TEXT READINGS

Chapter 16
16.1
1. As a cell grows in size, the volume of its cytoplasm increases at a faster rate than the surface
area of its plasma membrane. Recall that a cell absorbs nutrients and excretes wastes
through its plasma membrane. As the volume of the cytoplasm increases, more materials
must pass through this membrane. If a cell continued to grow, its plasma membrane would be
too small to meet its metabolic needs. Thus, a cell must stop growing once it reaches a
certain size.
2. The life cycle of the cell is called the cell cycle.
3. The microscope is the technology which helped advance cell theory. This is because
microscopes could be used to visualize processes such as cell division which are critical to
some tenets of cell theory.
4. The central feature of the cell cycle is the way that genetic material is duplicated and then
passed from the original cell, called the parent cell, to each new cell, called a daughter cell.
This process is made possible by the highly organized arrangement of genetic material within
a cell.
5. The genetic information of a cell is contained in its DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a molecule of
nucleic acid that governs processes of heredity in the cells of organisms. DNA is found in
each chromosome of a cell.
6. The centromere appears as a constricted region of a chromosome and plays a key role in
helping the cell divide up its DNA during division (mitosis and meiosis)
7. Humans somatic cells have 46 chromosomes
8. Similar looking chromosomes
9. X & Y chromosomes are called sex chromosomes because they determine whether an
individual is male or female.
10. A cell that contains pairs of homologous chromosomes is called diploid, and a cell that
contains unpaired chromosomes is called haploid, whereas the polyploid are the ones that
have sets of more than two homologous chromosomes.
11. The particular set of chromosomes that an individual possesses is called the individual’s
karyotype.
12. Autosomes= chromosomes that don't carry any genes that determine the sex of the
individual.Sex chromosomes= carry sex-determining genes (but may also carry many other
genes that have nothing to do with sex). There is one pair of sex chromosomes (X & Y in
mammals); all the rest (22 pairs in humans) are autosomes.
13. The cell cycle is made up of 2 main stages: Interphase (growth) stage and Division stage.
14. Phases of cell cycle:
 a. The interphase:
i. G1 phase: G1 is known for “growth 1”. The cell grows quickly during the G1
phase.
ii. S phase: It is about the midway of interphase, the cell’s DNA is copied exactly.
That is, the DNA in the chromatin replicates to create a second identical set
of DNA. These two identical chromosomes, called sister chromatids, are
joined at the centromere because new genetic material is synthesized during
this phase.
iii. G2 phase: this is the last segment of interphase known as “growth 2” DNA
replication in the S phase has consumed a great deal of energy, so this
second growth phase lets the dell rebuild its reserves of energy to prepare for
division. The cell manufactures proteins and other molecules to make
structure required for division of the nucleus and cell.
Interphase ends when the cell begins the process of nuclear division: mitosis
a. The Cell Division Phase:
i. Mitosis: the division of the genetic material and the contents of the
nucleus into two complete and separate sets.
ii. Cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm and the organelles into two
separate cells.

16.2
1. 3 important functions of mitosis and cytokinesis are: Growth, Maintenance, and Repair
2. The correct genetic information is necessary for each daughter cell to support adaptation
and evolution, preserve species integrity, allow normal cell function and specialization,
prevent genetic diseases, and pass on features.
3. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
4. 1) Prophase:
○ Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.
○ The nuclear envelope begins to break down.
○ Spindle fibers start to form.
○ Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids connected by a centromere.

2) Metaphase:

○ Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane, the metaphase plate.

○ Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome.
3) Anaphase:

○ Sister chromatids are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell.
○ Spindle fibers shorten, facilitating the separation of chromatids.
○ Chromatids are considered individual chromosomes.

4) Telophase:

○ Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell.

○ The nuclear envelope begins to reform around each set of chromosomes.
○ Spindle fibers disassemble.
○ Chromosomes gradually return to a less condensed chromatin state.
○ Two distinct nuclei form within the cell.
5. In animals, cytokinesis takes place through the formation of a furrow in the plasma
membrane whereas, in the case of plants, cytokinesis takes place through the formation of a
cell wall.

16.3
1. Reduction division and Recombination
2. Mitosis is responsible for growth and tissue repair, creating two identical cells.
Meiosis is necessary for sexual reproduction, producing four unique cells.
3. In ovaries and testes.
4. Meiosis 1 and 2
a. Meiosis 1
Prophase: Each pair of homologous chromosomes align side by side. This
aligning of homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. At synapsis,
chromosomes pair up. Crossing over occurs, where genetic material is
exchanged between homologous chromatids. The nuclear envelope breaks
down, and spindle fibers begin to form.
Metaphase: A spindle fibre attaches to the centromere of each chromosome.
A spindle fibre from one pole attaches to one pair of sister chromatids in the
tetrad, and a spindle fibre from the opposite pole attaches to the other pair of
sister chromatids. The spindle fibres guide each tetrad to the equator of the
cell. The chromosomes line up as a homologous pair.
Anaphase: During anaphase I, the spindle fibres shorten. This causes the
homologous chromosomes to separate from one another.The homologues
 move to opposite poles of the cell.The result is that a single chromosome
from each homologous pair moves to each pole of the cell.
Telophase: the homologous chromosomes begin to uncoil and the spindle
fibers disappear. The cytoplasm is divided, the nuclear membrane forms
around each group of homologous chromosomes, and two cells are formed.
Each of these new cells contains one set of sister chromatids and is now
haploid.

b. Meiosis 2
Prophase: Chromosomes condense again. The nuclear envelope breaks
down. Spindle fibers begin to form.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in each of the two
haploid cells.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids are finally separated and pulled toward
opposite poles of the cells.
Telophase: Chromatids reach opposite poles and may decondense into
chromatin. The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis occurs, resulting in a total of four haploid daughter cells, each
genetically unique due to the processes of crossing over and independent

5. Meiosis: Produces four haploid daughter cells. Introduces genetic diversity through
crossing over and independent assortment. Primarily for the formation of gametes in
sexual reproduction Mitosis: Produces two diploid daughter cells. Maintains genetic
identity with the parent cell. Facilitates growth, development, tissue repair, and
asexual reproduction.
6. Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of
homologous chromosomes in meiosis I.Crossing over is the exchange of DNA
material between nonsister homologous chromatids.
7. Sometimes chromosomes or chromatids do not separate as they should during
meiosis. This phenomenon is called nondisjunction. Nondisjunction occurs in
anaphase I and II of meiosis. When one chromosome is lost due to nondisjunction, it
is called monosomy. In this case, the gamete is missing one chromosome of a
homologous pair, nondisjunction can also result in trisomy—the gain of an extra
chromosome.
8. Similarities:
​ Gamete Formation: Both spermatogenesis and oogenesis are processes that result in the
formation of gametes—sperm in spermatogenesis and eggs (ova) in oogenesis. Mitotic
Division: Both processes involve mitotic divisions to increase the number of germ cells
 before entering meiosis. In both cases, these initial divisions produce cells that will undergo
meiosis to form mature gametes.
​ Meiosis: Both spermatogenesis and oogenesis include meiotic divisions to reduce the
chromosome number in half, resulting in haploid gametes.
​ Differences:
​ Location and Timing:
● Spermatogenesis: Begins at puberty and continues throughout the male's life in the
testes.
● Oogenesis: Initiates during fetal development, with the process paused until puberty.
●
9. During this process, asymmetric division of the zygote is essential for normal
embryogenesis and seed formation. Successful asymmetric zygote division requires
the mechanism that ensures both accurate position and correct orientation of cell
division plane.
10. Spermatogenesis: Timing: Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues
throughout the male's reproductive life. Continuous Production: Sperm production
occurs continuously, and new sperm cells are constantly being generated in the
testes.Produce Mature Gametes: The primary purpose of spermatogenesis is the
continuous production of mature, functional sperm cells. This ensures that males
have a constant supply of sperm capable of fertilizing eggs.

Oogenesis:Timing: Oogenesis initiates during fetal development, with the formation

of primary oocytes. However, the process is arrested in prophase I until puberty. Each
month after puberty, a small number of oocytes resume development. Episodic
Nature: Oogenesis is episodic, and only a limited number of oocytes complete the
maturation process each menstrual cycle. Finite Supply: Unlike spermatogenesis,
oogenesis has a finite supply of oocytes, and this supply is established before birth.
Produce Mature Gametes and Nourish Offspring: The primary purpose of oogenesis is
to produce a relatively small number of mature eggs (ova) and provide them with the
necessary cytoplasmic resources for fertilization and early embryonic development.
Oocytes also carry organelles and nutrients required for the initial stages of
embryonic development.

Adaptations to Functions:The continuous nature of spermatogenesis ensures a

constant supply of mobile and functional sperm throughout a male's reproductive
lifespan, facilitating the frequent production of offspring. Oogenesis, with its episodic
and finite nature, is adapted to the female reproductive cycle. It provides a limited
number of mature eggs, each with sufficient cytoplasmic resources to support
 fertilization and early embryonic development. This timing aligns with the cyclical
nature of the menstrual cycle and the potential for pregnancy.

11. Fraternal twins develop from two separate eggs fertilized by different sperm cells,
resulting in siblings with different genetic makeup. Identical twins, on the other hand,
originate from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos, leading to
genetically identical siblings. The timing of the split influences whether identical
twins share placenta and amniotic structures.
16.4
1. Asexual reproduction is the reproductive process in which a parent organism
produces genetically identical offspring. Sexual reproduction involves the
production of gametes by meiosis, followed by fertilization between genetically
distinct parental gametes to produce genetically distinct offspring.
2. asexual reproduction in prokaryotic cells through binary fission differs from mitosis
in eukaryotic cells in terms of the absence of a nucleus, the structure of genetic
material, the simplicity of the process, and the lack of membrane-bound organelle
involvement in binary fission.
3. Conjugation occurs primarily in prokaryotic cells, involving the transfer of
extrachromosomal genetic material, while sexual reproduction is a eukaryotic
process that includes the transfer of nuclear DNA between gametes, leading to the
formation of genetically distinct offspring.
4. Vegetative reproduction and Fragmentation
5. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which an unfertilized egg
develops into an adult.
6. A spore is a structure that contains genetic material and cytoplasm surrounded by a
protective sheath or wall.
7. Alternation of Generations: Alternation of generations is a life cycle pattern observed
in certain plants and algae, where the organism alternates between two distinct
multicellular phases: a haploid (gametophyte) phase and a diploid (sporophyte) phase.
Alternation of Reproductive Cycles: Alternation of reproductive cycles is not a widely
recognized concept in biological terminology. It is possible that it is being used
informally or in a specific context not covered by standard biological definitions.