STORM SURGES

Section Objectives:
1. Define the term 'storm surge"
2. Enumerate the characteristics of a storm surge and distinguish these from the characteristics of other natural
phenomena commonly mistaken as storm surges.
3. Describe the mechanism of storm surge formation and the different circumstances that lead to storm surge buildup.
4. Describe the hazards and potential damage associated with the occurrence of a storm surge.
5. Review the effects of the most recent storm surge experienced in the Philippines.

STORM SURGES
Have you seen a movie showing a series of very large, wall-like waves swallowing almost anything it
encounters? The movie Tidal Wave might ring a bell. However, a storm surge is quite different from the popular
depiction in such sci-fi or disaster films. In this lesson, we will learn that there are various ways in which large waves
are produced. We will also discuss the mechanism of formation and build-up of a storm surge.

What Is a Storm Surge?

A storm surge is a unusual, localized increase in seawater level beyond the predicted astronomical tide level,
primarily due to intense winds and reduced atmospheric pressure during the passage of an intense tropical cyclone
from sea to land. While storm surges can also be formed by tropical cyclones coming from land going to the sea, these
are more likely to be weaker. Storm surges are the primary cause of about 90% of casualties and damage to properties
in coastal areas during a tropical cyclone.
The Philippines is highly prone to storm surges because of its location near the equator in the Pacific region,
and due to the extensive length of is coastline. Depending on the source, the Philippines' rank by coastline length
varies. According to the World Factbook, the Philippines has a total coastline length of 36,289 km, making it the fourth
longest in the world. On the other hand, the World Resources institute puts the Philippines' total coastline length at
33,900 km, making it the eight longest in the world.
In terms of magnitude and extent, storm surges are similar to and often mistaken for tsunamis. Tsunami
literally means "harbor wave" in Japanese. Strictly speaking, this term pertains to a seismic sea wave. These terms are
often interchanged. Like a storm surge, tsunamis can reach heights of more than 10 m. A tsunami, however, is a
succession of water waves formed in the sea or ocean when an immense volume of water is displaced, possibly due to
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mass wasting events, meteorite impacts, underwater explosions, or any other
onshore and offshore disturbances strong enough to displace a great volume of water toward the land. In addition,
tsunamis have much longer wavelengths (tens to hundreds of kilometers) compared with storm surges (tens to
hundreds of meters) and more so, normal sea waves (several centimeters to a few meters). Arrival periods of tsunamis
typically range from minutes to hours.
The tidal wave, on the other hand, which a storm surge is also often erroneously called, is formed due to the
unbalanced, gravitational influence of celestial bodies like the Moon, Sun, and other planets. The wavelengths of a
tidal wave can so wide that it may take as much as 24 hours to arrive.

Factors that Influence the Buildup of Water Level During a Storm Surge
The following affect the amount of surge produced during a tropical cyclone:
1.Storm intensity (Wind speed)
A storm surge is mainly wind-driven. Storm intensity, which is related to the windspeed of a storm, influences
the amount of surge produced. The force exerted by the wind on the body of water is proportional to the square of
wind speed (V2). Therefore, the stronger the winds associated with a tropical cyclone, the higher the storm surge
formed.
2. Pressure effect
During a tropical cyclone, storm surge level is also influenced by atmospheric pressure. A lower atmospheric
pressure results in a higher storm surge level. Lowered atmospheric pressure and wind speed are the major causes of
storm surge formation.
 In the open ocean or sea, atmospheric pressure is the force exerted on the surface of water by the weight of
air in the Earth's atmosphere. The pressure is lower toward the center or eye of the tropical cyclone and higher in the
fringes. Water, as a result, is pushed down on the fringes and bulges at the center the eye of the tropical cyclone.
An atmospheric pressure drop of 1 millibar theoretically corresponds to a water level rise of 1 cm. However,
this can only happen if there is no restraint to the water flow toward the low pressure region like in the open ocean or
along the open coast with intermediate water depth. In some of the strongest tropical cyclones, pressure decreases by
about 100 millibars, which causes an increase in storm surge height of around 1 m.
That the highest surge levels happen at the center of the tropical cyclone due to reduced pressure is a
misconception. The effect of atmospheric pressure can be surpassed by other factors contributing to the buildup of
water level during a storm surge.
3.Size
A tropical cyclone with a larger diameter will form a higher surge because the winds brought about by larger
tropical cyclones push on a larger surface area of the ocean and affects this area for a longer period of time. As a result
of this longer duration, a greater amount of water is dumped over this area. Also, with a larger area coverage, it
becomes more difficult for the accumulated water of the surge to escape to its sides.
4. Storm forward speed
A tropical cyclone traveling with a higher velocity will produce a higher surge along an open coast. Conversely,
a tropical cyclone traveling with a lower velocity is more efficient in producing a higher and broader storm surge in
enclosed and semi-enclosed bodies of water like bays and estuaries.
A slow-moving tropical cyclone also causes more destruction because a greater amount of rainfall is dumped
over the area, which causes more flooding inland.
5. Angle of approach to coast
The amount of surge formed is affected by the angle at which the tropical cyclone hits the coastline. When a
tropical cyclone hits the coast perpendicularly (as opposed to an approach which is parallel or oblique), it will more
likely form a higher storm surge because a larger part of the storm surge mound comes into contact with the coastline.
and is allowed to build up more.
6. Effect of the Earth's rotation
There is a tendency for ocean currents to be deflected as a result of the Earth's rotation. This is called the
Coriolis effect. In the Northern Hemisphere, currents are bent to the right, while in the Southern Hemisphere currents
are bent to the left. Consequently, when a tropical cyclone forms in the Northern Hemisphere, the surge will be
observed to be largest in right- forward portion (northeast quadrant) of the tropical cyclone. When a tropical cyclone
forms in the Southern Hemisphere, the surge will be observed to be largest in left-forward portion (northwest
quadrant) of the tropical cyclone.
7. Rainfall effect
Water levels can rise quickly in estuaries because large volumes of accumulated rainwater from watersheds in
higher elevation areas, which are drained by rivers, encounter waters driven by the tropical cyclone from the open
ocean.
8. Geometry of coastal area (bathymetry, topography, coastline shape, and local features)
The height of the storm surge which reaches the shore is affected by the bathymetry of the ocean bottom.
Bathymetry is the appearance of the ocean or sea bottom resulting from the variation in depth in different portions.
Lower surges with higher and stronger waves are formed when the tropical cyclone hits a shoreline bordered by a
narrow shelf separated from the open sea by a steep slope. On the other hand, higher storm surges with smaller waves
are formed when the tropical cyclone hits a shoreline bordered by a wide shelf separated from the open sea by a
gentle slope. Storm surge buildup is promoted because return flow of water hitting the shore a is impeded by the
friction created by the gently-sloping underwater surface.
Topography (land configuration resulting from variation in elevation) also has an influence on storm surge
extent Wide, low-living areas with elevation of only a few meters above sea level are vulnerable to storm surges.
The shape of the coastline also affects the behavior of a storm surge. Storm surge level is higher when a
tropical cyclone hits a concave coastline. This is because of the funneling effect, which is simply the entrapment in a
smaller accommodation space of water being dumped by the strong winds.
In addition, man-made and natural local features found within the coastal area may affect the flow of water
and the behavior of the storm surge. Sea walls, breakwaters, mangroves, coral reefs, onshore vegetation, sand dunes,
and berms, to some extent, may weaken a storm surge.
9. Timing
As with the occurrence of a lot of other natural phenomena, timing plays an important role. When the
formation of a storm surge during a tropical cyclone coincides with a high astronomical tide, the resulting surge is
higher. When the surge approaches the coast near the time of the tropical cyclone's maximum wind speed, the surge
tends to have a greater inland reach.

Potential Damage by a Storm Surge

Buildings, roads, bridges, piers, and other infrastructure may not only be submerged they can also be washed
away and destroyed if they are not strongly rooted to the ground when a storm surge hits the area. Cars and almost
anything else in the path of the storm surge will surely be carried very far from their original positions because of the
enormous force of the waves driven inland. Saltwater may also contaminate groundwater.

Storm Surge Risk-Reduction Measures

While occurrence of storm surges during tropical cyclones presents one of the most devastating hazards, the
effects are not totally unavoidable. Below are some long-term risk reduction measures being practiced in most
countries with similar climactic conditions and geographic settings:

1.Storm surge prediction, hazard map preparation, and zoning

Computer programs employing mathematical models are now being used to simulate natural processes like
storm surges and to predict the potential location and extent of flooding. These require accurate numerical input
values to describe parameters like wind speed, tropical cyclone size, atmospheric pressure, place and time of land fall,
tide levels, wave and river flow rate, and the configuration of the coastal area.
Weather forecasting agencies like PAGASA of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) give
predictions with the longest lead time possible to give enough time for people in potentially affected areas to prepare
and/or evacuate.
Storm surge hazard maps show areas where inundation is to be expected, including the magnitude and extent.
From these, site-specific disaster prevention information such as evacuation sites and routes can be determined. These
are designed to assist administrative bodies in crisis management like the office of the Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council at the local and national levels and the office of the Municipal Planning and Development
Coordinator in long-term development planning (e.g., land use and zonation studies) to avoid future potential hazards.
As such, it is important to find out which areas are prone to storm surges. Figure 6.2-7 is a map of areas
frequently affected by storm surges and a list with descriptions of notable storm surge events in Philippines' written
history.
2. Construction of storm surge barriers
Storm surge barriers are gate-like, hard engineering structures installed in front of tidal inlets, rivers, and
estuaries which are closed before impending extreme water level increase, like storm surges. These prevent storm
surges from advancing upstream and therefore avoid life-threatening flooding. These may be designed to be either
fixed or movable. Operators see to it that these are partially open during normal weather conditions to allow water
exchange through the barrier in order to preserve the ecosystem and allow passage of ships going to ports.
Examples of these are the Thames Barrier in London and the Oosterscheldekering (Dutch for"Eastern Scheldt
storm surge barrier") in the Netherlands. However, a major drawback of putting up storm surge barriers is the high cost
of construction, operation, and maintenance.
3. Wetland protection
People residing near the coast can minimize the potential damage of a storm surge by protecting nearby
wetlands. This is because the sediments and vegetation found in swamps, estuaries, and mud flats can actually
dampen the destructive fore of storm surges. As much as possible, the development of these areas for housing
industry, or agriculture should be avoided.
Storm surges can also be reduced significantly by protecting offshore barrier. islands and coral reefs which act
as "shock absorbers" during storm surges; preserving mangrove forests along shores and forests just inland of the
beach as the roots and branches slow down the velocity of water flow; and preserving levees along rivers to maintain
elevation of areas beside rivers sufficiently above sea level.
What to Do in the Event of an Impending Storm Surge
There is usually an ample amount of time for people to prepare for a storm surge. If you happen to be near or
within a storm surge-prone area, here are several things to keep in mind and do:
1. During an unusually strong tropical cyclone, keep listening to official warnings of storm surges issued by PAGASA
through television or radio. It is convenient to have a radio that runs on batteries. Make sure to always have
batteries and flashlights prepared.
2. Find the nearest safe high ground where you can evacuate. An area of high elevation should be identified way
ahead of time especially if you are living in a low-lying area, like along the coast or near river channels.
3. When evacuating, bring only what is important and essential. You do not want to be bogged down by bringing
along so many things.
4. Your planned evacuation route should avoid streams, drainage channels, and any other conduits of water as
flashfloods can occur and can be life-threatening.

2013 Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) Leyte Storm Surge Tragedy

On November 8, 2013, Typhoon Yolanda (International name: Haiyan) made landfall initially on Guiuan, Samar,
on the eastern seaboard of the Philippines. Itis one of the strongest and deadliest tropical cyclones recorded in history.
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center in Hawaii, Typhoon Yolanda was characterized by one-minute
sustained speed of 314 km/h and 10-min sustained speed of 230 km/h. However, it already began forming on
November 2, 2013, as a low pressure area about 425 km east-southeast of Pohnpei in the Federated States of
Micronesia.
Typhoon Yolanda was already being closely monitored by weather monitoring agencies worldwide days before
it eventually hit the Philippines. The people were prepared for the arrival of the typhoon and evacuated further inland.
People have become used to typhoons because the country is visited by an average of 20 typhoons each year, with as
much as nine typhoons making landfall. However, most people were not prepared for the storm surge that resulted
from the landfall. Flooding was also expected, but not at the magnitude that inundated the city of Tacloban. This is
most likely the reason why some evacuees did not seek refuge in an area with high enough elevation. Most people
sought shelter in evacuation centers for fear of the storm winds that might tear down their houses made of light
materials or blow away their houses' roofs. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC)
estimated that there were more than 6000 dead, more than 1000 missing, and almost 30,000 injured.