SAS ARCHITECTURE

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What is an Ethernet Switch?

Ethernet switches are the most common form of network switches.

An Ethernet switch creates networks and uses multiple ports to communicate between
devices in the LAN.
Ethernet switching connects wired devices such as computers, laptops, servers, and
printers to a local area network (LAN). Multiple Ethernet switch ports allow for faster
connectivity and smoother access across many devices at once.
Ethernet switches differ from routers, which connect networks and use only a single
LAN and WAN port.
In the home or office, the Ethernet switch functions as a central station connecting
computers, printers and every other wired device to each other. The switch is also wired
to the router and modem to access the Internet. The wireless counterpart to Ethernet is
Wi-Fi
Dozens of devices can connect to a network using an Ethernet switch, and
administrators can monitor traffic, control communications among machines, securely
manage user access, and rapidly troubleshoot.
Routers connect networks to other networks, most commonly connecting LANs to wide
area networks (WANs). Routers are usually placed at the gateway between networks
and route data packets along the network.

Hubs are similar to Ethernet switches in that connected devices on the LAN will be
wired to them, using multiple ports. The big difference is that hubs share bandwidth
equally among ports, while Ethernet switches can devote more bandwidth to certain
ports without degrading network performance. When many devices are active on a
network, Ethernet switching provides more robust performance.

Most corporate networks use combinations of switches, routers, and hubs, and wired
and wireless technology.

The first Ethernet cross-connecting devices were "hubs" that share the total bandwidth.
However, the switch treats each send-receive pair at full speed, and most all hubs have
been replaced with switches
 Hubs and Switches

How Ethernet Switches Work:

Frames are sequences of information, travel over Ethernet networks to move data
between computers. An Ethernet frame includes a destination address, which is where
the data is traveling to, and a source address, which is the location of the device
sending the frame. In a standard seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model for computer networking, frames are part of Layer 2, also known as the data-link
layer. These are sometimes known as “link layer devices” or “Layer 2 switches.”
Terms and Functions of Ethernet Switches Work:

Transparent Bridging is the most popular and common form of bridging, crucial to
Ethernet switch functionality. Using transparent bridging, a switch automatically begins
working without requiring any configuration on a switch or changes to the computers in
the network (i.e. the operation of the switch is transparent).

Address Learning -- Ethernet switches control how frames are transmitted between
switch ports, making decisions on how traffic is forwarded based on 48-bit media
access control (MAC) addresses that are used in LAN standards. An Ethernet switch
can learn which devices are on which segments of the network using the source
addresses of the frames it receives.

Every port on a switch has a unique MAC address, and as frames are received on
ports, the software in the switch looks at the source address and adds it to a table of
addresses it constantly updates and maintains. (This is how a switch “discovers” what
devices are reachable on which ports.) This table is also known as a forwarding
database, which is used by the switch to make decisions on how to filter traffic to reach
certain destinations. That the Ethernet switch can “learn” in this manner makes it
possible for network administrators to add new connected endpoints to the network
without having to manually configure the switch or the endpoints.

Traffic Filtering -- Once a switch has built a database of addresses, it can smoothly
select how it filters and forwards traffic. As it learns addresses, a switch checks frames
and makes decisions based on the destination address in the frame. Switches can also
isolate traffic to only those segments needed to receive frames from senders, ensuring
that traffic does not unnecessarily flow to other ports.

Frame Flooding -- Entries in a switch’s forwarding database may drop from the list if
the switch doesn’t see any frames from a certain source over a period of time. (This
keeps the forwarding database from becoming overloaded with “stale” source
information.) If an entry is dropped— meaning it once again is unknown to the switch—
but traffic resumes from that entry at a later time, the switch will forward the frame to all
switch ports (also known as frame flooding) to search for its correct destination. When it
connects to that destination, the switch once again learns the correct port, and frame
flooding stops.

Multicast Traffic -- LANs are not only able to transmit frames to single addresses, but
also capable of sending frames to multicast addresses, which are received by groups of
endpoint destinations. Broadcast addresses are a specific form of multicast address;
they group all of the endpoint destinations in the LAN. Multicasts and broadcasts are
commonly used for functions such as dynamic address assignment, or sending data in
multimedia applications to multiple users on a network at once, such as in online
gaming. (Streaming applications such as video, which send high rates of multicast data
and generate a lot of traffic, can hog network bandwidth.

Managed vs. Unmanaged Ethernet Switches

Unmanaged Ethernet switching refers to switches that have no user configuration; these
can just be plugged in and turned on.

Managed Ethernet switching refers to switches that can be managed and programmed
to deliver certain outcomes and perform certain tasks, from adjusting speeds and
combining users into subgroups, to monitoring network traffic.

What is an Ethernet switch How does it work?

An ethernet switch works at the data link level. Devices with IPs create packets, which
are then housed within an ethernet frame. Frames are sequences of information, travel
over Ethernet networks to move data between computers. Encapsulation. In order to
transport the information contained in the IP packet through the network, encapsulation
occurs, where bits adhere to the front and back of the packet.

What is the difference between an Ethernet switch and a router?

While a network switch can connect multiple devices and networks to expand the LAN,
a router will allow you to share a single IP address among multiple network devices. In
simpler terms, the Ethernet switch creates networks and the router allows for
connections between networks.
Does an Ethernet switch need a router?

Note: switches have absolutely no routing functionality and cannot take the place of
a router. Your router likely has a four-port switch built into it but that does not mean your
new eight-port dedicated switch can replace your router—you still need the router to
mediate between your modem and switch.

Ethernet switches connect essential devices such as

laptops, computers and servers to a local area network (LAN). They can be
an essential piece of hardware in networking for organizations of all sizes,
as multiple Ethernet ports allow for quicker connectivity and access across a
multitude of devices. They also provide a more reliable connection than Wi-
Fi.

Before we discuss how a network switch works, first consider the role an
ethernet switch plays in connectivity. An ethernet switch connects devices on
a network to ensure the data arrives at its destination. The network switch
may include ports for 5, 8, 12, 16, 24 or 28 devices, whereas corporate
ethernet switches may commonly offer between 32 and 128 connections.
Packet switching allows the network to receive, forward and process that
data before delivering it to the intended device. Networked devices
communicate effortlessly when their respective cables connect into the
switch.

Ethernet Switches vs. Hubs

Ethernet hubs work much in the same way but can only complete a simple
data transfer between connected devices. In contrast, switches offer added
layers of security and control over how data is transferred. A home network
may only require a hub, whereas a business or enterprise network may need
one or more switches for proper network functioning.
A network switch carries numerous benefits over the less sophisticated
ethernet hub, which cannot distinguish between recipients and nonrelated
computers and devices. For this reason, ethernet switches tend to be more
efficient and reliable than hubs.

For a deeper look at the differences and advantages of these devices, read
our guide on Ethernet Switches vs. Routers vs. Hubs.

Hubs and Switches

The first Ethernet cross-connecting devices were "hubs" that share the total
bandwidth. However, the switch treats each send-receive pair at full speed,
and most all hubs have been replaced with switches.
Versatility & Flexibility for Wired Networks

An ethernet switch provides great versatility and flexibility for non-wireless

networks. Dozens of devices can connect to the network by way of an
ethernet switch. Network administrators can monitor traffic, control
communications between machines and manage user access on the network.
Ethernet switches operate as an alternative to wireless networks, which
connect machines to the network using a wireless modem or adapter,
without the need for ethernet cables and ports.

Types of Network Switches

Many different types of network switches exist to satisfy unique needs of

business or personal networks. One of the biggest aspects to consider is
whether the network switch is managed or unmanaged:

 Unmanaged switches operate simply as a plug-and-play connection

between devices on the network (computers, printers, etc.) without the
ability to customize configurations. While the functionality may be limited,
these are usually more affordable.

Managed switches offer greater control over traffic with the

ability to configure advanced settings and features to meet your
requirements.

Chapter 1. Basic Switch Operation

What an Ethernet Switch Does

Ethernet switches link Ethernet devices together by relaying

Ethernet frames between the devices connected to the switches. By
moving Ethernet frames between the switch ports, a switch links the
traffic carried by the individual network connections into a larger
Ethernet network.

Ethernet switches perform their linking function by bridging Ethernet

frames between Ethernet segments. To do this, they copy Ethernet
frames from one switch port to another, based on the Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses in the Ethernet frames. Ethernet bridging
was initially defined in the 802.1D IEEE Standard for Local and
Metropolitan Area Networks: Media Access Control (MAC) Bridges.[1]

The standardization of bridging operations in switches makes it

possible to buy switches from different vendors that will work together
when combined in a network design. That’s the result of lots of hard
work on the part of the standards engineers to define a set of
standards that vendors could agree upon and implement in their
switch designs.

Bridges and Switches

The first Ethernet bridges were two-port devices that could link two of the
original Ethernet system’s coaxial cable segments together. At that time,
Ethernet only supported connections to coaxial cables. Later, when twisted-
pair Ethernet was developed and switches with many ports became widely
available, they were often used as the central connection point, or hub, of
Ethernet cabling systems, resulting in the name “switching hub.” Today, in
the marketplace, these devices are simply called switches.

Things have changed quite a lot since Ethernet bridges were first developed
in the early 1980s. Over the years, computers have become ubiquitous, and
many people use multiple devices at their jobs, including their laptops,
smartphones, and tablets. Every VoIP telephone and every printer is a
computer, and even building management systems and access controls (door
locks) are networked. Modern buildings have multiple wireless access points
(APs) to provide 802.11 Wi-Fi services for things like smartphones and
tablets, and each of the APs is also connected to a cabled Ethernet system. As
a result, modern Ethernet networks may consist of hundreds of switch
connections in a building, and thousands of switch connections across a
campus network.
What Is a Switch?

You should know that there is another network device used to link networks,
called a router. There are major differences in the ways that bridges and
routers work, and they both have advantages and disadvantages, as described
in Routers or Bridges?. Very briefly, bridges move frames between Ethernet
segments based on Ethernet addresses with little or no configuration of the
bridge required. Routers move packets between networks based on high-level
protocol addresses, and each network being linked must be configured into
the router. However, both bridges and routers are used to build larger
networks, and both devices are called switches in the marketplace.

TIP

We will use the words “bridge” and “switch” interchangeably to describe

Ethernet bridges. However, note that “switch” is a generic term for network
devices that may function as bridges, or routers, or even both, depending on
their feature sets and configuration. The point is that as far as network experts
are concerned, bridging and routing are different kinds of packet switching
with different capabilities. For our purposes, we will follow the practices of
Ethernet vendors who use the word “switch,” or more specifically, “Ethernet
switch,” to describe devices that bridge Ethernet frames.

While the 802.1D standard provides the specifications for bridging local area
network frames between ports of a switch, and for a few other aspects of
basic bridge operation, the standard is also careful to avoid specifying issues
like bridge or switch performance or how switches should be built. Instead,
vendors compete with one another to provide switches at multiple price
points and with multiple levels of performance and capabilities.

The result has been a large and competitive market in Ethernet switches,
increasing the number of choices you have as a customer. The wide range of
switch models and capabilities can be confusing. In Chapter 4, we discuss
special purpose switches and their uses.
Operation of Ethernet Switches

Networks exist to move data between computers. To perform that

task, the network software organizes the data being moved into
Ethernet frames. Frames travel over Ethernet networks, and the data
field of a frame is used to carry data between computers. Frames are
nothing more than arbitrary sequences of information whose format is
defined in a standard.

The format for an Ethernet frame includes a destination address at the

beginning, containing the address of the device to which the frame is
being sent.[2] Next comes a source address, containing the address of
the device sending the frame. The addresses are followed by various
other fields, including the data field that carries the data being sent
between computers, as shown in Figure 1-1.

(FROM NEW PRAG)

25.2.1 System Elements The main system elements in a substation

control system are: IEDs, implementing a
specific function or functions on a circuit or busbar in a substation. The
most common example of an IED is a numerical protection relay, but it
could also be a measurement device, interface unit to older relays,
etc. Bay Module (or “Bay Controller”). This
device will normally contain all of the software required for the control
and interlocking of a single bay in the substation, and sufficient I/O to
interface to all of the devices required for
measurement/protection/control of the bay. The I/O may include digital
and analogue I/O (for interfacing to discrete devices such as breaker
tripping and closing circuits, isolator motors, non-digital legacy relays)
and communications links to IEDs. RTU
(Remote Terminal Unit). This is a device installed at a substation,
which collects analogue, digital and status data and transmits this in a
suitable format to the remote SCADA master.
Human Machine Interface (HMI). This is the principal user interface
and would normally take the form of a computer. A desktop PC is
commonly used, but specialised computers are also possible, while
normally unmanned substations may dispense with a permanently
installed HMI and rely on operations/maintenance staff bringing a
laptop computer equipped with the appropriate software with them
when attendance is required. Sometimes, one or more printers are
linked to the HMI in order to provide hard-copy event records or other
reports. A communications bus or busses,
linking the various devices. Where a substation automation system is
being retrofitted to an existing substation, it may be necessary to use
existing communications busses to communicate with some legacy
devices. This can lead to a multiplicity of communications busses and
protocols within the automation system A link to
a remote SCADA system. This may be provided by a dedicated
interface unit, be part of the HMI computer or part of an IED. A
dedicated gateway is used to provide a secure means of
communicating outside the substation, encrypting the data and
making it immune from cyber attacks.

GATEWAY :

What is gateway and why it is used?

A gateway is a network node used in telecommunications that
connects two networks with different transmission protocols together.
Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a network as all data
must pass through or communicate with the gateway prior to being
routed.
What is a gateway in PLC?

As is suggested by its name, a PLC gateway is a network entity and

also called the protocol converter. A gateway can join dissimilar
systems and can be used in various applications in the automation
world. Perhaps the most obvious is as a bridge between two PLC
controller systems from different brands.4 ப்., 2020

What is gateway device?

A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two
networks. It may be a router, firewall, server, or another device that
enables traffic to flow in and out of the network. It allows computers
within the local network to send and receive data over the Internet. ...1

Why is gateway used?

A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping
point for data on its way to or from other networks. Thanks to
gateways, we are able to communicate and send data back and forth.
The Internet wouldn't be any use to us without gateways (as well as a
lot of other hardware and software).

What is bridge and gateway?

Bridge connects two different LAN working on same protocol. While
gateway will settle for and transfer the packet across networks
employing a completely different protocol. ... In bridge, data or
information is in the form of packet. Whereas in gateway, data or
information is also in the form of

A gateway mainly works on IP(Internet Protocol) Addresses for

dissimilar network communication. It has control over both
collisions(inside a network) as well as broadcast(outside the networks)
domain. It can also encapsulate and decapsulate the data packets
when they send and receive the data packets respectively.

What is the difference between router and gateway?

A Router is a networking layer system used to manage and forward
data packets to computer networks. A gateway is simply a device or
hardware that acts as a "gate" between the networks. It could also be
defined as a node that acts as an entry for other network nodes.
 Is a gateway a router?
Difference between Gateway & Router

A router is a device that is capable of sending and receiving data

packets between computer networks, also creating an overlay
network. A Gateway, on the other hand, joins dissimilar systems. ...
The gateway can also allow the network to connect the computer to
the internet.19 ச., 2017

What is Repeater and gateway?

A Gateway: is a physical WiFi Access Point connected to a Cat5/6

cable (usually a blue cord coming from the wall, Switch or Router with
telephone cable like ends on it). ... A Repeater: is a physical WiFi
Access Point not connected to a CAT5/6 cable. Repeaters simply
extend the reach of your WiFi network.21 நவ., 2016

Difference between Bridge and Gateway

 Last Updated : 03 Jun, 2019
Prerequisite – Network Devices
Bridge:
Bridge is a network device which works in data link layer. Bridge
connects two different LAN working on same protocol. Also In bridge,
format of packet is not changed.
 IEDs

Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) being implemented in substations today contain

valuable information, both operational and non-operational, needed by many user groups
within the utility. An IED is any device that incorporates one or more processors with the
capability to receive or send data/control from or to an external source (e.g., electronic
multifunction meters, digital relays, controllers). IED technology can help utilities improve
reliability, gain operational efficiencies, and enable asset management programs including
predictive maintenance, life extensions and improved planning.

IEDs are a key component of substation integration and automation technology. Substation
integration involves integrating protection, control, and data acquisition functions into a
minimal number of platforms to reduce capital and operating costs, reduce panel and
control room space, and eliminate redundant equipment and databases.

IEDs facilitate the exchange of both operational and non-operational data. Operational data,
also called supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data, are instantaneous
values of power system analog and status points such as volts, amps, MW, MVAR, circuit
breaker status, switch position. This data is time critical and is used to monitor and control
the power system (e.g., opening circuit breakers, changing tap settings, equipment failure
indication, etc.). Non-operational data consists of files and waveforms such as event
summaries, oscillographic event reports, or sequential events records, in addition to
SCADA-like points (e.g., status and analog points) that have a logical state or a numerical
value. This data is not needed by the SCADA dispatchers to monitor and control the power
system.

Protocol Considerations - There are two capabilities a utility considers for an IED. The
primary capability of an IED is its standalone capabilities, such as protecting the power
system for a relay IED. The secondary capability of an IED is its integration capabilities,
such as its physical interface (e.g., RS-232, RS-485, Ethernet) and its communication
protocol (e.g., DNP3, Modbus, IEC 61850 MMS). Today utilities typically specify the IEDs
they want to use in the substation rather than giving a supplier a turnkey contract to provide
the supplier’s IEDs only in the substation. However, utilities typically choose the IEDs based
on the IED’s standalone capabilities only, without considering the IED’s integration
capabilities.
The need for a standard IED protocol dates back to the late 1980s. IED suppliers
acknowledge that their expertise is in the IED itself – not in two-way communications
capability, the communications protocol, or added IED functionality from a remote user.

Though the industry made some effort to add communications capability to the IEDs, each
IED supplier was concerned that any increased functionality would compromise
performance and drive the IED cost so high that no utility would buy it. Therefore, the
industry vowed to keep costs competitive and performance high as standardization was
incorporated into the IED.

IED and RTU serve two different purposes and you can not swap one for another. IEDs
do not communicate to the SCADA master station directly. They communicate to the
main RTU using serial communication protocol and then RTU send the collate data to
the SCADA master station via FEPs.