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Fig. 7.17 Diagonal Line Method for Projecting Views (3 rd angle) Contd.

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7.3.12 Worked-out Examples of Orthographic Views

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7.3.13 Limitation of Multi View Projection

Multi view orthographic projections generally show length along two principle axis in any particular view. The
length along the third axis cannot be shown in same view. This makes it difficult to understand them and only
technically trained persons can understand the meaning of these orthographic views. A layman cannot imagine the
shape of the object from orthographic projections.
To make the shape of an object easy to understand for both technical persons and non-technical laymen pictorial
projections are used. Most commonly used pictorial drawing is Isometric drawing.

7.4 Details of Isometric Projection

Isometric means "equal measure ". Isometric projection is that type of pictorial or single view projection of object
where all three principal edges (along height, width and depth) or axes are projected with equal 120° angles.
When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or otherwise if the object is actually projected on a plane of
projection, it is an isometric projection.

7.4.1 Principle of Isometric Projection

An isometric projection is an orthographic projection, but it is obtained in such a way that all the principle axes
are projected in the same view with reduction of their lengths in the same proportion. For this purpose the object is
so placed that its principle axes are equally inclined to the plane of projection. In other words, the front view of a
cube, resting on one of its corners is the isometric projection of the cube as shown in fig. 7.21. In comparison to
orthographic projection, an object is rotated by 450 with respect to its front face and then tilted forward or
backward by 35 016’ and then its view is drawn and that is its isometric view. But as the object is tilted all the
lengths projected on the plane appears to be shortened and thus they are drawn shortened in isometric projection.

Fig. 7.18 Object Placement in Isometric Projection

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7.4.2 Isometric Scale

As discussed, in case of isometric projection,
due to the tilting effect a line does not project to
its true length on the picture plane. In the
isometric projection of a cube shown in Fig.
7.21, when the cube is tilted backward, the top
face ABCD is sloping away from the observer
and hence the edges of the top face will appear
fore-shortened. The true shape of the triangle
DAB is represented by the triangle DPB. The
extent of reduction of an isometric line can be
easily found by construction of a diagram called
isometric scale. For this, reproduce the triangle
DPA as shown in Fig. 7.22. Mark the divisions
of true length on DP. Through these divisions
draw vertical lines to get the corresponding
points on DA. The divisions of the line DA give
dimensions to isometric scale. From the triangle
ADO and PDO in Fig. 7.21, the ratio of the
isometric length to the true length,
°
= = 0.816
°
Fig. 7.19 Isometric Projection of a Cube
In words, the isometric axes are reduced in the ratio
1: 0.816 or 82% approximately.

Fig. 7.20 Isometric Scale

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7.4.3 Lines in Isometric Projection

The following are the rules for presenting the lines in isometric projection:
1. The lines that are parallel on the object are parallel in the isometric projection.
2. Vertical lines on the object appear vertical in the isometric projection.
3. Horizontal lines on the object are drawn at an angle of 30° with the horizontal in the isometric projection.
4. A line parallel to an isometric axis is called an isometric line and it is foreshortened to 82%.
5. A line which is not parallel to any isometric axis is called non-isometric line and the extent of fore-
shortening of non-isometric lines is different if their inclinations with the vertical planes are different.

Fig. 7.22 Isometric Scale

Fig. 7.21 Lines and Axes in Isometric Projection

7.4.4 Isometric Drawing

When an isometric projection is prepared
with an ordinary scale, it is called an
isometric drawing. Drawing of objects is
seldom drawn in true isometric
projections, as the use of an isometric
scale is inconvenient. Instead, a
convenient method in which the
foreshortening of lengths is ignored and
actual or true lengths are used to obtain
the projections, is applied which is called
isometric drawing or isometric view.
This is advantageous because the
measurement may be made directly from
a drawing.
The isometric drawing is 22.5% larger
than the isometric projection, but the
pictorial value is obviously the same in
both. An isometric drawing is so much
easier to execute and, for all practical
purposes, is just as satisfactory as the
isometric projection.

Fig. 7.22 Isometric Drawing and Isometric Projection

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7.4.5 Methods of Constructing Isometric Drawing

The methods used are:
1. Box method.
2. Off-set method.
In both the methods it must be always kept in mind that in isometric projection, vertical lines are drawn vertical
and the horizontal lines are drawn inclined 30° to the base line.

7.4.5.1 Box Method

When an object contains a number of non-isometric lines, the isometric drawing may be conveniently constructed
by using the box method. In this method, the object is imagined to be enclosed in a rectangular box and both
isometric and non-isometric lines are located by their respective points of contact with the surfaces and edges of
the box. It is always helpful to draw or imagine the orthographic views first and then proceed for isometric
drawing. Fig. 7.24 illustrates an example isometric drawing by box method.

Fig. 7.23 Isometric Drawing by Box Method

7.4.5.2 Off-set Method

Off-set method of making an isometric drawing is preferred when the object contains irregular curved surfaces. In
the off-set method, the curved feature may be obtained by plotting the points on the curve, located by the
measurements along isometric lines. Fig. 7.25 illustrates the application of this method.

Fig. 7.24 Isometric Drawing by Off-set Method

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7.4.6 Isometric Drawing of planes

Isometric drawing of planes can be obtained simply by keeping in mind that vertical lines will be vertical in
projection and horizontal lines will be at 30 0 inclined in projection. If there are some inclined lines in the plane it
will be helpful to enclose the plane with a rectangle and then obtain the projection with reference to the sides of
that rectangle.

7.4.6.1 Isometric Drawing of Rectangular Plane

Let us draw the isometric drawing of a rectangle of 100mm and 70mm sides if its plane is Vertical and Horizontal.

When the plane is vertical

 Step 1: Draw the given rectangle ABCD as shown in Fig. 7.26 (a)
 Step 2: Draw the side A D inclined at 30° to the base line as shown in Fig. 7.26 (b) and mark A D =
70mm.
 Step 3: Draw the verticals at A and D and mark off A B = D C = 100mm on these verticals.
 Step 4: Join BC which is parallel to AD. ABCD is the required isometric projection. This can also be
drawn as shown in Fig. 7.26(c). Arrows show the direction of viewing.
When the plane is horizontal
 Draw the sides AD and DC inclined at 30° to be base line and complete the isometric projection ABCD as
shown in Fig.9.IOd. Arrow at the top shows the direction of viewing.

Fig. 7.25 Isometric Drawing of Rectangular Plane

7.4.6.2 Isometric Drawing of Pentagonal Plane

Let us draw the isometric drawing of a regular pentagon of 25mm sides if its plane is Vertical and Horizontal.

 Step 1: Draw the given pentagon abcde and enclose it by a rectangle 1234 as shown in Fig. 7.27 (a).
 Step 2: Make the isometric drawing of the rectangle 1234 as described in fig. 7.26.
 Step 3: On the isometric drawing of rectangle locate the points A and B such that 1A = 1a and 1B = 1b.
 Step 4: Similarly locate points C, D and E such that 2C = 2c, 3D = 3d and 4E = 4e.
 Step 4: Join A, B, C, D, E sequentially; Now ABCDE is the required isometric view in vertical plane as
shown in fig. 7.27 (b). Similarly the fig. 7.27 (c) can be obtained for horizontal plane.

Fig. 7.26 Isometric Drawing of Pentagonal Plane

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7.4.6.3 Isometric Drawing of a Circular Plane

Let us draw the isometric drawing of a circle of 60mm radius if its surface is vertical and horizontal.

 Step 1: Draw the given circle and enclose it by a square 1234 as shown in Fig. 7.28 (a).
 Step 2: Make the isometric drawing of the square 1234 that will form a rhombus.
 Step 3: Mark the mid-points A, B, C and D of each sides of the rhombus as shown in fig 7.28 (b).
 Step 4: Draw longest diagonal 2-4 and join point 3 and A. The line 3-A will intersect the line 2-4 at point
M. Similarly obtain the intersecting point N.
 Step 5: With center M and radius MA draw an arc AB. With center N and radius NC draw and arc CD.
 Step 6: With center 1 and radius 1-C draw an arc BC. With center 3 and radius 3-D draw an arc AD.
 Step 7: The ellipse ABCD is the required isometric drawing of the circle on horizontal plane. Similarly
the isometric views can be obtained on vertical planes as shown in fig. 7.28 (c)

Fig. 7.27 Isometric Drawing of Circular Plane

7.4.7 Isometric Drawing of Solids

Before drawing of an isometric view of a solid object it is always convenient to draw the orthographic views first.
Then the isometric box is constructed and the orthographic views are reproduced on the respective faces of the
box. Finally by joining the points relating to the object and erasing unnecessary lines the isometric view is
obtained.

7.4.7.1 Points to be Remembered for Isometric drawing

 Three isometric axes will be at 1200 angle with each other.
 Height will be along vertical isometric axis.
 Length and width will be along isometric axes each being 300 inclined with horizontal.
 Isometric lines will be in their true length.
 Non-isometric lines will be either in enlarged or reduced length.
 No hidden line will be shown in isometric drawing unless necessary.

7.4.8 Steps for Drawing Isometric View

Let us draw isometric view of a solid object as shown in fig. 7.30 (a)
 Step -1: Draw the orthographic views. In a specific isometric drawing three maximum faces can be
shown. Usually front view, top view and either left or right side view are selected.
 Step -2: Draw three isometric axes. Use set square to make 30 0 angles.
 Step -3: Cut corresponding distances equal to major (maximum) length, width and height of object from
each isometric axis. Remember to cut height along vertical isometric axis. Choose length and width
according to given/chosen views. If right side view is given/chosen, then length of front view should be
chosen along the left side axis of vertical axis so as to allow drawing of right side view along right side
axis.
 Step -4: Draw an isometric box. To do this, draw 2 parallel lines of each isometric axis at the end points
of other two axes.
 Step -5: Draw given views (front, top and left/right) on the corresponding face of the isometric box.

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 Step -6: Look through the individual views and identify non-existing lines and surfaces. Erase the non-
existing lines. While erasing a line, take the question in mind “why I have drawn this earlier?” If you
erase a line from isometric box, there must be a visible line parallel to that line.
 Step -7: Finally, darken the visible lines. Compare the orthographic views with your obtained Isometric
views. Check if any logical line/surface is missing. If not, you are done.

Step-1

(b)

Step-2

Step-3

(c) (d)

Step-4

(e)

Fig. 7.28 Steps for Isometric Drawing of Solid Object (Contd.)

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Step-5

(f)

Step-6

(g)

Step-7

(h)
Fig. 7.28 Steps for Isometric Drawing of Solid Object (Contd.)

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7.4.9 Worked-out Examples of Isometric Drawing

1. Draw isometric view from the orthographic views given in figures below:

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Solution:

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See section 7.3.12 for more examples.

2. Draw isometric view of a hexagonal prism 30mm sides and 60mm height.

Solution:
Draw the orthographic
views first. Following
section 7.4.7.2, complete
the projection. For
projecting the hexagonal
top view on the top face
of isometric box follow
section 7.4.6.2.

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3. Draw isometric view of a cone with base diameter 30mm and axis 50 mm long.

Solution:
Draw the orthographic views first. Following section 7.4.7.2, complete the projection. For projecting the circular
top view on the top face of isometric box follow section 7.4.6.3.

Exercise and Assignments:

1. Draw orthographic views of the following objects (wooden objects available):

1 2

3 4

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5 6

8
7

9
1

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11 12

2. Draw orthographic views for the following pictorial views (Assume arbitrary dimension):

1 2

3 4

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5 6

7 8

9 10

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11

3. Draw necessary orthographic views to represent

i. A reading table
ii. Sitting chair
iii. Twin seats of university bus.
iv. Laptop computer
v. Wall clock.
vi. Refrigerator.
vii. D-box of HSTU.
viii. A pentagonal pyramid.
ix. A Cylindrical pen holder.
x. An oval shaped paper-weight.

4. Draw isometric view of a rectangular plane having length of sides as 10 cm and 15 cm when its plane is
(a) horizontal and (b) vertical.
5. Draw isometric view of a square prism with a side of base 5cm and axis 15 cm long when the axis is (a)
vertical and (b) horizontal.
6. Draw isometric view of a cylinder with base diameter 10cm and axis 15 cm long.
7. A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30mm and height 70mm is resting with its base on horizontal plane.
Draw the isometric drawing of the pyramid.
8. Draw isometric views of
i. A reading table
ii. Sitting chair
iii. Twin seats of university bus.
iv. Laptop computer
v. Wall clock.
vi. Refrigerator.
vii. D-box of HSTU.
viii. A pentagonal pyramid.
ix. A Cylindrical pen holder.
x. An oval shaped paper-weight.

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9. Prepare isometric drawing from the given orthographic views. (Use assumed value for missing
dimensions)

2
1

3 4

5 6

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7 8

9 10

11 12

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Review Questions
1. Why have you studied projection?
2. Define projection. Why it is necessary?
3. What do you mean by projection plane, projector and view? Show in a sketch.
4. Classify projection and define the types.
5. What are the possible orthographic views of an object?
6. Are all the orthographic views necessary to describe an object? If not, how will you choose the necessary
views?
7. Describe the glass box method.
8. What do you mean by 1st angle and 3 rd angle projection? Which one is British and which one is American
System? Which one is easier and why?
9. Differentiate between 1st angle and 3rd angle projection.
10. Show the arrangement of views in 1st and 3rd angle projection system.
11. What is the standard symbol of 1st angle/ 3rd angle projection system?
12. Which lines are projected to their actual length?
13. Which lines are not projected to their actual length? How will you obtain projection of such lines?
14. How do you represent a hidden edge in a particular view? Give example.
15. How do you represent a circular/curved edge in a particular view? Give example.
16. How do you represent a hole in orthographic view? Give example.
17. What is the order of precedence of line in orthographic projection?
18. What will you do, if a solid line and a hidden line occur at the same location?
19. What will you do, if a center line and a hidden line occur at the same location?
20. How do you obtain views by diagonal line method?
21. How do you select/ decide spacing between views?
22. What is the standard spacing to be maintained between views?
23. How to control space between views in diagonal line method?
24. What are the advantages of orthographic projection?
25. What are the limitation/disadvantages of orthographic projection?
26. What do you mean by pictorial projection? Classify it.
27. What is the difference between axonometric and oblique projection?
28. What are the different types of axonometric projection? Why they are so named?
29. What is the difference between isometric, diametric and trimetric projection?
30. What is the difference between cabinet and cavalier projection?
31. What do you mean by perspective projection? How does it differ with pictorial projection?
32. Why the object appears to be shortened in perspective projection?
33. Why isometric projection is the most commonly used pictorial projection in engineering drawing?
34. What are the advantages of isometric projection over other types of pictorial projection?
35. In which position of object its front view becomes its isometric view?
36. How the object is rotated to obtain its isometric view?
37. Why are the objects appeared to be shortened in case of isometric projection? What is the percentage of
shortening?
38. What is isometric scale? How it is constructed?
39. What is the difference between isometric projection and isometric drawing/view? Which one is
advantageous and why?
40. What do you mean by isometric and non-isometric lines? Give examples.
41. How isometric drawing are constructed by box method.
42. Why is it helpful to draw orthographic views before drawing the isometric view of the object?
43. What is the isometric form of a rectangle/ square/ triangle/ circle?
44. In the box method, how will you decide the isometric axis for plotting width, length and height?
45. Draw isometric view of a pen/box/cube/paper weight.

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CHAPTER 8
SECTIONING

Objectives
Objectives of studying this chapter are:
 Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings
 Define cutting plane lines, direction of sight, section lining etc.
 Mention and explain the different kinds of sectioning

8.1 Introduction
The conventional method used to draw an object using the multi view or orthographic method of representation is
discussed in Chapter 7. This system is excellent to illustrate various external features. In this method, complicated
interior features are illustrated with hidden lines. These interior features can be shown more clearly by the use of
sectional views.

8.2 Terminology

8.2.1 Sectioning
It is defined as an imaginary cut made through an object to expose the interior or to reveal the shape of a portion.

8.2.2 Sectional View

A sectional view is a view of an imaginary surface, exposed by an imaginary slicing-open of an object, allowing
interior details to become visible. A sectional view is sometimes referred to as a cross section or simply section. It
is a view in which all or a substantial portion of the view is sectioned.

Sectional View
Fig. 8.1 Sectioning of an Object

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8.2.3 Cutting Plane

Cutting plane is a plane that imaginarily cuts the object to reveal the internal features.

8.2.4 Cutting Plane Line

Cutting plane line is an edge view of the cutting plane. The cutting-plane line indicates the path that an imaginary
cutting plane follows to slice through an object. Think of the cutting-plane line as a saw blade that is used to cut
through the object. The cutting-plane line is represented by a thick black dashed line. Standard format of cutting
plane line is already discussed in chapter 2.

Cutting plane line

Top view

Front View

Front Sectional View

Fig. 8.2 Section Line and Sectional View

Fig. 8.3 Standard Cutting Plane Line

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8.2.5 Section Lining

Section lining shows the locations where the object is sliced or cut by the cutting plane or the location where the
surface or surfaces are cut by the cutting plane. Symbol for section lining is different for different materials, but in
practice the symbol of cast iron i.e. the cross-hatch lines are used for sectioning of any materials. They are
represented by thin, black lines drawn at 450 to the horizontal, unless there is some specific reason for using a
different angle. Section lining is spaced by eye from 1/16" (1.5mm) to 1/4"(6 mm) apart, depending upon the
overall size of the object. The average spacing used for most drawings is .13"(3 mm). However, all the section
lines in a drawing must be of uniform thickness and they should be evenly spaced.
If a cutting plane passes through two parts, each part has section lines using a 45° angle or other principal angle.
These section lines should not be aligned in the same direction. If the cutting plane passes through more than two
parts, the section lining o f each individual part must be drawn at different angles. When an angle other than 45° is
used, the angle should be 30° or 60°. Section lining should not be parallel with the sides of the object to be section
lined.

Fig. 8.4 Symbol for Section Lining of Different Materials

Fig. 8.5 Method of Aligning Section Lines

8.3 Types of Section

The different kinds of sections used today are:
i. Full section
ii. Offset section
iii. Half section
iv. Broken-out section
v. Revolved section
vi. Removed section.
vii. Auxiliary section etc.
In this part, we only discuss the most commonly used types of sections.

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8.3.1 Full Section

A full section is simply a section of one of the regular multi views that is sliced or cut completely in two. When
the cutting plane passes through the entire object a full sectional view is obtained. Hidden lines are omitted from
sectional view.

Fig. 8.6 Full Section

8.3.2 Offset Section

Many times, important features do not fall in a straight line as they do in a full section. These important features
can be illustrated in an offset section by bending or offsetting the cutting-plane line. An offset section is very
similar to a full section, except that the cutting-plane line is not straight.

Fig. 8.7 Offset Section

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8.3.3 Half Section

The sectional view obtained by passing the cutting plane halfway through an object is called a half sectional view.
In this case a quarter portion of the object is imagined to be removed. A cutting plane is added to the front view,
with only one arrowhead to indicate the viewing direction. Half sections are best used when the object is
symmetrical, that is, the exact same shape and size on both sides of the cutting-plane line. A half-section view is
capable of illustrating both the inside and the outside of an object in the same view.
A center line is used to separate the sectioned half from the unsectioned half of the view. As usual, hidden lines
are omitted from sectional view.

Fig. 8.8 Half Section

8.3.4 Broken-out Section

Sometimes, only a small area needs to be sectioned in order to make a particular feature or features easier to
understand. In this case, a broken-out section is used. It is the sectional view of a fractional part of object. Broken-
out sections are helpful when some interior details are to be shown but a full or half section is not feasible because
that would remove some essential feature of the object. In such case a broken-out section is made directly of the
exterior view. In fig. 8.9 the top section is somewhat confusing and could create a question. To clarify this area, a
portion is removed. The view is made by passing the cutting plane normal to the viewing direction and removing
the portion of an object in front of it. A break line is used to separate the sectioned portion from the unsectioned
portion of the view. There is no cutting plane line.

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Fig. 8.9 Broken-out Section

8.3.5 Revolved Section

A revolved section, sometimes referred to as a rotated section, is used to illustrate the cross section of ribs, webs,
bars, arms, spokes or other similar features of an object. Revolved sections show cross-sectional features of a part.
One great advantage of revolved section is that there is no need for additional orthographic views. This section is
especially helpful when a cross-section varies. An imaginary cutting plane is assumed to pass across the feature to
be sectioned and then the obtained section is rotated by 900. The rotated section is then either superimposed on the
orthographic view of positioned with break lines.

Fig. 8.10 Placement of Revolved Section

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Following is the steps of constructing a revolved section

 Step 1: Assign position of cutting plane on the top view or plan.
 Step 2: Draw axis of rotation in front view.
 Step 3: Transfer the depth dimension to the front view.
 Step 4: Draw the revolved section on the front view enclosed by the lines indicating depth dimension.

Object

Step
1

Step
Step 3
2

Step
4
Fig. 8.11 Steps for Construction of Revolved Section

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8.3.6 Removed Section

Revolved sections tend to be confusing, and often create problems for the people who must interpret the drawings.
Today, it is recommended to use a removed section instead of a revolved or rotated section. A removed section is
very similar to a rotated section except that, as the name implies, it is drawn removed or away from the regular
views. The removed section is also used to illustrate the cross section of ribs, webs, bars, arms, spokes or other
similar features of an object. Note that a removed section must identify the cutting-plane line from which it was
taken. In the sectional view, do not draw features other than the actual section. the removed section should be
drawn on the same page as the regular views.

Fig. 8.12 Removed Section

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8.4 Special Consideration for section of Ribs, Spokes and lugs

Object with Rib

Object with odd number of ribs

Plan with cutting plane

Plan and Cutting

True Section

True Section
Preferred Section

Fig. 8.13 Sectioning of Object with

Even Number of Ribs

Preferred Section
Fig. 8.14 Sectioning of Object with Odd
Number of Ribs

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An object with lug

Plan with cutting plane line

Plan with cutting plane line

Sectional view (Lug is not sectioned)

Fig. 8.16 Sectioning of Object with Lug

Fig. 8.15 Sectioning of Object with Odd

Number of Spokes

8.5 Parts that Should Not Be Sectioned

Shaft, bolts, nuts, rivets, balls, pin and keys are not
sectioned even when they are in the line of cutting
plane. They are always left in full view to avoid
confusion.

Fig. 8.17 Parts Not to Be Sectioned

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8.6 Worked-out Examples of Sectioning

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Exercise and Assignments

1. Draw plan and section along the centroidal axis of the plan.

2. Draw top view and a suitable section for the slider block shown below.

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3. Draw top view and a suitable section for the bearing shown below.

4. Draw top view and a suitable section for the bearing container shown below.

5. Draw plan and sectional view of a single storied building.

6. Draw plan, elevation and cross section of a rectangular water tank having walls made of brick and floor
made of concrete.
7. Draw plan, elevation and section of the objects shown in chapter 7, exercise 1.

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 Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University

Review Questions
1. Why have you studied sectioning?
2. Define section, section line, cutting plane and cutting plane line. How are they represented in drawing?
3. Draw section lining to represent cast iron, steel, concrete and wood.
4. What is common section lining used for any type of materials? How it is aligned?
5. How will you draw section lines if the cutting plane passes two separate element of an object?
6. How will you draw section line if the object is aligned?
7. How will you chose spacing between section lines?
8. What are the different types of section?
9. When and how a full section is obtained?
10. What is the similarity/difference between a full section and an offset section?
11. When does offset section become necessary?
12. When and how a half section is obtained?
13. What are the advantages of a half section over a full section?
14. What is broken-out section? When is it used?
15. When and how a revolved section is obtained?
16. What are the different methods of placing the revolved section? Give example.
17. What is the similarity/difference of removed section and revolved section?
18. Why is a removed section being preferred to a revolved section?
19. What is the special consideration for sectioning a rib, spoke and lug?

Md. Roknuzzaman, Department of Civil Engineering Page 125

 Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University

Bibliography

1. D.N. Ghose, Civil Engineering Drawing and Design, 1987, 1 st ed., Delhi – CBS publishers and
Distributors.

2. Dr. Amalesh Chandra Mandal, Dr. Md. Quamrul Islam, Mechanical Engineering Drawing, 2007, 1st ed.,
Dhaka – Associate Printing Press.

3. Wuttet Taffesse, Laikemariam Kassa, Lecture Notes on Engineering Drawing, 2005, 1 st ed., Ethiopia
Public Health Training Initiative – Ethiopia Ministry of Education.

4. David L. Goetsch, John A. Nelson, William S. Chalk, Technical Drawing Fundamentals Cad Design,
1986, 2nd ed., New York – Delmar Publishers Inc.

5. R.K. Dhawan, A Textbook of Machine Drawing, 2001, 2nd ed., New Delhi – S. Chand & Company Ltd.

6. M.B. Shah, B.C. Rana, Engineering Drawing, 2009, 2nd ed., New Delhi – Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd.

7. K. Venkata Reddy, Textbook of Engineering Drawing, 2008, 2nd ed., Hyderabad – BS Publications.

8. Gurcharan Sing, Subhash C. Sharma, Civil Engineering Drawing, 2006, 7th ed., Delhi – Standard
Publishers Distributors.

9. Wikipedia

10. Documents, power point presentations and lecture notes freely available over internet.

Md. Roknuzzaman, Department of Civil Engineering Page 126