cloud bursts cause flash floods and lead to huge losses.

The fact that some of the rivers causing damage in India originate in neighbouring countries, adds
another complex dimension to the problem

Group work:
Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer the
following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group will present their answers.

1. What is the impact of flood on the communities? (10 min)

2. What assistance flood affected people may need? (10 min)
3. As a First Medical Responder, how will you respond to such situation? (10 min)
5 min for each group to present

Do’s and Don’ts

1. Try to get above the level of water.
2. If flood water enters inside the house, then be very careful and watch out for any insects or
any dirt from the drains.
3. It is neither safe to play in that water nor to drink it. Play or drinking in that water could lead
to infections or diseases.

10
 4. If any of the electrical switches are wet, you may get a shock.
5. Keep food away form flood water too so that it doesn’t get infected.
6. Be careful about the standing water even after the flood. Check TV or radio to know what
places are safe to go after the floods and where we can get any help.

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
10 min Flood fact sheet and its causes Power point presentation, Q&A
5 min Setting the scene Video film on floods (2.37 min)
60 min Group work Participants will be divided in
four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given three
questions within their group
and come up with answers.
Each group will get 30 min for
this exercise. Each group will
write their answers on flip
charts for presentation. Five
minutes will be given to each
group for presentation which
will be followed by Q&A.
3 min Do’s and Don’ts Video

11
Sub topic: Flash Floods

What is Cloud Burst?

It is highly concentrated rain fall over a small area lasting for a few hours. It can spark off flash floods
and land slides leading to large scale deaths.

Why do cloud burst occur?

They grow from high winds that generate strong convection currents, which form clouds called
‘cumulonimbus clouds’ that bring down rain with great ferocity.

Why are hilly areas more prone to cloudbursts?

Steep hills favour the formation of these clouds.

Case Study
A case study on Leh flash floods will be discussed with the participants to develop their
understanding on the impact of flash floods on communities, needs of the communities affected by
flash floods, challenges in addressing those needs and the services that Red Cross can deliver in such
context.

Session plan :

Time Topic Methodology

30 min Flash Floods Facilitator will narrate case
study on Leh flash flood relief
operation to the participants
which will highlight the
following:
1. Introduction to Leh
flash flood
2. Impact of flash flood on
communities.
3. Challenges faced by
Red Cross
volunteers/humanitaria
n aid workers,
coordination
mechanism, needs of
the affected people,
Red Cross services and
overall impact of
disaster on the
economy of the area.

12
Sub topic: Landslides

What is landslide?
Landslides are downward and outward movement of slope materials such as rock debris and earth,
under the influence of gravity.

Landslide Risk
Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the land area of our
country—an area which exceeds 0.49 million km2. Landslides of different types are frequent in geo
dynamically active domains in the Himalayan and Arakan-Yoma belt of the North-Eastern parts of
the country as well as in the relatively stable domains of the Meghalaya Plateau, Western Ghats and
Nilgiri Hills. In all, 22 states and parts of the Union Territory of Pudducherry and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands are affected by this hazard. The phenomenon of landslides is pronounced during the
monsoon period.

Types of landslide movements

Slides: Slides are characterized by the downward

movement of material along one or more failure surfaces.
They occur parallel to planes of weakness and occasionally
parallel to slope.

Flows: Flows are similar to slides but differ in the fact

that they are characterized by high water content and
move similar to viscous fluid.

Falls: Falls are movements in which masses of rock or

other material fall freely from cliff or steep slope
through the air, and may bounce and roll. Earthquakes
commonly trigger this final type of movement.

13
 Topple: Topple is the end-over-end motion of rock down a
slope. In this, mass rotates forward about some pivot point. If
a toppling mass pivots far enough, a fall may result.

Torrent: In this type of movement there is a sporadic and

sudden channelized discharge of water and debris

Creep: This is the gradual movement of slope materials down the

slope.

Slump: Slump is a complex movement of materials on a

slope. The surface of rupture is concave upward, and the
mass rotates along the concave shear surface.

Causes mass movement

1. Geometrical changes(undercutting, erosion, stream incision, artificial excavation leading to
changes in slope height, length or steepness)
2. Unloading (erosion, incision, artificial excavation)
3. Loading (addition of material, increase in height, etc) including undrained loading.
4. Shocks and vibrations (artificial, earthquakes, etc). Associated processes:
a. Liquefaction
b. Remoulding

14
 c. Fluidization
d. Air lubrication
e. Cohesion-less grain flow
5. Drawdown (lowering of water in lake or reservoir)
6. Changes in water regime (rainfall, increase in weight, pore pressure).

Internal changes in stability conditions

1. Progressive failure (following lateral expansion or fissuring and erosion)
2. Weathering (freeze-thaw, desiccation, reduction of cohesion, removal of cement)
3. Seepage erosion (Solution, piping etc.)

Group work
Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer the
following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group will present their answers.

1. What is the impact of landslides on the communities? (10 min)

2. What assistance landslide affected people may need? (10 min)
3. As a First Medical Responder, how will you respond to such situation? (10 min) and 5 min for
each group to present

Do’s and Don’ts

1. Be very causious and alert during intense cloud burst and continuous rain fall.
2. Make the adequake arrangements for drain and keep the drain clean and free from any kind
of obstructions.
3. Your should be familiar with your neighbourhood. The appearance of buldgeing ground,
tilted trees, cuts in the ground or sloping of the ground in one direction could be signs of
landslide.
4. If landslide occurs then quickly call your municipality, police and fire brigade. And warn you
neighbours quickly and evacuate the area.
5. During landslide, quickly move away from the path of the landslide and run to safer and
higher ground.
6. If escape is not possible, turn into a tight ball and cover your head.
7. After the landslide with the help of local authorities or police try to assist people who might
have trapped or injured in the area. But be careful there may be a danger of another
landslide.

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
10 min Flood fact sheet and its causes Power point presentation, Q&A
60 min Group work Participants will be divided in
four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given three
questions within their group
and come up with answers.
Each group will get 30 min for
this exercise. Each group will

15
Time Topic Methodology
write their answers on flip
charts for presentation. Five
minutes will be given to each
group for presentation which
will be followed by Q&A.
3 min Do’s and Don’ts Video

16
Sub topic: Fire Accidents

What is Fire?
Fire is a chemical reaction.

What does fire produce?

Fire produces:
1. Smoke
2. Toxic gases
3. Heat and light

Fire Triangle

Classification of Fire
 Class A – e.g. paper, wood and cloth
 Class B – Flammable liquid e.g. Petrol, diesel and Kerosene
 Class C – Flammable gases e.g. LPG, Hydrogen and Methane
 Class D – Metal Fires e.g. Aluminium and Magnesium
 Class E – Electrical Fires

Fire extiguishing methods

 Cooling - To lower down temperature.
 Smothering – To cut O2 supply.
 Segregation – To remove flammable material.

What are types of Fire Extinguishers?

 Sand
 Water CO2
 Foam
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Dry Chemical Powder (DCP)
 Halon

17
Group work
Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer the
following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group will present their answers.

1. What is the impact of fire accidents on the communities? (10 min)

2. What assistance fire accidents affected people may need? (10 min)
3. As a First Medical Responder, how will you respond to such situation? (10 min)
5 min for each group to present

Do’s and Don’ts

1. Crawl on the floor and get away form the smoke.
2. Don’t play with fire.
3. Whenever you are going out, Switch off all the lights and take out plus of all the electrical
appliances. Also switch off the regulator of the gas cylinder.
4. If house catches fire, you should be prepared to run out of the escape route calmly. Escape
route should be known to all members of the house.
5. Crackers can also cause fire accidents. Childers should always burn crackers in presence of
their parents.
6. If one ever catches fire, one must remember three things. Stop, drop and roll.
7. In case of fire, immediately contact fire brigade by dialling 101 on phone.

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
20 min Presentation Power point presentation, Q&A
60 min Group work Participants will be divided in
four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given three
questions within their group
and come up with answers.
Each group will get 30 min for
this exercise. Each group will
write their answers on flip
charts for presentation. Five
minutes will be given to each
group for presentation which
will be followed by Q&A.
3 min Do’s and Don’ts Video

18
Sub topic: Tsunami

What is Tsunami?
Tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water,
typically an ocean or a large lake.

What causes tsunami?

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of
underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calving, meteorite impacts and other disturbances
above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.

Reasons for increasing vulnerability to tsunami:

Length of coastline of India including the coastlines of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of
Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea is 7517 km. The coastal population has been
increasing steadily, mostly due to the expanding scope for exploitation of sea resources and
economic activities propelled by increasing urbanization and industrialization in the coastal districts
as well as increasing employment opportunities due to the unprecedented expansion in tourism-
related activities.

E.g. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea mega thrust earthquake that occurred on
Sunday, 26 December 2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia resulted in
tsunami. The earthquake was caused by subduction and triggered a series of
devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing over
230,000 people in fourteen countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30
meters (98 ft) high. It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was
the hardest-hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand.

Group work
Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer the
following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group will present their answers.

1. What is the impact of tsunami on the communities? (10 min)

2. What assistance tsunami affected people may need? (10 min)
3. As a First Medical Responder, how will you respond to such situation? (10 min)
5 min for each group to present

Do’s and Don’ts

1. You must be careful on the beach and move to higher and safer place.
2. People living on the coast must remain alert for the tsunami warning signal.
3. On the TV or radio if you hear a tsunami warning then tell to other people.
4. Every one in the house must know about the safe exists.
5. When earth shakes run far away from the beach.
6. Don’t sit around to watch the tsunami.
7. Return to your house only when it is informed by authorities that it is safe to return.
8. Try to help each other.
9. If there is water in or around your house, then don’t touch or eat that is wet.

19
 Time Topic Methodology
20 min Presentation Power point presentation, Q&A
60 min Group work Participants will be divided in
four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given three
questions within their group
and come up with answers.
Each group will get 30 min for
this exercise. Each group will
write their answers on flip
charts for presentation. Five
minutes will be given to each
group for presentation which
will be followed by Q&A.
3 min Do’s and Don’ts Video

Key messages:
The needs of the affected people vary with the type of disaster. Accordingly the response of the First
medical responders will have to be customised.
Eg. In case of earthquake, FMRs will have to deal with more cases of injuries and
fractures. While in case of flood FMRs will be dealing more with snake bites, skin
infections and WatSan issues.

20
Sub topic: Mass casualties

Objective : To make participants understand the mass casualties scenarios and the
behaviour of FMRs in such situations.

Content :

Understanding mass casualties’ scenario

Trigger for discussion: Name the incidences which may lead to mass casualties?

With the economic development many hazards are being induced in the communities and their
surrounding environment. Also it is raising social pressures, intensifying struggle for the existence
and further development and deepening cracks in social structure due to disagreements and
differences. This has shown a spurt in incidences like road accidents, rail accidents, air crash, and
conflicts (riots, terrorist and Naxal attacks) in last few decades. These incidences many times results
in mass casualties in small geographical areas and needs immediate assistance to preserve lives of
the injured (refer module 2-First Aid) and for the identification of dead bodies (refer module 6-
Managemnt of dead bodies).

Red Cross being non political, non religious, and neutral organisation (refer module 1- Red Cross
Movement) has an important role to play in the incidences of riots, terrorist and Naxal attacks. In
such situations, Red Cross emblem allows FMRs to work as a independent and neutral agency
removing all the barriers in delivery of service from the parties to the conflict.

Challenges

Trigger for discussion: What are the challenges while responding to such situation?

The challenges in these situations can be access to the area or site of incidence due to geography or
security risks. Dissemination of Red Cross services in peace time and strengthening coordination
mechanism with various groups/parties to the parties may facilitate delivery of services in times of
emergencies and will minimise security risk of the volunteers.

Association of any FMR with either party to the conflict may risk his/her as well as lives of other
FMRs.

Precautions

Trigger for discussion: What are the precautions that FMRs should take while responding to
such situation?

All volunteers must carry their identity cards.

All volunteers and their belonging must possess Red Cross emblem for protection and identification.
All volunteers must adhere to the Red Cross Code of Conduct at all times.

21
Avoid association with any political, religious or any group which is party to the conflict.
Always remember that heroism may lead to closure of the operation.

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
30 min Mass casualties Power point presentation and
Q&A

22
 Sub topic: Disease Outbreak

Objective of this session:

After attending this session the CFMR will understand the concept of disease outbreak and
epidemic, the symptoms of different diseases which may cause epidemic, the immediate response
and management (including management of the environmental factors) of the same and precautions
that a CFMR needs to take, working in the epidemic hit areas.

Session Plan
Time Topic Methodology
30 minutes Concept of epidemic, infection Presentation, Q&A and small game
and germ.
50 minutes Different disease groups and Presentation, Q&A and open session
roles of CFMR in addressing
issues around these disease
groups in emergency
40 minutes Understanding the Epidemic Presentation, Q&A, group work and
Control for Volunteers – toolkit presentation

Tools and Resources required

Epidemic Control for Volunteers toolkit (IFRC), Flipcharts, Markers, Card pieces, computer and
projector

Key Messages
 A CFMR is the key person to address the disease outbreak in his/ her community
 CFMR must respond to disease outbreak and epidemic as per the needs of the community
and for each disease the action points are different
 The community tools are suggestive and may change with the situation and needs of the
community
 It is important for the CFMR protect him/ herself fist in a disease outbreak

Content
An epidemic occurs when many people in the community have the same infection at the same time.
More people become infected than in normal situations, exceeding the community’s ability to cope.
Thus, a few things together will make an epidemic:
 An infection
 Affecting the community
 Making many people sick
 At the same time

Question and Answer

Choose a word that describes what comes to mind when you hear the word “epidemic”, what
it is, how it happens and what causes it. Tell this word to your facilitator, who will write it on
the flip chart, and write it down in this box. Then copy all the words suggested by your
colleagues into this box as well.

23
 An infection causes a disease that can be
transmitted from one person to another. It is
caused by different kinds of germs. It can be
transmitted between people in several
different ways.

A germ is a very small organism we cannot see

with our eyes. Germs affect people and
animals and can make them sick by infecting
them with diseases. They travel from one
person, animal or other vector to another
person causing a disease to spread (which may
result in an epidemic).

A vector is an insect or an animal that can

carry germs and transmit them to people. A
vector can be, for example, a mosquito, a fly, a
rat, a bat, a chicken or a monkey.

Immunity is the ability to fight off an infection.

Not all people who get the germs that cause a
particular disease get sick. When this happens,
the person is said to be “immune” to the
disease. Immunity can be acquired either if a
person has already had the disease,
has carried the germs before and
become immune, or has been
vaccinated against the disease.

An epidemic occurs when the number

of people in a community sick with a
particular disease increases. More
people become infected than in
normal situations, exceeding the
community’s ability to cope. In other
words, more people in the community
are getting sick (or dying) than those
who are getting better or recovering
from the disease.
An epidemic occurs for one of several
reasons:
 The germs are stronger than
usual (e.g. new kinds of
germs).
 There are more vectors (e.g.
an increase in mosquitoes
during the rainy season).
 People are less able to resist
the germs (e.g. owing to
malnutrition) and very few
people have immunity.

24
  The surrounding environment has deteriorated (e.g. lack of clean water, poor hygiene, etc.).

Role-play
Your facilitator will choose one of you to play the part of the first person who catches an
infection. This disease can spread from one person to another by shaking hands.

The “infected person” will go around and shake hands with other people. The people
whom he or she shakes hands with will also get “sick”. Do this for a minute, and see how
many people get sick in the room.

This exercise will give you an idea how epidemics spread.

What are the disease groups?

There are many different kinds of diseases that cause epidemics. It is useful to put them in groups.
This will help us to understand the nature of the diseases and to manage their epidemics better.
There are different ways of grouping diseases. We can group them according to what kind of germs
cause them, how they are transmitted, or what kind of symptoms they cause.

In this session, we will group diseases in such a way that it will be easier to understand how to
prevent or manage the epidemics that they cause. Therefore, we have decided to use six different
disease groups.

These are:
1. Diarrhoeas
2. Diseases prevented by vaccines
3. Diseases transmitted by vectors
4. Respiratory infections
5. Highly contagious diseases
6. Avian and pandemic influenza

Details of all the disease are available in the Epidemic control for Volunteers – Manual. In this
session we will talk about the roles of CFMR in a disease/ epidemic hit area –

Role of CFMR in a Diarrhoea epidemic situation:

 Help detect diarrhoea cases in your local community.
 Refer children with severe dehydration to health facilities.
 In a major epidemic, put up posters and distribute leaflets with dos and don’ts.
 Conduct health promotion in the community.
 Show mothers and caregivers how to prepare ORS for dehydrated children.
 Alert the health authorities

Role of CFMR in Diseases prevented by vaccines epidemic situation:

 Monitoring: Ensuring that vaccination campaigns cover all the people who need them.
 Social mobilization: Educating the community in the importance of vaccinations and helping
them catch up with vaccination campaigns. Social mobilization is one of the most valuable
things volunteers can do because volunteers belong to the community and can make a big
difference by encouraging families to get their children vaccinated.

25
  Community-based surveillance: Helping the community identify cases of infection and
knowing how to deal with them.

Role of CFMR in Diseases transmitted by vectors epidemic situation:

 Distribution of malaria mosquito nets and education of the community in their use.
 Health promotion on the prevention and identification of the diseases.
 Surveillance through house-to-house visits.
 Referral of cases to health facilities.
 Clean-up campaigns.
 Mosquito control (spraying) after proper training, with the appropriate protection and under
the supervision of water and sanitation specialists.

Role of CFMR in Respiratory infections epidemic situation:

 Surveillance, by carrying out house-to-house visits so that you can assess living conditions
and detect people with fever, a cough and difficulty breathing.
 Referral of children with respiratory infections to health centres or hospitals.
 Ensuring access to healthy food and, if malnutrition is a problem, making sure that children
receive good nutrition.
 Improving shelter, if possible, to increase fresh air and reduce overcrowding.
 In the recovery stage Health promotion to tell people about:
o Good habits such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing
(respiratory etiquette)
o The symptoms of respiratory infections
o How to manage sick children
o The need to take sick children to a health facility
o Good nutrition
o Giving fluids to sick children
o Improving shelter and reducing overcrowding

Role of CFMR in Highly contagious diseases epidemic situation:

 Talking to community members and leaders to get their help in detecting new cases and
asking for them to be referred to health facilities.
 Health promotion is the most important thing volunteers can do. You can help tell the
community about the epidemic and teach people how to protect themselves, how to care
for relatives who are sick and how to deal with dead bodies.
 Sometimes you can help the community to make strong cleaning products (disinfectants)
and teach them how to use them and distribute them with the necessary cleaning
implements.
 It is unusual for volunteers to help care for patients or deal with the burial of dead bodies,
but if this happens because there is no one else to do it, it should be done under the strict
supervision and instruction of specialists and with the use of full PPE at all times.

Role of CFMR in Avian and pandemic influenza epidemic/ pandemic situation:

 Managing sick people: hospitals and health facilities will have to be able to treat large
numbers of people sick with influenza. If the numbers are too big, some sick people may
need to be treated in the community.
 Reducing the spread of the disease through promotion of good health practices, such as
social distancing and better hygiene habits.

26
  Supporting public infrastructure: When the pandemic occurs, many services such as water
and sanitation, schools and others may be disrupted. Work will need to be done to keep
such services in operation.
 Lastly, when health facilities are flooded with many people sick with influenza, they will have
very little room for people suffering from other diseases. Instead, the care of those people
will have to be managed either through other health services or in the community.

How to use the Epidemic Control for Volunteers toolkit

The toolkit consists of three major components:

1. Disease tools: describe the diseases that can
cause epidemics.
2. Action tools: describe actions that need to
be taken in epidemics.
3. Community message tools: provide
important messages to tell your community. You will
use them in your health promotion activities to
deliver messages to the community about what they
should and should not do to protect themselves.

Disease Tool: The disease tools give basic

information on diseases that cause epidemics. Each
disease tool tells us about a different disease that
can cause an epidemic. Each sheet has the name of
the disease, how it is transmitted and a few points
about prevention and control of an epidemic. On the
back of each sheet are some important questions we
will need to ask when we are doing an assessment of
an

epidemic caused by this disease. Each sheet also

has a sequence of numbers on the front. This is to
tell us what action tools to use when dealing with
an epidemic of this disease. When we use this
sequence, as described above, we will be able to
pick the action tools that are suitable for a specific
kind of epidemic. By putting all this information
together, we will have a little working guide to
follow for the specific epidemic we are dealing
with.

Action tools: The action tools describe actions that

need to be taken when dealing with epidemics.
Each action tool tells us about one specific action
that needs to be taken to help control an epidemic
of a certain disease. Some of these actions are
specific to one kind of disease, while others will
need to be done in several or all kinds of
epidemics. This is one of the main reasons they
have been produced on separate sheets, so that

27
we can use the action tools for whatever disease we are dealing with. The action tools have numbers
on them so we can find them easily.
In order to determine what actions need to be taken for a specific epidemic, look at the series of
numbers on the front of the disease tools.

Community message tools: The community message tools have drawings and a message on each of
them. Each one contains a different message that relates to a specific disease. You will need to
deliver these messages to people in your
community so that they are more aware of the
epidemic they are dealing with. These sheets will
help you to remember what is the most
important thing to tell people in your community
about the epidemic. For example, use them in
your health promotion activities to tell others
what they should and should not do in order to
protect themselves from the disease. The
community message tools have numbers on
them so that you can find them easily. Look again
at the action tools. You will find numbers on the
front that will tell you which community message
tools to use.

It is important to remember that community

messages are always changing and sometimes
different communities need different messages
to deal with epidemics. The printed sheets in the
toolkit are only examples of the various types of
messages that are important to share with your
community. Look and use the many images on
the Drawing for Health DVD to make more
messages for your community. Be creative and
teach others!

You can create your own community message tools using the illustrations included on the CD that
comes with this manual. Choose the illustration you need and print it with the appropriate message.
Make copies and use them in your community to spread important messages.

Group Work:
Place a copy of the ECV module in each table and give a disease component to each
table and instruct them to find out the disease tool, the action tools and the
community messaging tools in relation to the disease.
After the group work each group will get 3 – 5 minutes to present their findings and
tools for different levels in front of the entire group and take feedback.

Reference Material –
2. PowerPoint Presentation ‘2. Crisis Management all disasters’
a. PowerPoint Presentation ‘2a. EQ Dos and Don’ts’
b. PowerPoint Presentation ‘2b. What is earthquake’

28
c. Movie clip ‘2c. The earth’s plates’
d. Movie Clip ‘2d. Earthquake video’
i. Movie Clip ‘2d. English Earthquake Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2d. Hindi Earthquake Dos and Don’ts video’
e. Movie Clip 2f. Ganga floods towns of Uttarakhand’
i. Movie Clip ‘2e. English floods Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2e. Hindi floods Dos and Don’ts video’
f. PDF Case Study ‘2f. Case study Leh flash floods’
g. PowerPoint Presentation ‘2g. Landslide’
i. Movie Clip ‘2g. English landslide Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2g. Hindi landslide Dos and Don’ts video’
h. Tsunami
i. Movie Clip ‘2h. English Tsunami Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2h. Hindi Tsunami Dos and Don’ts video’
i. Cyclone
i. Movie Clip ‘2i. English Cyclone Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2i. Hindi Cyclone Dos and Don’ts video’
j. Fire Accident
i. Movie Clip ‘2j. English Fire Dos and Don’ts video’
ii. Movie Clip ‘2j. Hindi Fire Dos and Don’ts video’
k. PowerPoint Presentation ‘2k. Mass Casualties’

29
Assessment in Emergencies

Objectives :
[What the participants should understand, know or be able to do by the end of the session]
By the end of the session the participants will:
 Understand the importance of Emergency Needs Assessment
 Be clear on the types of assessments and assessment process
 Understand how to use participatory assessment tools

Session Plan :
1. Understanding Needs Assessment: 60 min
 What Is Needs Assessment?
 When to Do Needs Assessment?
 Planning for Needs Assessment?
2. Types of Needs Assessment and Assessment Process: 60 min
 Types of Assessments
 Priority sectors for disaster needs assessment
 Needs Assessment Cycle and Process

3. Assessment Information Collection Methods & Tools: 120 min

 Observations
 Interviews
 Assessment Formats
 Assessment Exercise

Methods
 Presentation
 Group Exercise

Session Duration
4 Hours

Reference Materials/Tools
[Any materials for distributing to the group during the session or to be added to a course reading
list]

Materials to be distributed to participants:

 Presentation

30
  Needs Assessment Formats & Template
 IFRC Guidelines for assessment in emergencies

Key Messages
 Assessment is a vital element of program planning process
 The aim of an assessment is to understand a situation in order to identify the
problem(s), the source of the problem(s) and the consequences of the problem(s)
 The purpose of an assessment is not to identify an intervention but to find out whether
an intervention is needed or not
 There are three types of assessment: rapid assessment, detailed assessment and
continual assessment

Session description/Content
[As much detail as you have on the nature of the session e.g. points to be discussed in plenary,
description of a group exercise, presentation outline etc.] See attached

31
 Understand Needs Assessment

Duration: 60 minutes

Purpose: To ensure that participants are familiar with the terms and concepts of
needs assessment

Learning Participants recognize the importance of needs assessment

Objectives: Participants are able to describe when to do needs assessment
Participants are able to describe the planning elements of a needs
assessment

Suggested Activity 1: What Is Needs Assessment (20 min)

Activities: Activity 2: When to Do Needs Assessment? (20 min)
Activity 3: Planning elements of needs assessment? (20 min)

Suggested Individual reflection, brainstorming, question & answer, paired

Methods: discussion, plenary discussion, power point presentation

Material: Flipcharts, markers, white boards, multimedia, strip cards

Before starting the session on Needs Assessment the facilitator has to inform the FMR participants
that generally speaking the FM Responder will be responding to emergency situations but they may
also be asked to assess situations in the ground as they have access or have already been to the
disaster affected sites. Since they may already have a better knowledge of the area they may be
requested to assist the Needs Assessment teams to support them with information collection. Hence
the basic knowledge on Needs Assessment has been included in this course. It is also a good skill to
have when responding to emergencies.

What is ‘Needs Assessment’? (20 min)

• Check with participants if any of them have any experience of doing needs assessment
• If someone has any experience, please ask them to explain how it helped them in
responding
• If there is no experience in the room, then let participants know that on a daily basis we all
do needs assessment when we go for our daily or weekly grocery shopping. We assess what
is still in the fridge or at home and then what we need and then go to the market and buy. (5
min)
• Ask participants to define in their own words what they mean by needs assessment. Write
the key words in a flip chart. (5 min)

32
 • Then show or explain them the below 3 points (10 min)

• Needs Assessment (NA) is an information-gathering and decision-making process

• It should be undertaken in any situation in which the life or well being of persons is being
threatened by a disaster event
• It enables immediate needs to be identified and analyzed, and thereby facilitates an
appropriate response

Purpose of Needs Assessment (20 min)

• Ask participants why and when do we have to do needs assessment
• The answer to this is hidden in the previous explanation.
• Then show and explain the below points
• NA is undertaken to produce an appropriate and timely assessment report in order to mount
an effective and efficient response
• It is necessary in order to save lives, minimize injury, damage and loss, and prevent
escalation and secondary hazards.

What should it cover?

• Situation (damage) Assessment: a description of what has happened;
• Needs Assessment: a statement of what needs to be done.

Key Questions
• Is it an emergency or not?
• What type of emergency is it?
• Who needs help?
• What is their situation now?
• What resources do they have?
• What resources do they need?

Principles of Needs Assessment

• The NA system should specify how data is to be collected, analyzed and presented
• Standard indicators, planning factors and formulae should be provided
• Reporting processes should be standard across the country
• NA is not just information collection
• Situations do not remain static
• NA may consume resources better used for other purposes
• Hard to obtain accurate information in the immediate post-disaster period
• NA may raise unrealistic expectations
• The need for quick results usually has to be traded off against the need for accuracy

Planning elements for Needs Assessment (20 Min)

Mini Exercise: Make small cut outs of the below 5 planning elements of a needs assessment for 4
groups and ask them to place them in logical order. Once it is done ask each table to view the others.
(10 min)

33
Then show the below steps and explain the planning required. (10 min)

2. First set objectives and the scope of the assessment

1. Geographical Areas
2. Sectors & Sub sectors
3. Target groups
4. Links to decision making
3. Identify what is the information need and what questions you will use to answer these
information needs?
1. Information Requirement
2. Sources & Methods
3. End product outlines
4. Determine where you will go to collect information.
1. Target Group
2. Site selection
5. What tool you will use to collect the data
1. Checklists and questionnaires design
2. Pilot test and training
3. Data entry tool
6. Logistics plan for doing the assessment.
1. Field visit plan
2. Logistics and Security SoPs
3. Admin & budget

34
 Types of Needs Assessment and the Assessment Process

Duration: 60 minutes

Purpose: To familiarize participants with the different types of needs

assessments and the assessment process

Learning Participants are able to describe the 3 different types of needs

Objectives: assessment
Participants are able to describe the priority sectors for needs
assessment
Participants are able to describe the phases involved in the needs
assessment process

Suggested Activity 1: Types of needs assessment and their focus (15 min)
Activities: Activity 2: Priority sectors for disaster needs assessment (15 min)
Activity 3: Needs Assessment Cycle and Process (30 min)

Suggested Brainstorm, group exercise, power point presentation

Methods:

Material: Flipchart, audio visual

Types of needs assessment and their focus (15 min)

Rapid assessment
Undertaken after a major upheaval, such as an earthquake or sudden population displacement, a
rapid assessment gathers information on the needs and existing capacities of the affected
population, possible areas of intervention and resource requirements. A
rapid assessment normally takes one week or less. It should be followed by a detailed assessment.

Detailed assessment
A detailed assessment may be carried out for any of the following reasons:
• a rapid assessment has been done, and more detailed information is required to
enable recommendations to be made;
• the organisation is considering starting operations in a new area and requires
detailed information to inform the decision;
• the organisation suspects that the situation is changing gradually (e.g. a slowly
developing drought) and needs more information.
Detailed assessments generally take about one month but could take more or less time depending
on the size of the area, the complexity of the issues and the resources available.

35
Continual assessment
Continual assessment takes place when the organisation has carried out a detailed assessment and
is now operational in an area. It involves regularly updating information on the situation and seeking
relevant feedback from the beneficiaries in order to facilitate decision-making on long-term
activities. Effective continual assessment helps to spot when changes occur and, when they do, to
initiate a rapid or detailed assessment. Information gathered during continual assessment is used as
secondary information during rapid and detailed assessments.

RAPID DETAILED CONTINUAL

Time One week One month Ongoing

Info Access Limited Visits Full access

Info Source Secondary Population Local

Assumptions High Low Medium

Team Type Generalist Specialist +Local

Differences between the three types of assessment

All assessments are based on the same principle (the identification of vulnerabilities and capacities)
and follow the same process (observation, interviews and collection of information). However, the
way in which information is collected depends upon the type
of assessment.
• Number of locations visited. Fewer sites are visited in a rapid assessment than in a detailed
assessment, so it is important to choose the sites carefully.
• Number of people interviewed. Fewer people are interviewed in a rapid assessment than in
a detailed assessment; within this constraint, it is crucial to consult as broad a variety of
people as possible.
• Assumptions. In a rapid assessment, time in the field is short. In some cases, therefore, you
will have to rely on assumptions. Assumptions are based on previous experience of similar
emergencies and knowledge of the affected area. In a detailed or continual assessment,
there is more time in the field and less need to rely on assumptions.
• Secondary information. In a rapid
assessment, there is less time to collect first-
hand information, so more emphasis is placed
on secondary information.

Priority Sectors for assessment (15 min)

• Ask each group to discuss and come out with

at least 5 priority sectors for disaster needs
assessment. (5 min)
• Then show and explain the figure below (10
min)

36
Needs Assessment Cycle (15 min)

• Ask Participants to identify the main steps of Project Management Cycle

• Comment that assessment and analysis is an essential part before any plan or
implementation.
• Then compare the PM Cycle to a typical Disaster Response Cycle. There are common
elements.
• Tell participants that this session focuses on Assessment and the process involved in doing
assessments.
• Show the diagram with the 5 steps of assessment cycle

37
Needs Assessment Process (15 min)

Assessment should be looked at from two perspectives: the process and the content (see Figure 4).
The assessment process is the way in which an assessment is conducted.
It sets out the various steps or methods that should be applied in order to help the quality of the
work and the outcome.

There are three major phases of an assessment process:

• Before the field visit;
• During the field visit;
• After the field visit.
Although the assessment per se is done in the field, the work carried out before and after the field
visit is of equal importance and will have a clear impact on the overall quality of the assessment.
Figure 5 illustrates the assessment process. Bear in mind that certain activities do not necessarily
progress in a linear fashion. “Analysis” and “secondary information review”, for example, should be
done continuously throughout the process.

38
Another way of looking at the assessment process is the above 7 steps. As shown above there should
be good documentation of the findings of the needs as well as the response process options so that
while putting the Plan of Action (PoA) there is good justification why certain response options were
prioritised over others. The blue sky thinking method is utilised in the 4th step of the process in order
to cover as many response options as possible and the reality check is done in order to determine
which interventions are within the capacity of the response agency and which are feasible.

Considering the process and content of a typical needs assessment, below are some of the activities
that will be needed to carried out for needs assessment

1. Review existing information

2. Coordinate with others
3. Identify stakeholders and vulnerable groups
4. Decide what information to collect
5. Prepare for fieldwork
6. Select the areas to visit
7. Choose tools and methods
8. Gather the information
9. Analyse the information
10. Consolidate and validate the findings
11. Conclude and make recommendations

Exercise: The above 11 activities can be cut into individual pieces and given to each group. Each
group has to arrange the activities into a logical order for them to understand the flow of activities.
Time: 5 min.

39
 Assessment Information Collection Methods & Tools

Duration: 120 minutes

Purpose: To increase participant’s knowledge and skills in information collection

methods and assessment tools.

Learning Participants are familiar with different approaches and methods to collect
Objectives: information
Participants are able to identify typical assistance needs for different
hazards

Suggested Activity 1: familiarisation with different approaches and methods to

Activities: collect information and tools (45 min)
Activity 2: Exercise to identify typical assistance needs for different
hazards (85 min)

Suggested Power Point Presentation, Group Work

Methods:

Material: Case study, Audio Visual

How to collect information: 20 min

Information is collected through observation and interviews. It can also be done through sampling
and secondary sources.

Observation
Observation is often underrated as an information source. An enormous amount of information can
be gathered very quickly through observation. Crucially, it gives a “feel” for the situation – sounds,
smells and visual impressions. This is, after all, the point of going to the field. Guiding principles of
observation include:

• Start the assessment with a walk around the location. During the assessment take the
opportunity to observe as much as you can. If you are discussing water, ask to see the water
source. If people describe a foodstuff that you do not know, ask to see (and taste) it. You can
learn a lot by spending time in communal meeting places (cafés, tea shops, etc.). Look
around and talk to people.
• Observation is useful for cross-checking information. For example, you are told that all the
livestock has been lost in the recent drought. Soon afterwards you see a large herd of goats.
This does not necessarily contradict what you have been told – many explanations are

40
 possible – but it does provide the basis for the next line of questioning: “Who do these
animals belong to?”, “How did they survive the drought?”, and so on.
• Walking through the area with local people facilitates discussion. The atmosphere is
informal, and questions are prompted by the things you see. This is more natural than
referring to a prepared checklist. Very importantly, walking and observing are excellent ways
to come upon unexpected information.
• Observation is the most straightforward approach to assessing infrastructure and logistics.
Driving along a road is a sure way of finding out if it is passable (but be careful in conflict
areas: both landmines and explosive remnants of war may represent security problems).
• Ultimately, one piece of advice covers all situations: Be curious!

On-Site Visual Inspection Tasks

• Observe people’s physical condition and activities; ask questions
• Visit homes or shelters, water sources, clinics, distribution centres
• Observe children, the elderly and the sick
• Observe the daily lives of women (use women as interviewers)
• Observe the services, vehicles, sanitation systems
• Make sketches, take photographs or use videos. Photos, video footage and even hand
sketches are extremely useful in communicating to others the reality of the situation.

Interviews
Interviews are the backbone of a field assessment. Each piece of information sought should be
looked at from three perspectives:
• Who is (are) the best person(s) to talk to regarding this particular information?
• Is it better to talk to the person(s) individually or in a group?
• Which type and technique of interview should be used?

Choose whom to talk to.

Key informants are people who have specific knowledge about certain aspects of the community.
They are useful sources of information in rapid onset emergencies where time is limited. Typical
examples include farmers, health workers, government officials, members of women’s groups,
children and young people, local NGO staff, and traders. But anyone who has an interesting
perspective and is able to express it well can be included. Look out for such people throughout the
assessment. Key informant interviews are based on the specific knowledge and experience of the
informant. If the interviewee is a doctor, the discussion will probably focus on health issues.
However, keep in mind that:
• The fact that the informant is a doctor (or an engineer or any other profession) does not
mean that he or she is knowledgeable about all aspects of a topic; a hospital surgeon may
know little about primary health care issues in rural areas.
• Professional people, because of their social position and contacts with other professional
people, may have a good knowledge of the political and social environment and may be able
to provide information that goes beyond their field of work.

You will need to use your judgement in order to decide what sort of information the informant can
usefully provide. Start the interview with general topics, and then move on to specific areas of
interest.

Decide whether to conduct group or individual interviews.

Interviews may be conducted with groups or individuals.

41
Group interviews allow interaction between people. By encouraging an atmosphere of constructive
debate, you can cross-check information and probe issues. For example, one person may say that
the most serious problems relate to the quality of health services, but others may not agree. A
debate, even if it is inconclusive, can give you an impression of the diversity of problems that affect
the community. Group interviews are useful for two purposes:
• To gather information about a wide range of topics. Assemble a group of people with
different backgrounds who, together, can provide a overview of the situation.
• To gain a deeper understanding of particular issues (cash-crops harvest results,
functioning of health services for livestock, etc.). In this case, a group of people with
similar backgrounds is useful. This type of interview is called a “focus group interview”.

When carrying out group interviews, be aware that:

• Some people are naturally more outgoing than others.
• Some people are confident within a group because of their status in local society.
Conversely, people from marginalized groups may be reluctant to speak openly,
particularly if their views are controversial.

Encourage a relaxed, informal atmosphere; seek the opinions of those who are reluctant to speak.
“Manage” the more confident people so that they do not dominate the discussion.

Individual interviews are useful for three purposes:

• To obtain technical information from people representing specific professions, such as
health workers or employees of the water board.
• To gain specific knowledge about a household’s livelihoods.
• To delve into sensitive issues that are not appropriate for group discussion (e.g. sexual abuse
among refugee populations).
• To save time, when there is not enough time to organize a group interview.

Select the type of interview to conduct.

An interview can be semi-structured (checklist), structured (questionnaire) and unstructured (no
points prepared in advance). Semi-structured interviews are advised as they are the best way to get
good information. With the help of the checklist, you will be able to cover all the points that you
want to raise, while remaining flexible to allow the discussion to take a different direction if need be.

Semi-structured interview
A semi-structured interview is one in which the interviewer selects a few key topics to be addressed
and remains open to other possibly relevant topics arising in the course of the discussion.

Structured interviews
Structured interviews or questionnaires are not included in these guidelines because they are not
very useful in general assessments. Situations are often highly uncertain, and a flexible process of
assessment is required. Questionnaires are based on a fixed set of questions, defined before
fieldwork begins. Moreover:
• Using questionnaires to examine complex and/or sensitive information can produce
misleading information.
• The design of a good questionnaire demands technical expertise, experience and a good
understanding of the context.

Questionnaires can supplement information obtained through semi-structured interviews and

observation (particularly in technical fields such as water and sanitation). If a questionnaire is to be

42
used, it should be designed by a specialist in the relevant sector who has a good understanding of
the specific emergency context.

Choose an appropriate interview technique.

Most interviews (both group and individual) are based on the vulnerability and capacity framework.
Your aim is to understand the problems that people face and the ways in which they cope with
them. Some problems are easy to identify, for example houses destroyed by floods; for others, such
as the abuse of civilians during war, you may need to dig deeper. Even seemingly straightforward
issues may turn out to be more complicated when examined closely.

When conducting a semi-structured interview, try to make the interviewee(s) feel relaxed. Refer to
your checklist and look out for new information. Raise topics in different ways in order to crosscheck
the information you receive.

Start with a general conversation about life in the area, things you see around you, etc. Do not lead
straight into direct questions about problems because:
• This sets the wrong tone. You want to hear about positive as well as negative aspects of life
in the community.
• Concentrating on problems gives the impression that your objective is to find out “what the
Red Cross can give”. This encourages people to present “shopping lists” of material
requirements. People will inevitably bring up problems without being prompted.

When this happens, encourage them to explain their concerns and how they deal with them. It is
normal for people to be reluctant or to find it difficult to explain every aspect of their coping
strategies because:
• Some components are so integrated into their lifestyles that they do not see them as specific
“strategies”. For example, sharing resources between households.
• Individual components of their coping strategies may contribute very little and people do
not think it important to discuss them. When all the “small” components are added
together, however, they often make a significant contribution to livelihoods.
• Activities may be illegal, for example small-scale trading without a licence or scrap metal
collection involving unexploded ordnance, and people are reluctant to divulge details to
strangers. Nor are they likely to go into detail about activities such as prostitution, theft and
sale of illicit items.
• People may deliberately withhold information in order to make their situation seem worse
than it actually is in the hope that this will encourage the Red Cross to help them.

The above constraints emphasize the need for a subtle approach. Direct questions are not
appropriate. Instead, probe the issues carefully by asking questions in different ways and looking for
complementarities and contradictions in the information you receive. Be sensitive; if people are
uncomfortable with your questions, do not insist.

Sampling
Sampling is a method by which a generalisation about an entire population is made based on the
characteristics of a subset (or sample) of the population. Attributes or proportions of a population
are estimated through interviews or surveys with a representative section or sample of the
population. Information collected through sampling methods includes written questionnaires and
interviews.
There are two types of sampling techniques: probability and non-probability. Probability sampling is
based on rigorous statistical methods. It is expensive and time-consuming to implement and
requires special training to be used correctly. Non-probability methods are commonly used and rely

43
on interviews with those who are most accessible (convenience sampling) or with individuals that
are believed to be representative of the population of interest (purposive sampling).

Relying on secondary sources

National Societies will sometimes depend on government agencies, non-governmental organisations
or community groups for their information. When relying on information provided by another
organisation, it is important to carefully consider its accuracy and whether information from one
source contradicts information from another. Especially, when using secondary data, check for
consistency between multiple sources of similar data if possible. When evaluating assessment
information, consider:
• Who did the assessment? What experience/expertise do they have in this area?
• How much time did the assessment team spend on-site? Did they visit the site?
• Whom did the assessment team interview? What important beneficiary groups did they fail
to consider?
• If the assessment report contains statistical data, are they primary or secondary data? If they
are secondary data, what is the original source? Does the team have the expertise to judge
the validity of statistical information? If not, which experts should they consult?
• What is the possibility of a segment of the population (e.g. an ethnic, class, national,
geographic, religious, or vulnerable group) being inadequately assessed?
• Considering the source of information, what biases may be reflected in the assessment
findings?
• Does the NGO or government have an interest in presenting biased information?
• What are the government’s interests in presenting biased information? Does the
government’s information appear misleading?

Minimising assessment bias

All data collection methods are subject to the problem of bias. Bias leads to misinterpretation of
answers or mistaken analysis that draws conclusions from information which is not representative of
the affected population. In the worst cases, programs based on biased information have caused
harm to the populations they were meant to help and negatively affected agencies' reputations. Bias
can result from leading questions (those which propose an answer), poorly worded or poorly
understood questions, poor sampling techniques, or the particular bias of the assessors or
reviewers. Specific forms of bias include:
Spatial bias
Issues of comfort and ease for the assessors determine the assessment site. Rather than travel into
an area, the assessors conduct a "windshield" survey, never leaving the comfort or straying far from
their truck.
Project bias
The assessor is drawn toward sites where contacts and information are readily available and may
have been assessed before by many others.
Person bias
Key informants tend to be those who are in a high position and have the ability to communicate in a
language known to the assessor. They may or may not be conscientious, insightful or respected by
those they are purporting to represent.
Season bias
Assessments are conducted during periods of pleasant weather or areas cut off by bad weather go
un-assessed. Thus, many typical problems go unnoticed.
Mandate or specialty bias
The specialty or mandate of the assessor blinds them to needs outside of his/her specialty.
For example, a shelter specialist may primarily only assess shelter needs, neglecting nutrition and
water needs.

44
Political bias
Informants present information that is skewed toward their political agenda. Assessors look for
information that fits their political or personal agenda.
Cultural bias
Incorrect assumptions are made based on one’s own cultural norms. Assessors do not understand
the cultural practices of the affected populations.
Class/ethnic bias
Needs and resources of different classes of people or different ethnic groups are not included in the
assessment. Local assessors may have this ethnic bias, or the key informants may only represent one
social class or ethnic group.
Interviewer or investigator
Assessors may have a tendency to concentrate on information that confirms preconceived notions
and hypotheses, causing them to seek consistency too early and overlook evidence inconsistent with
earlier findings. Assessors may also exhibit partiality to the opinions of elite key informants.
Key informant bias
Biases of key informants are carried into assessment results.
Gender bias
Assessors only speak to men or male interviewers survey women, or vice versa.
Time of day or schedule
The assessment is conducted at a time of day when certain segments of the population may be over-
or under represented
Sampling bias
Respondents are not representative of the population.

Being aware of different types of bias is the first step in minimising its impact on your assessment.

Triangulation
Triangulation is one method for minimising bias that requires the assessors to seek out, compare
and correlate several sources of information. Triangulation is based on the principle that data must
be obtained from at least two other known points (see picture below). Information for emergency
assessments must come from different sources to provide a relatively accurate assessment of the
situation.

Principle of Triangulation
Triangulation may be achieved through the use of different assessment techniques or approaches or
by using different indicators of the same phenomenon and consulting different sources. The key to
using different approaches is to find dissimilar methods or techniques that will not be subject to the
same type of bias. Do not rely on a single method or a single measure of a problem. Triangulation
can be applied to almost all aspects of the preparation and implementation of an emergency
assessment.

Assessment tools: 25 min (5 min on theory; 10 min on mini exercise; 10 min on formats
discussions)

Checklists, gap-identification tables, and questionnaires are assessment tools that can assist in
conducting systematic emergency situation and needs assessments.

Checklists
Checklists are perhaps the easiest and most complete tools for a rapid initial assessment. A checklist
is an abbreviated list that prompts assessors to remember key points and ask certain questions; they

45
can also be useful for documenting responses. (For examples of checklists, see attached “Rapid
Needs Assessment Checklist” or the attached Sphere Sample Checklist for Initial Health Assessment)

Gap identification charts

Gap identification charts, illustrated in the following diagram, are used to organise information and
highlight “gaps” between needs and resources in an emergency response.

The emergency response needs are listed in the first column and the various emergencies response
actors, including local populations, are listed in the top row. The table is completed by identifying
the resources provided by the affected population and by governments and organisations
responding to the emergency. Using this chart for analysis will help emergency responders ensure
that emergency needs are met most efficiently and effectively.

Questionnaires
When conducting individual key informant or group interviews, the assessor may want to develop or
use questionnaires. A questionnaire is simply a list of questions for an individual or group of people
to answer orally or in writing. The recorded results are later tabulated and analysed. (See attached,
“Sample Questions for a Survey of Family Needs.”)

Assessment Formats
Different agencies utilise different ways of collecting and capturing information collected during an
assessment process. A number of agencies including the Red Cross utilises formats or templates
rapid assessments as well as detailed assessments. Some of the sample formats are attached.

Other Participatory Tools

There are many participatory tools that are commonly used by agencies when doing detailed and
long term assessments. Some of the names of these tools are:
• Daily calendar
• Historical timeline
• Proportional piling
• Seasonal calendar
• Pair-wise ranking
• Stakeholder analysis
• Why-why tree
Participants who are interested in more information about these tools should look up the Needs
Assessment Guide of the Red Cross.

46
Mini Exercise: Split the group into 5 groups
• General Information
• WASH
• Food
• Health
• Shelter
Ask each group to come up with top 5 questions that they would ask in each of the sectors they are
given. After listening to the questions then share with the groups the assessment formats and have a
discussion on the variety of questions that are there on the 24hr and 72hr formats.

Rapid Needs Assessment Checklist

Number of affected people requiring assistance – This figure will determine all other estimates and
calculations, and therefore, needs to be established as precisely as possible.

Water needs. Ideally each person should be provided with 15 litres of potable water per day to
cover drinking, cooking and personal hygiene needs. For hospitals the target is 100 litres per person
per day for patients and staff. There should be one water point per 250 people and the maximum
distance from any shelter to the nearest water point should be 500 metres. Each family should have
two water collecting vessels of 10-20 litres, plus water storage vessels of 20 litres.

Shelter needs. If using tents, calculate one tent for 4-6 people—ideally of the same family. Decide
whether you need summer or winter tents. Do they have to be waterproofed or coated? Can locally
made emergency shelter be used instead? Is an extra roof for protection against heat or rain
needed? Should a canvas floor be included? Are plastic sheets needed for roofing? If using public
buildings, calculate 3.5 m2 of floor space for every person. Is shelter heating planned? If yes, with
kerosene or diesel stoves?

Nutritional needs. A food ration ideally should provide a minimum of 2,100 kilocalories per person
per day. The survival energy level for an adult is a minimum of 1,000 kilocalories per day. For
supplementary feedings add what is needed to reach the total of 2,100 kilocalories per day, as well
as special food to treat severely malnourished individuals. Monitor malnutrition using international
standards (e.g. Sphere minimum standards) and methods such as weight-for-height, etc.

Sanitation needs – Maximum of 20 people per toilet. Use of toilets is arranged by household and/or
segregated by sex. Toilets should be no more than 50 metres from dwellings or no more than a one
minute walk. Toilets should be at least 30 metres away from any groundwater sources and the
bottom of the latrine should be at least 1.5 metres above the water table. Containers or a system
must exist for disposing of solid waste. One 100-litre refuse container should be available per 10
families where domestic refuse is not buried on site. Identify the need and methods for vector
control (flies, rats, etc.)

Fuel needs. Access of people to firewood, coal or other fuel is often overlooked in needs
assessments. There is no general rule for calculating the needs, since climate, traditions and quality
of fuel vary considerably. Assessments should specify what type of fuel is appropriate, where to get
it, how to transport and distribute it and an estimate of the need.

Health care needs. There should be approximately one small clinic per 10,000-35,000 people and
there should be one referral hospital facility with surgical capacity for every 250,000-500,000
people. Mortality and morbidity should be monitored using generally accepted international
standards and methods (e.g. Sphere minimum standards).

47
Sample Checklist for Initial Health Assessment
Sphere Project, adapted from CDC, 1992, "Famine-Affected, Refugee, and Displaced Populations:
Recommendations for Public Health Issues."

Preparation
 Obtain available information on the disaster-affected population and resources from host
country ministries and organisations.
 Obtain available maps or aerial photographs.
 Obtain demographic and health data from international organisations.
Field assessment
 Determine the total disaster-affected population and proportion of children <5 years old.
 Determine the age and sex breakdown of population.
 Identify groups at increased risk.
 Determine the average household size and estimates of female- and child-headed
households.
Health information
 Identify primary health problems in country of origin if refugees are involved.
 Identify primary health problems in the disaster-affected area if no refugees are involved.
 Identify previous sources of health care.
 Ascertain important health beliefs, traditions and practices.
 Determine the existing social structure and the psycho-social dimensions of the situation.
 Determine the strengths and coverage of local public health programmes in people’s country
of origin.
Nutritional status
 Determine the prevalence of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) in population <5 years of
age.
 Ascertain prior nutritional status.
 Determine hierarchical food allocation practices as they affect the nutritional status of
women and different social and age groups.
 Determine the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in the population <5 years of age.
Mortality rates
 Calculate the overall mortality rate (crude mortality rate - CRM).
 Calculate the under-5 mortality rate (age specific mortality rate for children under five years
old).
 Calculate cause-specific mortality rates.
Morbidity
Determine age and sex-specific incidence rates of major health problems and diseases that have
public health importance, including sexual violence/rape.

Environmental conditions
 Determine climatic conditions; identify geographic features; ascertain local disease
epidemiology; assess access to affected population; assess the level of insecurity and
violence.
 Assess local, regional and national food supplies (quantity, quality, types), distribution
systems, coordination and services of existing organisations, logistics of food transport and
storage, feeding programmes and access to local supplies.
 Assess existing shelters and availability of local materials for shelter, access, amount of land
and building sites, topography and drainage, blankets, clothing, domestic utensils, fuel,
livestock, money.
 Identify and assess water sources, quantity, quality, transport and storage.

48
  Assess sanitation including excreta practices, soap, vectors and rats, burial sites.

Resources available
Identify and assess local health services including: access to facilities, health personnel, interpreters,
types of facilities/structures, water, refrigeration, generators at facilities, drug and vaccine supplies.

Logistics
Assess transport, fuel, storage of food, vaccines and other supplies, communication.

49
Annex 3: Sample Questions for a Survey of Family Needs
These questions may be used to prepare surveys of post-disaster family needs. Responses to some
questions should be referred to public health authorities or to the public works (or appropriate
utility) department.
Survey Data
Name of respondent:
Pre-disaster address:
Post-disaster address:
Demographic Data
1. Family composition (indicate number)
a. Head of household ____ _____
b. Spouse ____ _____
c. Number of teenagers (ages 13-18) living at home ____ _____
d. Number of children (ages 1-12) living at home ____ _____
e. Others living at pre-disaster address ____ _____
f. Total people living at pre-disaster address ___ _____
2. Casualties (write in number)
a. Number with minor injuries (first aid required?) _____
b. Number with broken bones or seen by doctor (un-hospitalized) ______
c. Number hospitalized ______
d. Number killed ______
3. Have all survivors been located? Yes No
4. If no, how many are missing?
Water
5. Prior to the disaster, where did households obtain drinking water (circle all that apply)?
a. Water line to house
b. Well on property
c. Public water faucets
d. Public well
e. River or stream
f. Lake or reservoir
g. Other
6. Where do you get your water now?
a. Same place as noted in question 5
b. Water tank truck provided by
c. Temporary water tank serviced by
d. Other
7. Does this water appear to be dirty? Yes ___ No __
8. Is your normal water supply working now?
a. Yes, full-time
b. Intermittently
c. No, not at all
9. If paying for emergency water supply, how much are you paying and to whom?
a. Amount per litre
b. Paid to
10. Since, the disaster, has anyone in the family had
a. Severe diarrhoea? Yes _____ No_____
b. Vomiting? Yes _____ No_____
Food
11. Was the family able to recover food from their house? Yes _____ No ____
12. If yes, how long will it last?

50
 a. 1-2 days
b. 3-7 days
c. more than one week
13. Can you purchase adequate food from local markets? Yes ___ No __ __
14. If no, how much food do you estimate that you will need?
a. 1-week ration
b. 2-week ration
c. more than 2-week ration
15. Was any member of the family receiving food from any of the following before the disaster?
a. Government
b. Church or Church Agency
c. Red Cross/Red Crescent National Society
d. Other?
Family goods
16. Remembering that many people need help, does the family require any of the following?
Type of goods Quantity
a. Blankets
b. Bedding
c. Plastic Tarp
d. Flashlights/lanterns
e. Storage boxes
f. Clothing for adult males
g. Clothing for adult females
h. Clothing for teens
i. Clothing for children
Fuel
17. What type of cooking and heating fuel did you use before the disaster (circle all that apply)?
a. Gas supplied by gas line
b. Bottled gas
c. Kerosene
d. Firewood
e. Other
18. If (a) or (b), is any gas leaking now? Yes No
19. If (a), has gas service been restored to your line? Yes No
Sanitation
20. What type of sanitary facilities did you have before the disaster (circle all that apply)?
a. Flush toilet in dwelling
b. Communal flush toilet in building
c. Access to public toilets
d. Bucket latrine
e. Pit latrine (earthen)
f. Other
g. None
21. If (a) or (b), is the toilet working now? Yes No
Shelter needs
22. Will the family require assistance for any of the following (circle all that apply):
a. Temporary shelter
b. Building materials/tools for shelter
c. Building materials/tools for housing repair

51
52
53
Identify disaster needs for different types of hazards: 85 min (30 min for each exercise and 15
minutes to wrap up and questions)

Exercise # 1:
Make 7 small chits of paper with each one having a hazard written on them. Put them in a bowl and
ask each table group to pick one.

• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
• Land instabilities
• Flood and water hazards
• Storms (typhoons, hurricanes, tropical storms and tornadoes)
• Chemical and industrial accidents
• Conflict related Displaced Population

Whatever hazards the group has chosen they will need to do the following:

List the typical assistance needs for that hazard. If any assumptions of a place/country are made
then their solution should reflect that context.

Each group presents its findings.

Total time for Exercise: 30 min

Exercise # 2: “Planning Disaster Needs Assessments.”

• Pass out the illustrated map of the Town of Algansk (before the earthquake)
• Give each person 3 minutes to read the Early Notification and to study the plan for the town
of Algansk. Remind participants that this plan shows the town prior to the earthquake.
• At this point in time, this is all of the information that their Emergency Response Committee
has on the earthquake and on the town of Algansk. Their job is to determine what additional
information they need in order to plan and organise an effective response.
• Divide participants into two groups—Group A and Group B. Each group should appoint a
chairperson. Tell them that they have 20 minutes to complete this exercise. They are also to
prepare a 5-minute report which they will present to the larger group. Provide the groups
with flip-chart paper on which to prepare their report.
• Work in small groups (20 minutes)
• Report back to the larger group (5 minutes each small group)
• Ask if there are any comments
• Summarise the main points, conclusions and lessons learned from this session

Total Time for Exercise: 30 min

54
Exercise 2: Planning Disaster Needs Assessment after an Earthquake

GROUP A

Earthquake Disaster in Algansk: Early Notification Report (issued 10 hours after the first
major earthquake shock)
On February 12th, at 3:13 A.M. in the morning a major earthquake rocked the western part
of the country primarily affecting the medium-sized town of Algansk with a population of
500,000. Authorities estimate that over 3,000 people have died and another 9,000 have
been injured. Over 1,000 buildings and dwellings were completely destroyed and over
20,000 people are homeless.
PLEASE SEND RELIEF AID AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

Your Role
You are part of the national emergency response committee, which is responsible for planning
emergency response measures from 72 hours up to ten days after a disaster. Please refer to the
attached map of the town of Algansk that shows the city prior to the earthquake.

Before organising a response, your committee has decided to send a five-person Rapid Emergency
Assessment Team to Algansk to collect information about the disaster situation and the specific
emergency needs. Your committee is meeting to determine the specific information that the Rapid
Assessment Team should collect and the methods they should use to collect it.

Group A is to:
A. Read the Early Notification Report and study the map of Algansk. Imagine all of the adverse
effects and damage that the earthquake MAY have caused. (The first exercise and discussion, the
illustrated map of the town of Algansk and section 7.1 of the module will assist you in completing
this exercise.)
B. Make a list of the specific data and information that the Rapid Emergency Assessment Team must
collect. To generate this list, your group might brainstorm answers to the question, “What exactly do
we need to know about the disaster situation, the damage, and the emergency needs in order to
plan and organise an efficient and effective response?"
C. Explain how this information will be collected.
D. Explain how each piece of information will assist your committee with planning its emergency
response.

Specific Information Needs Why required for planning How will the assessment
and organising an emergency team collect this
response? information? (Be specific)

On flip-chart paper organise your list as follows:

E. Based on your knowledge of the typical adverse effects and potential emergency needs, who and
what expertise should be on the five persons’ Rapid Assessment Team? Write your team
composition on flip chart paper.

55
Exercise 2: Planning Disaster Needs Assessment after an Earthquake

GROUP B

Earthquake Disaster in Algansk: Early Notification Report (issued 10 hours after the first major
earthquake shock)
On February 12th, at 3:13 A.M. in the morning a major earthquake rocked the western part of the
country primarily affecting the medium-sized town of Algansk with a population of 500,000.
Authorities estimate that over 3,000 people have died and another 9,000 have been injured. Over
1,000 buildings and dwellings were completely destroyed and over 20,000 people are homeless.
PLEASE SEND RELIEF AID AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

Your Role
You are part of the national emergency response committee, which is responsible for planning
emergency response measures from 72 hours up to ten days after a disaster. Please refer to the
attached map of the town of Algansk that shows the city prior to the earthquake.

Before organising a response, your committee has decided to send a five-person Rapid Emergency
Assessment Team to Algansk to collect information about the disaster situation and the specific
emergency needs. Your committee is meeting to determine the specific information that the Rapid
Assessment Team should collect and the methods they should use to collect it.

Group B is to:
A. Read the Early Notification Report and study the map of Algansk. Imagine all of the adverse
effects and damage that the earthquake MAY have caused. (The first exercise and discussion, the
illustrated map of the town of Algansk
B. Using the following categories, brainstorm a list of adverse effects and potential emergency needs
that you might expect to find in Algansk following this earthquake. Use flip-chart paper to organise
your presentation as follows:

Category Possible Adverse Effects — Potential Why? Cause?

Be specific Emergency
Needs
Water supply
Sanitation system
Shelter
Power and heating
supply
Food
Roads,
communication,
bridges,
infrastructure,
schools
Others

C. Based on your knowledge of the typical adverse effects and potential emergency needs, who and
what expertise should be on the five person Rapid Assessment Team? Write your team composition
on flip chart paper.

56
Some solutions for Exercise 1

Earthquakes

General characteristics
Shaking of earth caused by waves on or below the earth's surface causing: surface faulting;
aftershocks; tsunamis; tremors, vibrations; liquefaction; and landslides

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Damage or loss of structures or infrastructure.
 Fires, dam failures, landslides, flooding may occur.
 Casualties—Often high, particularly near epicentre, in highly populated areas or where
buildings are not resistant.
 Public health—Fracture injuries most widespread problem.
 Water supply—Severe problems likely due to damage to water systems, pollution of open
wells and changes in water table.
 Secondary threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitary
conditions.

Typical disaster assistance needs

The immediate impact of an earthquake affects all sectors of a community. Local authorities should
initially emphasise search and rescue assistance. Emergency medical assistance must be provided,
especially during the first 72 hours. An emergency situation and needs assessment should be
conducted during the first 36-72 hours. Finally, the survivors will require relief assistance such as
food, water, and emergency shelter. Attention should be given to re-opening roads, re-establishing
communications, contacting remote areas and conducting disaster assessments. At the end of the
emergency period, long-term recovery needs to take priority. The post earthquake period presents
an opportunity to minimise future risks through enactment or strengthening of land use and building
codes as rebuilding takes place. The focus should be on:

57
  Repair and reconstruction of water, sewer, electrical services and roads
 Technical, material and financial assistance for repair and reconstruction of houses
and public buildings (preferably by incorporating earthquake resistant techniques)
 Programs to rejuvenate the economy
 Financial assistance for loans to individuals and businesses for economic recovery

Mud and debris flows

General characteristics
Mud and debris flows can arise as a result of heavy storms, abundant rains, breaks of mountain
(usually glacial) lakes, or in hot weather as a result of intensive glacier melting. This is a process
whereby considerable mud flows are carried out along the bottom of mountain valleys. Very often
debris flows cut off rivers. When this occurs, a dam may form resulting in flooding upstream. A break
in this dam, however, may cause flooding down the river stream.

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Everything in the path of debris flows is usually destroyed, including
roads, bridges, electric lines, and constructions. Often irrigation nets are destroyed and
agricultural areas are covered with silt.
 Casualties—People in the path of a mud flow may perish. In addition, people may be lost
and injured as a result of secondary floods.

Typical disaster assistance needs

In the direct impact area of mudslides, there may be a need for search and rescue of victims. In
isolated locations there may be a need to use special equipment. Emergency shelter may be
required for those whose homes have been lost or damaged. Secondary effects of mud flows, such
as flooding, may require additional assistance measures.

Landslides
General characteristics
Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides, topples, lateral spreads, flows), and may be
secondary effects of heavy storms and earthquakes. Landslides are more widespread than any other
geological event.

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Anything on top or in the path of a landslide will suffer damage. Rubble
may block roads, lines of communication or waterways. Indirect effects may include loss of
agricultural or forest land productivity, flooding, reduced property values.
 Casualties—Fatalities have occurred due to slope failures. Catastrophic debris flows and
mudflows have killed many thousands.

Typical disaster assistance needs

Needs for the direct impact area of a landslide include search and rescue equipment and personnel,
and possibly use of earth removal equipment. Emergency shelter may be required for those whose
homes have been lost or damaged. Experts trained in landslide hazard evaluation should be
consulted to determine whether slide conditions pose an additional threat to rescuers or residents.
If the landslide is related to an earthquake or flood, assistance to the landslide-affected area will be
part of the total disaster assistance effort.

58
Volcanic eruptions
General characteristics
Types of volcanoes are cindercones, shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes and lava domes. Magma
flowing out to the surface is lava and all solid particles ejected are tephra. Damage results from the
type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows (blasts of gas containing ash and fragments),
mud, debris, and lava flows.

Typical adverse effects

 Settlements, infrastructure and agriculture—Complete destruction of everything in the path
of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows, including vegetation, agricultural land, human settlements,
structures, bridges, roads and other infrastructure. Structures may collapse under the
weight of wet ash. Transportation by land, sea and air may be affected.
 Crops and food supplies—Destruction of crops in path of flows, livestock may inhale toxic
gases or ash, grazing lands may be contaminated.
 Casualties and health—Deaths from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possibly lava flows and
toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock and burns, respiratory difficulties from gas and ash.
Fracture injuries are the most widespread problem.

Typical disaster assistance needs

Response to a volcanic eruption must be swift and efficient. Effective warning systems must be in
place. Initially, local authorities must ensure that the area is evacuated and medical care is provided
to victims. Search and rescue will also be important. Feeding and shelter is normally required and
may be assisted by donations or personnel from foreign sources. The secondary response by local
authorities involves relocating victims and providing financial assistance for replacement housing,
agriculture and small businesses. Volcano disasters occasionally require temporary shelters, but
more often, large volcanoes such as Ruiz, Pinatubo, and Mt. St. Helens, continue to erupt in a
manner that threatens large populations for months to years. This may necessitate permanent
resettlement of residents or long-term emergency settlements. Emphasis should also be placed on
re-establishing infrastructure and communications that have been damaged or disrupted. Cleanup of
ash is an important step in the recovery process. Volcanic ash makes excellent foundation material
for roads, runways and building sites.

Tsunamis
General characteristics
Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km between wave crests.
They may consist of ten or more wave crests and can move up to 800 km per hour in deep ocean
water, diminishing in speed as they approach the shore. They may strike shore in crashing waves or
may inundate the land. Whether or not there is severe flooding will depend on the shape of the
shoreline and tides.

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—The force of water can raze everything in its path but the majority of
damage to structures and infrastructure results from flooding. Withdrawal of the wave from
shore scours out sediment and can collapse ports and buildings and batter boats.
 Crops and food supplies—Harvests, food stocks, livestock, farm implements and fishing
boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water incursion.
 Casualties and public health—Deaths occur primarily by drowning and injuries from
battering by debris.

Typical disaster assistance needs

59
Initial local responses include:
o Implement warning and evacuation procedures (before the event)
o Perform search and rescue in the disaster area
o Provide medical assistance
o Conduct disaster assessment and epidemiological surveillance
o Provide short-term food, water and shelter

Secondary responses include:

 Repair and reconstruct buildings and homes
 Provide assistance to agricultural areas.

Floods

General characteristics
There are several types of floods:
Flash floods—accelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam
River floods—Slow buildup, usually seasonal
Coastal floods—Associated with storm surges, tsunami waves, tropical cyclones

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Structures damaged by washing away, becoming inundated, collapsing,
and impact of floating debris.
 Casualties and public health—Deaths from drowning but few serious injuries. Possible
outbreaks of malaria, diarrhoea and viral infections.
 Water supplies—Possible contamination of wells and groundwater. Clean water may be
unavailable.
 Crops and food supplies—Harvests and food stocks may be lost due to inundation. Animals,
farm tools and seeds may be lost.
 Secondary threats due to landslides from saturated soils and debris flows. Damage greater in
valleys than open areas.

Typical disaster assistance needs

The initial response to flooding by local authorities should include:

 Search and rescue
 Medical assistance
 Disaster assessment
 Short term food and water provision
 Water purification
 Epidemiological surveillance
 Temporary shelter

Tropical cyclones
General characteristics
When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges cause damage with
secondary flooding and landslides.

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Structures lost and damaged by wind force, flooding, storm surge and
landslides. Erosion could occur from flooding and storm surges.

60
  Casualties and public health—Generally there are relatively few fatalities but there may be
numerous casualties requiring hospital treatment. Storm surges usually cause many deaths
but few injuries among the survivors. Injuries that do occur may be caused by flying debris or
flooding. Contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.
 Water supply—Open wells and ground water may be contaminated by flood waters and
storm surges. Normal water sources may be unavailable for several days.
 Crops and food supplies—High winds and rain can ruin standing crops, tree plantations and
food stocks. Plantation crops such as bananas and coconuts are extremely vulnerable.
 Communication and logistics—Severe disruption is possible as wind brings down telephone
lines, antennae and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed.

Typical disaster assistance needs

The initial response by local authorities, organisations and population will include:
 evacuation and emergency shelter
 search and rescue
 medical assistance
 provision of short term food and water
 water purification
 epidemiological surveillance
 reestablishment of logistical and communications networks
 disaster assessment
 brush and debris clearance
 provision of seeds for planting

Chemical and industrial accidents

General characteristics
Chemical and industrial accidents release hazardous (toxic) substances into the environment. These
accidents may occur when trains carrying chemicals derail, when trucks overturn, when pipelines
rupture releasing dangerous chemicals and gases into the environment, and when chemical or
nuclear power plants develop accidental leaks and releases. Hazardous substances released into the
air or water can travel long distances.

Typical adverse effects

 Physical damage—Damage or destruction may occur to structures and infrastructure.
Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on impact. Industrial fires may
reach high temperatures and affect large areas.
 Casualties—Many people may be killed or injured and require medical treatment
 Crop, livestock and food supplies—May contaminate crops, food supplies and livestock.
 Environmental—Contamination of air, water supply, and land may occur. Areas may become
uninhabitable. Ecological systems may be disrupted even on a global scale.

Typical disaster assistance needs

In the event of a chemical disaster, medical and emergency teams should remove all injured persons
from the scene of the emergency. All persons should leave the area unless protected by special
equipment. They should stay away until safe return to the area has been determined and announced
to the public. In the case of water contamination, alternate sources have to be provided. Clean up of
the effects of the disaster may require more resources than are locally available; international
emergency assistance may be required. The affected areas should be monitored continually
following the disaster. Thorough investigation and documentation of the emergency must occur.

61
Displaced populations
General characteristics
Displaced populations may include people settling in temporary settlements or camps after a mass
population movement; non-combatant individuals and families forced to leave their homes due to
consequences of conflict but who remain inside their country; people expelled or fleeing a country,
especially as an ethnic or national group, forced out for economic or political reasons; and people
forced to leave their homes as a result of drought, famine, or other disaster, usually in search of
food.

Typical adverse effects

Loss of means of livelihood, loss of normal sources of food, lack of fuel for cooking, lack of potable
water, communicable diseases and overcrowding, possibly large numbers of unaccompanied
children, lack of shelter and household necessities

Typical emergency needs

While needs will vary according to the situation, in general they will include:
 Water supply and sanitation
 Short-term and long-term food distributions
 Nutritional and epidemiological surveillance
 Emergency shelter
 Blankets, household fuel, and other household goods Medical supplies,
immunisation, public health
 Community social services, especially for unaccompanied children
 Tracing, protection and security

Reference Material –
3. PowerPoint Presentation ‘3. Assessment in Emergencies’

62
Roles, Responsibilities and Management of CFMR

Objective : To make aware FMRs about their role, responsibilities and FMR
management mechanism.

Content :

Role and responsibilities of First medical responders in the Disaster Response

Always be prepared to respond to any incidence posing threat to life of people using FMR skills
imparted by RC.
- Do your best to preserve life of individuals before the medical assistance has reached.
- Keep your knowledge updated
- Participate in refresher courses and mock drills
- Get familiar with the Disaster response/contingency plan of the IRCS District/Sub District
branch
- Ensure that your contact details are updated in IRCS database
- Keep your response kit always ready

Maintenance of the First medical responders

- District branches will organise refresher course for FMRs. FMRs should ensure that they
participate in these trainings to refresh their knowledge.
- FMRs will be (and should be) deployed Regular deployment for emergency
response/involved in regular RC activities.

Communication
- In times of disasters information sharing is a challenge. The First Medical responders should
gather information from all the available secondary resources about the occurrence of
disaster /incidence and act immediately.
- The gathered information should be shared with the fellow FMRs through the available
means as well as with the district/sub district branch.
- District/sub district branch should disseminate the information about the incident to all
FMRs in the district.

Linkages between IRCS District/sub District branch, FMRs and

District level DM Structure with district administration
In order to respond to the emergencies without any delay and to
avoid hindrance in the service delivery at site of incidence, strong
linkages are required to be built between FMRs, IRCS District/Sub
District branch and district administration. This will facilitate quick
information sharing and response by FMRs. The database FMRs
should be shared with the district administration and advocacy may
be done at the district level to link FMRs the District
administration’s contingency plan.
First medical Responder Service component
Following are the service components of First Medical Responders
- First Aid

63
 - Psychosocial support
- Emergency WATSAN

First Medical Responders Tools

FMRs will be using following tools to deliver services as a first responder and at the later phase of
the operation:
- First Aid kit
- WATSAN KIT 2

Standard operating procedures of FMR

Each District branch should have standard operating procedures for the first medical responders for
the following phases of operation:
- Pre deployment
- During Deployment
- Post Deployment

Group work on Role, Responsibilities and Management of First Medical Responders:

Participants will be divided in four groups. Each group will be asked to discuss and answer
the following questions. At the end of the exercise, each group wil present their answers.

1. As a first medical responder how do you define your role in Disaster Response? (10
min)
2. Following emergencies how will you initiate your work as first medical responder?
(10 min)
3. As a first medical responder what are the service you will deliver to the people
affected by disaster? (10 min)
4. What tools do you need to respond to the disasters? (10 min)
5. What activities you will carry out pre and post disasters? (10 min)

10 min for each group to present

Session plan :
Time Topic Methodology
90 min Group Work Participants will be divided in four/five groups. Each group
will discuss given five questions within their group and come
up with answers. Each group will get 50 min for this exercise.
Each group will write their answers on flip charts for
presentation. 5 minutes will be given to each group for
presentation which will be followed by Q&A.

Key Message: It is not just about one time training, FMRs are required to update their knowledge
and be ready all the time with their tools to respond to emergencies in coordination with the district
authorities.

64
Reference Material –
4. PowerPoint Presentation ‘4. Roles Responsibilities and Management of CFMR’

65
Coordination Mechanisms
Objectives : What the participants should understand, know or be able to do by the end
of the session]

By the end of the session the participants will:

 Understand what Coordination means and its importance
 Be clear on the different options to set up coordination mechanism
 Understand how to use a stakeholder mapping and a gap analysis to improve coordination

Session Plan
1. What is coordination and why is it important: 15 min
2. Different options to set up coordination mechanism: 10 min
3. Stakeholder Mapping Exercise and Gap Analysis: 35 min

Methods
 Presentation
 Group Exercise

Session Duration
1 Hour

Reference Materials/Tools
Materials to be distributed to participants:
Presentation; Handout Tips on Coordination

Key Messages
 Good Coordination among humanitarian actors or responders is essential for a coherent
response to emergencies
 Humanitarian coordination seeks to improve the effectiveness of humanitarian response
by ensuring greater predictability, accountability and partnership.
 Operational coordination in crisis situations such as assessing situations and needs;
agreeing common priorities; developing common strategies to address issues such as
negotiating access, mobilizing funding and other resources; clarifying consistent public
messaging; and monitoring progress leads to better impact
 There are several mechanism by which coordination can be improved such as pre-
disaster meetings, preparedness/contingency planning, training on response tools and
assessments, information sharing on early warning, hazard mapping and best practices

66
  It is important to be inclusive of all stakeholders while responding to needs and be
aware of gaps in the response

Session description/Content
[As much detail as you have on the nature of the session e.g. points to be discussed in plenary,
description of a group exercise, presentation outline etc.] – see attached

What is coordination and why is it important: 15 min

 Ask participants what they understand by the term coordination. Then show them the
definition being used below:

• Co-ordination is a process through which actors involved in humanitarian response,

work together in a logical and concerted effort towards an agreed common end (namely
to protect those affected, save lives and help resume normal activities), and in order to
ensure maximum efficiency with the resources available
Source: Interagency Standing Committee quoted in, Handbook for coordination: Working
together in international disaster response (updated March 2010)

 Ask Participants to “shout out” who they think they should coordinate with. Once a
number of answers have been given display the slide as a summary

External
• National government
• local authorities
• United Nations
• International and National non government organisations
• others
Internal
• RC/RC Movement partners

• What can Coordination achieve or why is coordination important?

Strong coordination will ensure:

• Greater impact through a focus on a common goal
• Avoiding duplication through sharing information and coming to agreement
on who is doing what where.
• Savings in time and money through more efficient ways of using resources.
• Ensuring consistency between organisations working with the same
communities.
• Aim of coordination

• Internally: this should involve planning together to be IRCS wide in policy

and approach, whilst the Branch is at the centre bringing these efforts
together.
• Externally: this should lead to joint planning, joint assessments and the
sharing of data in order to avoid duplication and maximise use of resources.

67
 • Coordination Principles
• IRCS – at both local & national levels – should endeavour to take into
account assistance being provided by other national and international
organizations.
• IRCS may have to respond to disaster that are beyond their capacities and
should therefore make preparations for receiving and managing
international assistance provided by International Federation.
• IRCS should endeavour to conclude agreements on future mutual assistance
in the event of disaster, with sister societies from neighbouring countries.
• The IRCS NHQ shall endeavour to negotiate pre-disaster arrangements with
the Branches from the most disaster-prone states, aimed at enhancing
branch disaster preparedness activities.

Different options to set up coordination mechanism: 10 min

• Build Capacity for Coordination

o Create FMR Teams in all states where not already in existence for
preparedness and response activities, recognising that State Governments
need to be brought on board.
o Strengthen coordination at national, state and district levels in at-risk areas.
Approach NGO partners and local government for partnerships to share
coordination load. Identify and explore Standby Partner Agreements (SBAs)
for emergency stand-by or surge coordination capacity
o Ensure up-dated CPs with clear and agreed coordination arrangements in all
states, approved by the SDMA. Use the contingency plan to review and
reallocate resources for coordination of FMR activities as appropriate.
o Set up info sharing portal to allow FMR Coordinators/Leaders to share
info/gaps/strategies between states
o Promote use of the ‘One FMR Approach’ or standardised approach with
SDMA as part of preparedness and response.

 Build Good Information Management Platform

o Have in place common assessment formats
o Have in place baseline information of high risk areas
o Have regular meetings and trainings for FMR volunteers
o Have in place contact lists and information of FMR volunteers

 Promote a culture of joint planning and collaborative initiatives

o Be open to learn and share from other agencies experience
o Collaborate where possible through joint activities (eg. Training)
o Establish relationship with private and public sector services and
infrastructure agencies (eg. Railways, Airlines, Telecoms, Postal, Freight, etc)

Stakeholder Mapping & Gap Analysis: 35 min

Exercise:
 In groups…prepare a diagram with post-its and poster paper identifying key stakeholders
during an emergency - draw links between the stakeholders, affecting humanitarian

68
 response. Each group can have a different disaster (eg. Earthquake, Floods, Tsunami,
Conflict). Time 25 min.

Red Cross FMR

Some examples of stakeholders or actors

• Host Government/Local Govt
• INGO
• Local NGO
• UN
• Donor
• Civil Military (CIMIC)/Civil Defence
• Media
• Private Agencies
• Beneficiaries or Affected People?

The stakeholders or actors can also be divided into the following categories
o Internal Actors on the ground
o External Actors on the ground
o External Actors not permanently present but which influence humanitarian
response

Main points:
Always remember the host population or the affected people/community are the first to respond.
There are different response actors, its important to coordinate so that outcomes are efficient and
effective
A good way to analyse of who is doing what and where and find gaps is the use of Gap Chart (5min)
If your scenario is detailed enough and you have external partners involved in preparation for a
major event that will require significant coordination between organizations, the following reading
and exercises can be a useful tool for coordinating multiple organizations in a multi-sectoral
response.
The GAP ID sheet or matrix is a useful tool for matching organizations to tasks. For analysis of task
distribution based on your response, list the organizations to be involved in the response along one
axis of the grid and list the activities or actions to be done as part of the response along the other.
Mark the boxes where organizations and the tasks they will perform intersect on the table. Analysis
of the resulting pattern can explain who will do what, who may be overburdened, and who may be
able to provide additional assistance. A simplified example below is typical.

69
 Operations Plan Matrix

Responsibility by

and Local Affairs

Church/Temple
Dept. of Health
Dept. of Works

Red Cross NS
Civil Defence
Sector by Organization

Local NGO
Provincial

Police

WFP
UN
Coordination xx xx
Protection** xx xx xx
Reception xx xx xx
Registration xx xx xx
Community Services xx xx
Logistics/Transport xx xx xx
Infrastructure xx xx
Site Planning** xx
Shelter xx xx
Domestic Needs xx xx
Water xx
Sanitation xx
Health xx xx xx
Food xx xx
Education
Security xx xx
Telecommunications xx xx xx xx
Operational Support xx xx

Use the prepared matrix that follows for your own GAP ID planning for response to your planning
scenario. Be sure to include all key organizations involved and establish an appropriate level of detail
in the tasks column, so that the activities are not ambiguous.

70
Handout: Tips for Coordination (5 min)

DOs DONT
Working with Government Indentify relevant plans and Forget to identify the
strategies for FMR and procedure for programme
emergency response and approval early on to avoid
ensure key policies that are delays in implementation
relevant to the Red Cross Do not wait for a formal
operation are identified coordination structure to be in
Start meetings with key place if they are not established
stakeholders to share immediately
information
Developing the response Involve stakeholders or Delay decision making
framework or operational partners in objective setting
strategy/plan of action and selection of geographic
areas
Establishing internal Ensure that the tasks of each Create an over complicated
coordination level of coordination is clear structure that delays decision
and meetings briefly making and progress on FMR
documented planning and implementation

Partnership modalities Provide an umbrella framework Take on more activity than can
that all partners can work be reasonably completed
within
Deciding which external Participate in external Attend sub meetings that are
meetings to attend coordination mechanisms not productive
regularly exchanging
information in a timely and
transparent way

Reference Material –
5. PowerPoint Presentation ‘5. Coordination Mechanism’

71