Networking Basic

Prepared by
Risala Tasin Khan
Professor
IIT, JU
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data
communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must
be part of a communication system made of a combination of
hardware and software.
The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four
fundamental characteristics:
Delivery: The system must deliver the data to the correct destination.
Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
Timeliness: The system must deliver the data in a timely manner.
Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation of packet arrival time. For example: Let us
assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive
with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video
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is the result.
 Component of Data Communication
System
1. Message:
– The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
2. Sender:
– The sender is the device that sends the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone etc.
3. Receiver:
– The receiver is the device that receives the message.
4. Transmission Medium:
– The transmission medium is the path by which a message travels from
sender to the receiver. For example: twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable etc.
5. Protocol:
– A protocol is the set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without
protocol, two devices may be connected but cannot be communicated.
Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system

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 Data Representation
• Text:
– Text is represented as bit pattern, a sequence of bits.
– Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent
different text symbols.
– Each set is called a code and the process of representing symbol is
called coding.
– Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32
bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the
world.
• Numbers:
– Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
– The number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.
 Continue..
• Images:
– Images are also represented by bit patterns.
– An image is composed of a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is a small
dot.
– The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image
can be divided into 1000 or 10,000 pixels.
– After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit
pattern.
– The size and the value of the pattern depends on the image. For an
image made of only black and white dots, a 1-bit pattern is enough to
represent a pixel. Again, to show four levels of gray scale, one can use
2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel
by 01, a light gray pixel by 10 and a white pixel by 11.
 Continue..
• Audio:
– Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
– Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or images.
– It is continuous not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to
change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous
signal.
 Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Simplex:
– In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional.
– Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive.
• Half-duplex:
– In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive but
not at the same time.
• Full-duplex:
– In full-duplex mode, both devices can transmit and receive
simulteneously.
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Network Criteria
▪ Physical Structures
▪ Categories of Networks
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 Network Criteria
• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Can be measured in many ways such as transmit time (amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another) and response
time (elapsed time between any inquiry and a response)
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– The time it takes to recover from failure.
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users

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Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

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 Types of connection
• Point-to-Point:
– A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices.
– The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices.
• Multipoint:
– A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link.
– In a multipoin environment the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally.
– If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection but if users must take turns then it is a timeshared
connection.
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Physical Topology
• “Physical Topology” refers to the way in which a network is
laid out physically.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to
one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus and
ring.
 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we
first consider that each node must be connected to every other node.
• If each physical link is allows communication in both directions, we can divide the number
of links by 2. Therefore we can say that in mesh topology we need n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode
links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n-1 I/O ports to
be connected to other n-1 stations.
 ADVANTAGES
The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load.
This eliminate the traffic problems that can occur when link must be shared
A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unavailable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system
It is secured
Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

DISADVANTAGE

Need a lot of cabling and I/O ports

The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space.
The hardware required to connect each link can be prohibitively expensive.
 Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another.
• A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, when
then relays the data to the other connected device.
 Advantage
Less expensive
Each device needs only one link and one I/O port.
Far less cabling needs to be housed and additions, moves and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
Robustness: if one link fails, only that link is affected. All the other links remain active.

Disadvantage

Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.

Although a star requires less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central
hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topology.
 Bus Topology

• A bus topology is a multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cables by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
between device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that splices into the main cable to
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.
 Advantage
Ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of various length.
A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topology.

Disadvantage

Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally

efficient in installation. It can therefore difficult to add new devices.
Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be
controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of
cable.
A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
 Ring Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either
side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from devices to devices, until it reaches its
destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporate a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 Advantage
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors. Therefore to add or delete a
device requires changing only two connections.
Fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one
device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The
alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantage

In a simple ring, breaking the ring can disable the entire network.
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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Categories of Networks
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

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Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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 Interconnection of Networks:
Internetwork
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork, or internet.
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

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Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

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1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines what
is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Syntax
▪ Semantics
▪ Timing

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Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.

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 Bandwidth
• Data rate measured in bits (not bytes) per
seconds
• Kbps (Kilobits per seconds)
– 125 chars/sec
• Mbps (Megabits per seconds)
– 1,250 chars/sec
• Gbps (Gigabits per seconds)
– 12,500 chars/sec
 Connecting to the Internet
• Requirement
– A computer or PDA or cell phone
– An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
– A modem (modulator/demodulator) for dial-up
services or a NIC (Network Interface Card) for
DSL/Cable services
 Home Network (single machine)
Wall Jack

DSL/Cable
Modem
USB/Ethernet
Cable
 Home Network (multiple machines)
Wall Jack

DSL/Cable
Hub/Switch/Router
Modem
USB/Ethernet
Cable
 Home Network (multiple machines)
Wall Jack

Ethernet Cable

DSL/Cable
Hub/Switch/Router
Modem
 Home Wireless Network
Wall Jack

Ethernet Cable

DSL/Cable
Hub/Switch/Router
Modem
https://bdren.zoom.us/j/66386128051
 Hub/Switch/Router
• To connect multiple segments of networks
into a larger one
• Hub
– A multiport repeater to enhance signal within the
same LAN
• Switch
– Like hub but with intelligent
– Better performance
• Router
– Forward packets from one LAN to another
 Intranet vs. Internet
• Intranet
– A private network that is contained within an
enterprise
– Could be LANs and WANs
• Internet
– A public network of networks
• Both are using TCP/IP