ANAPHY REVIEWER or by means if adhesive patch.

The skin is
an important site of transport.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
WATER RESISTANCE - Skin acts as a
The largest body system includes the skin & water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients
accessory structures (hair, nails, & aren’t washed out of the body.
sebaceous & sweat glands. It covers an
area measuring 10 3/4 to 21 ½ sq. ft.& HYPODERMIS - Is loose connective tissue
accounts for about 15% of bodyweight. that attaches the skin to underlying tissue,
about ½ of the body’s fat is stored.
SKIN - is the outer covering of the body. It is
the largest organ of the integumentary EPIDERMIS - The outer thinner portion
system made of multiple layers of epithelial which is composed of epithelial tissue.
tissues and guards the underlying muscles,
KERATINOCYTE - Produces the protein
bones, ligaments, and internal organs.
keratin that helps waterproof and protect the
PROTECTION – An anatomical barrier from skin and underlying tissues. It is the major
pathogens and damage between the epidermal cell.
internal and external environment in bodily MELANOCYTE - produces the pigment
defense.
melanin – a brown – black pigment that
SENSATION – Contains a variety of nerve contributes to skin color and absorbs UV
endings that react to heat and cold, touch, light from the sun.
pressure, vibration, and tissue energy. LANGERHAN CELL - Interacts with WBC’s
called t-cell in immune responses and are
HEAT REGULATION – The skin contains easily damaged by UV radiation.
blood greater than its requirements which
allow control of heat loss by radiation, MERKEL CELL - Located on the deepest
convection, conduction, and evaporation. layer of epidermis (Stratum Basale). It
Dilated blood increase perfusion & heat loss contacts the ending of a sensory neuron
while constricted vessels greatly reduce and is thought to function in the sensation of
blood flow in the skin and conserve heat. touch.
Epidermis Layers - Dead skin cells are
AESTHETIC & COMMUNICATION – Other called STRATUM CORNEUM.
see our skin and can assess our physical
state and attractiveness. STRATUM CORNEUM

STORAGE & SYNTHESIS – Acts as a • is composed of cells called

storage center for liquids and water, as well KERATIN.
as means of synthesis of Vitamin D • Is AVASCULAR blood (no)
(Calcitriol) by action of UV on certain parts • Has no nerve tissue (can’t feel pain)
of the skin.
STRATUM LUCIDUM
EXCRETION – Sweat contains urea;
excretion by sweating is atmost secondary • Found only on the palms of the
function to temperature regulation. hands, fingertips and sole of the
feet.
ABSORPTION – Oxygen, nitrogen, and • Clear skin and dead keratinocytes.
carbon dioxide can diffuse into the
epidermis. In addition, medicine can be STRATUM GRANULOSUM•
administered through the skin by ointments
 • where part of keratin production • Glands
occurs. Keratin is a protein which is • Hair follicles
the main component of the skin. • Collagen, 70% a protein that is
Almost dead, 5 layers are nucleated responsible for giving skin strength
cells. and a bit of elasticity.
STRATUM SPINOSUM HYPODERMIS: SUBCUTANEOUS FAT
• Gives strength as well as flexibility. • Subcutaneous fat or superficial
• Thickest layer. fascia.
• Mature keratinocyte. Melanin • The deepest layer of the skin is
granules and Langerhans cells. called hypodermis, like the dermis,
the layer contains blood vessels and
EPIDERMIS LAYERS
nerves. It is composed of adipose
STRATUM BASALE (fat) tissue, a form of connective
tissue.
• Where the skin most important cells, • Deep to the subcutaneous layer is
called keratinocytes are formed the fascial layer that covers the
before moving up to the surface of muscles beneath.
the epidermis are being shed into
the environment a dead skin. GLANDS
• It contains melanocytes, the cells
that are responsible for determining SEBACEOUS GLANDS
the color of skin and protecting from Occur in all parts of skin except the
the harmful effects of UV radiation. palms & soles, most prominent scalp,
These harmful effects include burn face, upper torso & genitalia.
in the short term and cancer long
term. (for mitosis). • Produce sebum (oil secreting
gland of the skin), lipid
TRUE SKIN DERMIS substance & secrete it into the
Has 2 distinct layers: hair follicles through sebaceous
duct, then exits through the hair
1. PAPILLARY LAYER – more superficial follicle opening to reach the skin
(thin) surface.
2. RETICULAR LAYER – deeper • Sebum- helps to waterproof the
(connective tissues) hair & skin, promote absorption
of fat-soluble substances into the
Accessory organs begin in dermis. The dermis, involved in vitamin D3
dermis contains blood vessels and nerve production & have an
tissues. Blood vessels also allow immune antibacterial function.
system cells to
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS
come to the skin to fight an infection. The
vessels also help carry away waste Are sweat glands, under the control of
products. NERVES that help us relay autonomic NS and located at dermis
signals coming from the skin. These signals (except the nipples & parts of the external
include touch, temperature, pressure, pain genitalia).
and itching.
Two types of sweat glands: BURNS:

1. Eccrine- widely distributed throughout ➢ 1st degree burn- partial

the body, produces odorless, watery fluids thickness burns damage
with a sodium concentration equal to only the epidermis.
plasma. In the palms & soles it secretes ➢ 2nd degree burn- partial
fluid in response to emotional stress. The thickness burns damage the
remaining 3 million eccrine gland respond to epidermis & dermis.
thermal stress, regulating temperature. ➢ 3rd degree burn- full
thickness burn destroys the
2. Apocrine- located chiefly in the axillary & epidermis, dermis & usually
anogenital areas, lies deeper in the dermis, underlying tissues.
a duct connects an apocrine gland to the
upper portion of the hair follicle. It begins to Skin Cancer:
function at puberty & no known biological
➢ Basal cell carcinoma- involves the
function.
cells of the stratum Basale & is
• Produce an organic secretion that readily treatable.
can be broken down by bacteria to ➢ Squamous cell carcinoma- involves
cause body. the cells immediately superficial to
• Ceruminous glands are modified the stratum Basale & can
apocrine glands found in the lining metastasize.
of the external ear canal. They ➢ Malignant melanoma- involves
secrete yellow, waxy substance – melanocytes, can metastasize & can
cerumen or earwax, this protects be fatal.
the ear from insects & other foreign Effects of aging on the Integumentary
materials. System:
HAIR: ➢ Blood flow to the skin is reduced,
• Columns of dead keratinized skin becomes thinner & elasticity
epithelial cells. Each hair consists of is lost.
a shaft (above the skin), root (below ➢ Sweat & sebaceous gland are
the skin), & hair bulb (site of hair less active, & the number of
cell formation). melanocytes decrease.
• Have a growth phase & a resting ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
phase.
• Muscles- contraction of the erector THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE
pili which are smooth muscles, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
causes hair to “stand on the end” &
• GLANDS – SPECIALIZED CELL
produce a “goose flesh”.
CLUSTERS OR ORGANS
NAILS: • HORMONES – CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES SECRETED BY
• Consists of the nail body & nail GLANDS IN RESPONSE TO
root. STIMULATION
• Nail matrix produces the nail, • RECEPTORS - PROTEIN
which is stratum corneum MOLECULES THAT BIND WITH
containing hard keratin.
OTHER MOLECULES, SUCH AS ▪ Pheromones- secreted into the
HORMONES, TO TRIGGER SPECIFIC environment that modify the
PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES IN A TARGET behavior & physiology of other
CELL. individuals. Produced by women can
influence the timing of the menstrual
MAJOR GLANDS:
cycle of other women.
• Pituitary Receptors:
• Pineal
• Thyroid ▪ Chemical signals bind to
• Parathyroid receptor sites on receptor
• Thymus molecules to produce a
• Adrenal response.
• Pancreas Hormones:
• Gonads (ovaries & testes)
▪ Are released into the circulatory
FUNCTIONS system & travel some distance,
where they act on target tissues
• WATER BALANCE
to produce a response.
• UTERINE CONTRACTION
▪ A target tissue for a given
• GROWTH, METABOLISM, AND hormone has a receptor
TISSUE MATURATION molecule for that hormone.
• ION REGULATION
• HEART RATE AND BLOOD ENDOCRINOLOGY
PRESSURE REGULATION
- Study of the endocrine system.
• BLOOD GLUCOSE CONTROL
• IMMUNE SYSTEM - Hormone levels in the blood are
• REGULATIONREPRODUCTION maintained by negative feedback.
FUNCTIONS CONTROL
- A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
OVERALL FUNCTIONS: To regulate the blood triggers the release of more hormone
activities of various body organs.
- Hormone release stops once an
Chemical Signals or Ligands (to bind) appropriate level in the blood is reached.

▪ Autocrine released by cells & has a PTH

local effect on the same cell type.
▪ Capillary Blood contains low
Chemicals that are released from
concentration of the calcium which
smooth muscle cells & agregation of
stimulates… Secretion of the
platelets- blood vessels dilate &
parathyroid hormone (PTH).
blood clot.
▪ Paracrine- released by cells that GLAND – Any organ that produces a certain
have effects on other cell types near secretion.
the cells from which they are
released. A peptide (somatostatin) HORMONES – Are chemical substances
released by cells in the pancreas & which regulate the activities of various body
functions locally to inhibit the organs.
secretion of insulin from other cells
of the pancreas.
Is the second messenger system of the (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS) PRODUCES SIX
body, allow cells to communicate with each HORMONES
other to regulate bodily activities.
1. GROWTH HORMONE (GH) or
Uses chemical messages (HORMONES) somatotropin
that are replaced into the blood.
▪ General metabolic hormone
HORMONES control several major ▪ Major effects are directed to growth
processes. of skeletal muscles and long bones.
▪ Causes amino acids to be built into
▪ Growth and development
proteins.
▪ Mobilization of body defenses
▪ Causes fats to be broken down for a
Maintenance of much of source of energy
homeostasis
▪ Regulation of metabolism 2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) or
▪ Sexual function , Reproduction thyrotropin
▪ Sleep and Mood
3. Corticotropin
HORMONES are produced by specialized
4. Follicle –Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
cells. Cells secrete hormones into
stimulates follicle development in ovaries;
extracellular fluids, blood transfers
stimulates sperm development in testes.
hormones to target sites. These hormones
regulate the activity of other cells. 5. Leutenizing Hormone (LH)
▪ Amino acid – based hormones 6. PROLACTIN (PRL):
▪ Protein, Peptides, Amines
▪ Steroids – made from cholesterol. ▪ Stimulates and maintains milk
▪ Prostaglandins - made from highly production following childbirth.
active lipids. ▪ Function in males in unknown

MAJOR ORGANS POSTERIOR PITUITARY:

Pituitary gland ▪ Makes about 25% of the gland.
▪ Serves as storage area for
(hypophysis or master gland) antidiuretic hormones (ADH) &
▪ Pea-sized gland weigh less than 1/8 oxytocin which are produced by the
oz (less than 0.75g) hypothalamus.
▪ Connects with the hypothalamus via THYROID GLAND:
infundibulum-it receives. Chemical &
nervous stimulation Lies directly below the larynx, partially in
▪ Protected by the sphenoid bone at front of the trachea. Its two lateral lobes-
the base of the brain. one on either side of trachea-join with a
narrow tissue bridge- isthmus to give its
2 MAIN REGIONS butterfly shape.
Anterior pituitary glandular tissue Produces hormones:
Posterior pituitary nervous tissue ▪ Triiodothyronine (T3)
ANTERIOR PITUITARY: ▪ Thyroxine (T4)
T3 & T4 body’s major metabolic hormones, catecholamines: epinephrine &
regulating metabolism by speeding cellular norepinephrine.
respiration. ▪ Cathecolamines play an important
role in the autonomic nervous
Calcitonin- maintains blood calcium level
system (ANS), adrenal medulla is
by inhibiting the release of calcium from
considered a neuroendocrine
bone.
structure.
PARATHYROID GLAND:
Body’s smallest endocrine glands on the PANCREAS:
posterior surface of the thyroid. Produce
▪ Triangular organ lies across the
parathyroid Hormone (PTH)- helps regulate
posterior abdominal wall, its
the blood’s calcium balance. Adjusts the
head & neck nestle in the curve
rate at which calcium & magnesium ions are
of the abdomen, its body
removed from the urine. Increases the
stretches horizontally behind the
movement of phosphate ions from the blood
stomach & its tail extends to the
to urine for excretion.
spleen.
ADRENAL GLAND: ➢ Performs both endocrine &
exocrine functions:
▪ Two glands sit on top of the kidney.
➢ Endocrine cells of the pancreas
▪ Almond –shaped glands contain two
(islet cells or islets of
distinct structures:
Langerhans). Islets contain
Adrenal Cortex alpha, beta, & delta cells-
produce important hormones:
Large outer layer region. Has three zones or
layers: HORMONES:

▪ Zona glomerulosa- outermost zone, INSULIN

produces mineralocorticoids ▪ Released from beta cells.
(aldosterone); helps maintain fluid
balance by increasing sodium GLUCAGON
reabsorption.
▪ Released from alpha cells.
Zona faciculata- middle & largest zone,
SOMATOSTATIN
produces glucocorticoids.
▪ Released from delta cells.
cortisol(hydrocortisone), cortisone, &
corticosterone & small amount of sec MEDULLA
hormones androgen & estrogen.
Glucocorticoids help regulate metabolism & Inner neural tissue region
resistance to stress. HORMONES OF MEDULLA:
Zona reticularis- innermost zone, produces CATECHOLAMINES
some sex hormones.
▪ Short term stress
ADRENAL MEDULLA
EPINEPHRINE
▪ Inner layer of the adrenal gland,
functions as part of the sympathetic ▪ Is called adrenalin
nervous system & produces 2
NOREPONEPHRINE
 ▪ When the body is under stress. Estrogen
Fight or flight response
▪ Produced by graafian follicles / the
GLUCOCORTIDOIDS placenta.
▪ Stimulates the secondary female
▪ Cortisol, promote normal cell
characteristics.
metabolism.
▪ Matures female reproductive organs.
▪ Help resist long term stress.
▪ Help prepare the uterus to receive a
▪ Released in response to
fertilized egg.
increased blood levels of ACTH.
▪ Helps maintain pregnancy.
CUSHING SYNDROME
▪ Prepares the breasts to produce
▪ High levels of cortisol, large milk.
amounts of ACTH
HYPERFUNCTION OF OVARIES:
ADDISON DISEASE
▪ Poor development of secondary sex
▪ Adrenal glands produce
characteristics in female.
insufficient steroid hormone
(glucocorticoids and of then PROGESTERONE
mineralocorticoids)
▪ Produced by corpus luteum.
PINEAL GLAND ▪ Acts with estrogen to bring about
Lies at back of the third ventricle of the menstrual cycle. Helps in the
the brain secrete. implementation of an embryo in
the uterus.
HORMONES:
GONADS: TESTES
▪ Melatonin
HORMONES:
Helps establish the body’s wake and
sleep cycles. Testosterone

Regulate circadian rhythms, body ▪ Most important androgen

temperature, cardiovascular function ▪ Responsible for male secondary
& reproduction. characteristics
▪ Promotes growth and maturation of
THYMUS GLAND male reproductive system.
▪ Located posterior to the sternum ▪ Required for sperm cell
& contains lymphatic tissue. reproduction.
▪ Largest in infants and children HYPOFUNCTION OF TESTES:
▪ Reaches maximal size at
puberty & then starts to atrophy. ▪ Delay in sexual maturation of a boy
▪ Produces T cells important in ▪ In men – a lack of interest in the
developing the immune system. opposite sex
▪ Produces peptide hormones &
OTHER HORMONE:
thymopoietin-promotes growth of
peripheral lymphoid tissue. PLACENTA:
GONADS: OVARIES ▪ During pregnancy, the placenta
serves as an endocrine gland.
HORMONES:
 ▪ It produces chorionic gonadotropin
hormone (HCG), estrogen, and
progesterone.
NERVOUS SYSTEM