UNIT - 1

1. Introduction to Networks and Data Communication.

2. The Internet, Protocol and Standards

3. Layered Tasks
4. OSI Model, TCP/IP Protocol Suit.
5. Addressing
6. Line Coding Review
 Chapter 1
Introduction

• Data Communication
• Networks
• Internet
• Protocols and Standards
• Standard Organizations
 1.1 Data Communication
The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and
television, means communication at a distance.

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon
by the parties creating and using the data.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four

fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or
user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us
assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive
with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the
video is the result.
Data Communication System Components
 Data Representation
Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(Os or Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding. e.g., Unicode, ASCII.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a
small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an
image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case,
there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more
memory is needed to store the image.
Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by
nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.
Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric
signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video
can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it
can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey
the idea of motion.
Data Flow
Simplex
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex
 1.2 Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among
multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible
for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.
 Network Criteria

Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
i) Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
ii) Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput
and delay.

Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure,

Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
 Physical Structures
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in

some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point Line Configuration
Point-to-Point Line Configuration
Point-to-Point Line Configuration
Multipoint Line Configuration
 Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.: Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form
a topology.

The Topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
 Mesh Topology
Features:
In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
The number of physical links in a
fully connected mesh network with n nodes,
We need n(n - 1) physical links.
In other words, we can say that in a
mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-
mode links.
Advantages:
1. Dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load
2. Robustness: If one links fails, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
3. Privacy & Security issues are reliable.
4. Fault identification is easy
Disadvantages:
1. Installation and Reconnection is difficult.
2. The sheer bulk of wire can be greater than space provided.
3. Hardware requirement is expensive.
 Star Topology
Features:
In a star topology, each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.

Advantages:
1. Less Expensive than a Mesh topology
2. Adding and/or deleting new node is
very easy than mesh
3. Robustness: If one link fails, only that
link affected
4. Easy fault identification

Disadvantages:
1. Dependency of the whole topology
only one single point, the HUB.
Tree Topology
 Bus Topology

Featurtes:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology,
on the other hand, is multipoint.

Advantages:
1. Easy of installation
2. Less cabling than Mesh or Star.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult reconnection and fault identification.
2. Difficult to add new devices.
3. Signal reflection at taps can degrade the quality of signal.
4. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed
into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and
farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can
support.
5. Adding devices may require modification and replacement of backbone.
6. A fault or break into a cable can stop entire transmission.
 Ring Topology
Station Station

Station Station
Repeater Repeater
Repeater Repeater
Repeater

Station
Features:
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives
a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. To add or remove a device requires changing only two immigiate
neighboring connections (physically or logically).
3. Fault detection is easy: Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all
times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it
can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem
and its location.

Disadvantages:
1. Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
2. A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network.
 Hybrid Topology

Features:
A topology having a combination of several different types of topologies
keeping Star topology on its top is referred as “Hybrid Topology” .
Categories of Network
 Local Area Network
Features:

A local area network (LAN) is

usually privately owned and links
the devices in a single office,
building, or campus.

LANs are designed to allow

resources to be shared between
personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be
shared can include hardware (e.g.,
a printer), software (e.g., an
application program), or data.

In a LAN a workgroup pf task related computers are connected. One of the

computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and may become a server to
clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the
whole group.
 Local Area Network
The size of the LAN may be
determined by licensing
restrictions on the number of users
per copy of software, or by
restrictions on the number of users
licensed to access the operating
system.
In general, a given LAN
will use only one type of
transmission medium. The most
common LAN topologies are bus,
ring, and star.
Early LANs had data
rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per
second (Mbps) range. Today,
however, speeds are normally 100
or 1000 Mbps.
Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.
Metropolitan Area Network
 Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between

a LAN and a WAN.

It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for

customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company

network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.

Another example is the cable TV network that originally was

designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data
connection to the Internet.
Wide Area Network
 Wide Area Network

Features:
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world.
A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as
simple as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally
refer to the first as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN.

Switched WAN:
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a
router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.

Point-to-point WAN:
The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable
TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service
provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
Wide Area Network
1.3 Internetwork : Interconnection of Networks
(Internet)

When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork,

or internet.
 The Internet Today

The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure.

It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting

devices and switching stations.

It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is

continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are
adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed.

Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of
Internet service providers (lSPs).

There are international service providers, national service providers, regional

service providers, and local service providers.
 The Internet Today
International Internet Service Providers
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers
that connect nations together.

National Internet Service Providers

The national Internet service providers are backbone networks
created and maintained by specialized companies.

Regional Internet Service Providers

Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs
that are connected to one or more national ISPs. They are at the third level of
the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.

Local Internet Service Providers

Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end
users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national
ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local ISPs.
 1.4 Protocols and Standards

Defines a set of rules for communication………..

Specify the meaning and format of messages
Define exchange rule
Exception handling
Duplicate formation
Bit corruption (Checksum error)
Lost Information
Out of order packets
 Chapter : 2

LAYERED MODELS

• The model
• Functions of the layers
 2.1 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two
friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to
a friend would be complex if there were no services available from the post
office.

Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in

sending a letter
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the
late 1970s.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model

• Developed in 1984 by the International Standards Organization (ISO)
• It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called
layers.
• A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the
layer above it and receives services from the layer below it.
• Provides a set of design standards for equipment manufacturers so they can
communicate with each other
• Basic guideline for protocol development
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
The purpose of the OSI model was to assist vendors and communications
software developers to produce interoperable network systems.

Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

Network Process for

Applications

Data Formatting & Encryption

Inter-host communication

Provides End to End Delivery

Routing & Addressing

Physical Addressing

Binary TRx on Physical Media

2-2 THE OSI MODEL
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.

2. Representation of bits.
3. Data rate.
4. Synchronization of bits.
5. Line configuration.
6. Physical topology.
7. Transmission mode.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1. Framing.
2. Physical addressing.
3. Flow control.
4. Error control.
5. Access control.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

1. Logical addressing.
2. Routing.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

1. Service-point addressing.
2. Segmentation and reassembly.
3. Connection control.
4. Flow control.
5. Error control.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

1. Dialog control.
2. Synchronization (by using Check Points)
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

1. Translation (Encoding – Decoding).

2. Encryption.
3. Compression.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

1. Network virtual terminal.

2. File transfer, access, and management.
3. Mail services.
4. Directory services.
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
2-3 Summary of Layer Functions
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those
in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined
as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can
say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
2.4.1 Physical and Data Link Layers:

At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any
specific protocol. It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A
network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-area
network.

2.4.2 Network Layer:

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer),

TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP. Each of these protocols
is described in greater detail in later chapters.
Internetworking Protocol (IP):

1. IP is the transmission mechanism protocol

2. It is an Unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best effort delivery
service
3. IP transports data in packets called datagrams
4. Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence
or be duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for
reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
5. Limited functionality
6. IP allows the user maximum efficiency.

Address Resolution Protocol:

1. ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.

2. ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol:

1. RARP allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its
physical address.
2. It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or
when a diskless computer is booted.
Internet Control Message Protocol:

1. ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of

datagram problems back to the sender.
2. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol:

1. IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to

a group of recipients.

2.4.3 Transport Layer:

1. Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two

protocols: TCP and UDP.
2. IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from
one physical device to another.
3. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process.
4. A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs
of some newer applications.
User Datagram Protocol:

1. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses,

checksum error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.

Transmission Control Protocol:

1. TCP provides full transport-layer services to applications.

2. TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
3. At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data
into smaller units called segments.
4. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgment number for the segments received.
5. Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
6. At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and
reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol:

1. SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the
Internet.
2. It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features of UDP and
TCP.

2.4.4 Application Layer:

The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined

session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI modeL Many
protocols are defined at this layer. We cover many of the standard protocols in
later chapters.
 2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the
TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.5.1 Physical Addresses:
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as
defined by its LAN or WAN.
It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
It is the lowest-level address.
The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN).
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For
example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted
on the network interface card (NIC).
 Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below:
07:01:02:01 :2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.5.2 Logical Addresses:

Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where

different networks can have different address formats.
Logical Addressing is a universal addressing system that is independent of
underlying layers.
In this system each host can be identified uniquely.
A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

NOTE: The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same.
2.5.3 Port Addresses:

Computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The
end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with
another process. For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a
method to label the different processes. In other words, they need addresses.
In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port
address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as below.

753

A 16-bit port address represented as one single number

Figure 2.21 Port addresses
2.5.4 Specific Addresses:

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific address.

Examples include:

1. The e-mail address (defines the recipient of an e-mail ) and

2. The Universal Resource Locator (URL) (is used to find a document on the
World Wide Web).
 Part 2:
Physical Layer and Media
Line coding and decoding
4.1.1 Line Coding:

1. Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital

signals.
2. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
3. At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal.
4. And at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding
the digital signal.

Characteristics………………………..

Signal Element Versus Data Element :

 In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.

 A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of
information: this is the bit.
 In digital data communications, a signal element carries data
elements.
 A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.
 In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal
elements are what we can send. Data elements are being carried;
signal elements are the carriers.
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

 The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in
1 sec.
 The unit is bits per second (bps).
 The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The
unit is the baud.
 The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the baud rate.

 One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate

while decreasing the signal rate.
 Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth requirement.
 We now need to consider the relationship between data rate and
signal rate (bit rate and baud rate).
 If we have a data pattern of all 1s or all 0s, the signal rate may
be different from a data pattern of alternating 0s and 1s.
 S = c * N * -1/r baud
Where

N is the data rate (bps);

c is the case factor, which varies for each case;
S is the number of signal elements; and
r is the previously defined factor.

Bandwidth:

The minimum bandwidth can be given as

Bmin = c * N * 1/r
We can solve for the maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel is
given.
Nmax = 1/c * B * r
DC Components:

When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while,

the spectrum creates very low frequencies (results of Fourier analysis).
These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components,
present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a
system that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer).

Self-synchronization:

To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender,

the receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit
intervals. If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not
matched and the receiver might misinterpret the signals.

A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in

the data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions
in the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of
the pulse. If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points
can reset the clock.
Built-in Error Detection:

It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated

code to detect some of or all the errors that occurred during transmission.

Immunity to Noise and Interference:

Another desirable code characteristic is a code that is immune to noise

and other interferences.

Complexity:

A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one. For

example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult to
interpret than one that uses only two levels.
Baseline Wandering:

In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of

the received signal power. This average is called the baseline. The
incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the
value of the data element. A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the
baseline (baseline wandering) and make it difficult for the receiver to decode
correctly. A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.
4.1.2 Line Coding Schemes:

Figure 4.4 Line coding schemes

 Unipolar Encoding

NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero):
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero
(NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage
defines bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the
middle of the bit.
 Types of Polar Encoding

In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time
axis. For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage
level for 1 can be negative.
 NRZ-L (Level) and NRZ-I (Invert) Encoding

NOTE: In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value
of the bit.
 NRZ-L (Level) and NRZ-I (Invert) Encoding

Although baseline wandering is a problem for both variations, it is twice as

severe in NRZ-L. If there is a long sequence of 0s or 1s in NRZ-L, the average
signal power becomes skewed. The receiver might have difficulty discerning
the bit value. In NRZ-I this problem occurs only for a long sequence of 0s. If
somehow we can eliminate the long sequence of 0s, we can avoid baseline
wandering.

The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not

synchronized) also exists in both schemes. Again, this problem is more serious
in NRZ-L than in NRZ-I.
RZ Encoding
 RZ Encoding
 The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver
clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has
ended and the next bit is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ)
scheme.
 It uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
 In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
 The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes
to encode a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.
 A sudden change of polarity resulting in all 0s interpreted as 1s and all 1s
interpreted as 0s, still exist here.
 There is no/less DC component problem.
 RZ is complex scheme as it uses three levels.
 Hence due to these discrepancies RZ is not used.
Biphase: Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding
Manchester:
 The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are
combined into the Manchester scheme.
 In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The
voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level
in the second half.
 The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.

Differential Manchester:
 It combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I.
 There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a
transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none.

The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-L,

and differential Manchester overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I.

1. First, there is no baseline wandering.

2. There is no DC component because each bit has a positive and negative
voltage contribution.
3. The only drawback is the signal rate. The signal rate for Manchester and
differential Manchester is double that for NRZ.
Types of Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar AMI Encoding
AMI and Pseudoternary:

 A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion

(AMI).
 In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy
and means 1. So AMI means alternate I inversion.
 A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0.
 Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
 A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is
encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive
and negative voltages.