Scientific Research Journal of India SRJI ScReJi Complete Vol-6 2022 All Issues

Volume: 6, Issue: 1, Year: 2022
Scientific Research Journal of India
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Research Paper
Cotton leaf curl Multan virus-Rajasthan strains are the
dominat population causing cotton leaf curl disease epidemic
in Northwest India
Utpal Kumar Bhattacharyya1*, Shruti Godara2, and Kajal Kumar Biswas3
1ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra Goalpara (ICAR-NRC On Pig), Dudhnoi, Goalpara,
Assam
2ForestResearch Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand
3Advanced Centre of Plant Virology, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi
Submission: Feb., 2022, Published: June, 2022
*Corresponding author: ukbhatta2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cotton leaf curl disease (CLCuD), caused by monopartite begomoviruses and its satellite molecules, is
one of the serious constrains in cultivation of cotton in Northwest (NW) India. Surveys were made to
study CLCuD incidence in the cotton growing areas of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan states of for
three successive years from 2013 to 2015. The survey revealed very high CLCuD incidence of 50.5-
95.5% in 2013 and lower of 23.5-65.5% in 2014 and high of 25.3-77.7% in 2015. The complete gnome
of 18 NW Indian CLCuD begomo virus isolates collected from different areas of NW India were cloned,
sequenced and analyzed. They shared 80-100% nt identity among them. Of them 11 isolates (Faz-14,
Si-17, Rh-4, SG-14, S-9, Uf-1, Ma-14-3, Sa-3, IARI-34, -42 and - 50) showing 95-99% nt identity among
them fell under CLCuMuV-Rajasthan isolate. One isolate S-11 was CLCuMuV-Faislabad (97% nt
identity) and another isolate Hi-3 was CLCuMuV-Pak (100% nt identity). Five isolates (His-2014,
Hmg-14, Si-14-1, IARI-30 and -45) showing fell under CLCuKoV-Bur (99% nt identity). The present
CLCuMuV isolates has genome length of 2739 to 2753nt and CLCuKoV-Bur isolates had genome length
of 2759-2762nt. The C4 ORF of all the present CLCuMuV isolates had similar length (303 nt)
positioned at ~2142-2444 nt but CLCuKoV isolates had different lengths from 303 to 441nt. All the 8
betasatellites molecules obtained from CLCuD-affected cotton plants in the present study are member
of Cotton leaf curl Multan betasatellite (CLCuMB; AY083590). Nine alphasatellites were obtained in
the present study; of them six are Cotton leaf curl Burewala-Pak alphasatellites (CLCuBuA-Pak;
FR772090), one is Croton yellow vein mosaic alphasatellite (CrYVMoA; KC577541) and two are
Gossypium darwinii symptomless alphasatellites (GDSA; FJ218493). Of 18 NW Indian begomovirus
isolates, 13 are recombinant and five (SG14, Uf-1, Ma-14-3, IARI-34 and Hi-3) are non-recombinant.
All the betasatellites were detected as recombinants and mostly all the alphasatellite molecule
recombinants. The present study demonstrated that recent CLCuD epidemic in NW India is caused by
CLCuMUV-Rajasthan isolate predominantly and CLCuMuV-Pakistan and –Faisalabad/Hissar along
with CLCuKoV-Burewala isolate in aasociation with recombinant betasatellite CLCuMuB.
Key words: Cotton leaf curl Multan virus-Rajasthan strains, cotton leaf curl disease, Northwest India.
INTRODUCTION (NW) India and Pakistan and is severely

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is an affected by cotton leaf curl disease
important commodity and the export of (CLCuD) [Briddon and Markham,2000;
cotton products is crucial for the Rajagopalon et al., 2010; Sattar et al.,
economies of India and Pakistan. The 2013). The disease first came to
cultivation of cotton across Northwest prominence in the late 1980s near the
city of Multan, Pakistan, and rapidly protein in the virion-sense orientation

spread to almost all cotton growing and the replication-associated protein
areas of the country and into north (Rep; C1 ORF), the replication enhancer
western India (reference please). This protein (REn; C3 ORF), the
disease has appeared to be potential transcriptional activator protein (TrAP;
threat to entire 1.1 Mha cotton growing C2) and the C4 protein in the
areas of NW India (Monga et al., 2007). complementary-sense orientation
CLCuD was first reported in India from (Mansoor et al, 1999). Betasatellites are
Indian Agricultural Research Institute essentials to increase the accumulation
(IARI), New Delhi in 1989 and from of their helper begomoviruses, help
farmer’s field in Sri Ganganagar, movement and enhance symptoms in
Rajasthan in 1993 (Ajmera 1994; Varma some host plants (Briddon et al., 2001;
et al. 1993). CLCuD-begomovirus Zhou, 2013). This is likely due to βC1
species, Cotton leaf curl Multan having suppressor of RNA interference
(CLCuMuV), Cotton leaf curl Kokhran activity (Saeed et al. 2007; Yang et al.,
(CLCuKoV) and Cotton leaf curl Alabad 2011; Cui et al., 2005). They encode a
virus (CLCuAlV) have been identified in single gene on the complementary-
India (Ahuja et al. 2007; Rajagopalan et sense strand that codes for an ~118 aa
al. 2012, Kumar et al. 2010). Cotton leaf protein known as βC1.The
curl Rajasthan virus and Cotton leaf curl alphasatellites, self-replicating satellite-
Burewala virus have been identified in like molecules are also associated with
cotton growing areas of NW India as the CLCuD-betasatellite complex (Idris et al.
CLCuD-begomovirus species, but 2011).
according to guidelines proposed by Recombination is a significant driving
Brown et al. (2015), these two virus force in the evolution of many
speice have been considered to be begomoviruses (Padidam et al. 1999).
CLCuMuV- Raj and CLCuKoV-Bur CLCuD-begomoviruses have been
isolates/strain, respectively. Until 2004, shown to have recombinant origin
CLCuMuV-Raj was predominant in NW (Amrao et al. 2010b; Kumar et al. 2010;
India; but since 2005-2006, CLCuKoV- Sattar et al. 2013). Evolution of
Bur appeared to be a resistant breaking recombinant betasatellite and their
predominant strain (Rajagopalon et al., association with resistance breaking of
2012). Presently, most of the CLCuD in cotton have also been
economically important cotton varieties reported (Amin et al. 2006; Mansoor et
those were resistant or tolerant earlier al. 2006; Amrao et al. 2010b). After the
become highly susceptible to CLCuD breakdown of resistance in 2001-2002,
showing up to 97% disease incidence CLCuD across the Punjab province of
and 53.6% yield loss (Monga et al., Pakistan was shown to be associated
2011a,b). with Burewala strain of CLCuKoV
CLCuD is caused by whitefly (Bemisia (CLCuKoV-Bu); CLCuKoV-Bu is a
tabaci), transmitted monopartite recombinant virus with some sequences
begomoviruses in association with derived from CLCuMuV (Amarao et al.,
betasatellite and alphasatellite, ssDNA 2010). Unusually CLCuKoV-Bu
circular molecule, half the size of associated with resistance breaking of
begomovirus components (~1350 nt) cotton associated with a recombinant
(Briddon and Stanley 2006; Kumar et al. form of CLCuMB (CLCuMBBur) with
2010; Rajagopalan et al. 2012). The some sequence derived from another
genomes of monopartite encode the betasatellite (Haider et al., 2006).
coat protein (CP; V1 ORF) and V2
ScReJI www.virtued.in/p/screji 2
During the cropping season of 2009, Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher

higher CLCuD incidence with severe Scientific Inc, model No. ND1000).
symptoms in the cotton fields of Abohar
and Bathinda in Punjab, and Sri Cloning of full length begomovirus
Ganganagar of Rajasthan have been and associated satellite molecules
reported (Rajagopalon et al. 2012). The Rolling circle amplification (RCA) using
CLCuD in cotton fields in the areas of phi29 DNA polymerase was performed
Hisar, Sirsa and Dabawali regions of for amplification of full length circular
Haryana appeared during the 2010, but viral genome and satellite molecules as
it was noticed to be almost free from described inHaible et al. (2006).
this disease in these areas until 2009. Concatamers obtained through RCA
During the year of 2010, the disease were digested with BamHI, EcoRI,
incidence was quite high in the Abohar, HindIII, SalI and XbaI to release full-
Bathinda and Sri Ganganagar areas (50- length viral DNA (~2.7 kb) and full-
100%) showing 100% disease incidence length satellite molecule DNA (1.3-1.4
in all the fields of Abohar surveyed, but kb). Digested RCA products were
it was sporadic in the areas of Fazilka extracted, purified and cloned into
and Hanumangarh districts showing a pUC18 vector using standard methods
range of disease incidence from 0 to and grown in E. coli strain DH5α. The
30% (Rajagopalon et al. 2012). viral DNA clones were sequenced by
The present study reports the primer walking and the satellite DNA
occurrence of three strains of CLCuMuV- clones by vector derived M13 forward
Rajasthan, -Pakistan and -Faislabad, and M13 reverse primers (Chromous
where Rajasthan stran is predominant, Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India). Two
and Burewala stran CLCuKoV in NW clones of each viral DNA and satellite
Indian cotton growing areas. DNA molecules were sequenced, and the
Recombinant CLCuD-begomoviruses consensus sequences were considered
and recombiant betasatellite and for further molecular analysis.
alphasatelites were also identified in
CLCuD complex causing disease Sequence analysis
epidemic in NW India. Multiple sequence alignment was
performed with CLUSTAL X version 1.81
MATERIALS AND METHODS (Thomson et al. 1997) and sequence
Virus source, pathogenicity test and identity matrix was generated using
isolation of viral DNA Leaf samples were Gene Doc version 2.6.002. The
collected from CLCuD infected cotton phylogenetic relationships were
plants from different cotton growing established using maximum parsimony
areas of NW India the years 2012-2014. (MP) in MEGA4 program (Tamura et al.,
Infectivity test of infected samples was 2007). The ORFs were identified using
carried out through whitefly NCBI-ORF finder and protein domains
transmission using the procedure using BLASTP searching the NCBI
described earlier (Godara et al., 2015) Conserved Domain Database.
inoculating healthy cotton cultivars Recombination detection program
greenhouse. Total plant DNA from 100 RDP4, implementing seven algorithms
mg of infected and healthy leaf tissue (RDP, Geneconv, BootScan, Maxchi,
was extracted using CTAB method Chimera, SiScan and 3Seq) (Martin et al.,
(Haible et al., 2006). DNA quality was 2015) was used for analysis of
checked by Nano Drop recombination events. Default settings
were used with a standard Bonferroni-
C
corrected highest acceptable P-value cut recombination analysis, in addition to

off of 0.05. The same recombination the numbers of sequences used for
events detected by three or more phylogenetic analysis, sequences of six
algorithms in begomovirs DNAs and two different begomoviruses, ToLCuNDV
or more in the satellite DNA were (KC545812), BhYVDY (FJ515747),
considered to be evidence of putative CYVMV (JN817516), PALCuV
recombination. (DQ629103), ChLCuV (JN663866) and
Eighteen CLCuD-begomoviruses from MeYVMV (FJ159262) were taken. The
our laboratory and another 22 isolates, sequence analysis and recombination
five isolates from each of CLCuAlV and analysis of the present betasatellites and
CLCuKoV, six of CLCuMuV listed by alphasatellites were analysed with other
Brwon et al. (2015) and six CLCuD- CLCuD associated betasatellite and
begomovirus isolates reported earlier alphasatellite molecule (Fig.4a and b).
(Kumar et al., 2010; Rajagopalon et al.,
2012) were taken for analysis. One RESULT
isolate of each of Cotton leaf curl Gezira Survey and CLCuD incidence
virus (CLCuGV) and Cotton leaf curl Surveys were made to study CLCuD
Bangalore virus (CLCuBaV) were taken incidence in the cotton growing areas of
as members of out group (Fig.1). For Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan states of
NW India for three successive years curling/ cupping, vein thickening and
from 2013 to 2015. In the field the formation of enations in some
surveyed, CLCuD infected cotton plant plants. Survey revealed overall very
exhibited downward/upward leaf high CLCuD incidence of 50.5-95.5% in
2013, lower of 23.5-65.5% in 2014 and reduction) was very less of up to 3.8%,
high of 25.3-77.7% in 2015. The year whereas, in some areas of same district
2013 was the epidemic year CLCuD with CLCuD is comparatively less (34.5%)
high yield loss of 25-40% in the entire but the BNR is high (10.0%)
NW India. But maximum yield loss of (Bhattacharyya et al., unpublished). It is
40% was reported in Haryana State facts that if the CLCuD-begomovirus
(Anonymous, 2014). infects at late stage when plants are
Even though in some areas CLCuD aged and mature enough, it can tolerate
incidence was very high, the yield loss the attack of the disease and the crops
was less. For an instance, during the give good yield even in the presence of
year 2014 in some areas in Sirsa district, CLCuD symptoms in the plant, even with
Haryana, the disease was as high as severe leaf curling at top (Ali et al.
81.2% but the losses (BNR; boll number 1995).
Pathogenicity of CLCuD isolates and RST-9, all induced typical CLCuD

Six isolates S9, Uf-1,Hmg 14, Ma14-3, symptoms on inoculated cotton plants.
Faz 14 and SG-14 tested for Typical CLCuD symptoms appeared
pathogenecity through whitefly within 12–25 DAI in greenhouse during
inoculation to healthy cotton vars HS-6
the month of September. Transmission CLCuD-begomovirses. Total 18 NW

efficiency ranged from 75% (15/20)(cv. Indian CLCuD begomovirus isolates
HS-6) to 100 % (18/18) (cv. RST-9) including the present and five
(data not shown). The result established previously reported New Delhi isolates
that all the CLCuD isolates tested are the IARI-30, -34, -42, 45 and -50 (Godara et
members of whitefly transmitted al., 2016) in our laboratory shared 80-
begomovirus. 100% nt identity among them. Eleven
isolates Faz-14, Si-17, Rh-4, SG-14, S-9,
Sequence analysis and phylogenetic Uf-1, Ma-14-3, Sa-3, IARI-34, IARI-42
relationships and IARI- 50 showed 95-00 % nt
Complete begomovirus genome identity among them. These isolates had
The complete gnome of 13 present 95-99% nt identity with CLCuMuV-
CLCuD infeted cotton samples collecxted Rajasthan isolate designated by Brown
from dirrenet areas of NW India et al. (2015). They had 80-92% nt
obtained were analysed. Sequence identity with another recognized
analysis of complete genomes and their CLCuMuV-Pak (EU365616), -Fai
genome organization with different (AJ002447), -Hib (JN807763), -Dar
ORFs were typical to monopartite (EU365613) and -His (AJ132430).
Therefore, according to the
begomovirus species demarcation with CLCuD-Raj showing 97-100% nt

threshold (nt dentity) (Brown et al., identity. But based on C1 gene, they are
2015), they are members of CLCuMuV- related with CLCuBuV-Kok showing 94-
Raj. In phylogenetic analysis, they 97% nt identity.
grouped with CLCuMuV-Raj. Based on
CP gene these 11 isolates are similar
The isolate S-11 showed 84-90% nt 92% with other recognized CLCuMuV
identity with other present isolates and isolates. According to the begomovirus
97 % with CLCuMuV-Fai but different species demarcation threshold (Brown
from other recognized CLCuMuV et al., 2015) Hi-3 is a member of
isolates by 83-93%. According to the CLCuMuV-Pak. In phylogenetic analysis,
begomovirus species demarcation Hi-3 grouped with CLCuMuV-Pak. The
threshold (Brown et al., 2015) the isolate Hi-3 is related with ClCuMuV-Hib
isolate S-11 is a member of CLCuMuV- (96%) for CP gene but with CLCuMuV-
Fai. In phylogenetic tree, the isolate S-11 Sha (99%) for C1.
grouped with CLCuMuV- Fai. It was The isolates His-2014, Hmg-14, Si-14-1,
observed that isolate S-11 had 97-98% IARI-30 and IARI-45 showed 98-100%
nt identity with CLCuMuV-His isolate for nt identity among them, and 81-85%
CP gene and 97% with CLCuKoV-Lay for with the other present CLCuD
C1 gene. begomovirus isolates, but showed 99%
The isolate Hi-3 showed 80-93% nt with CLCuKoV-Bur (AM421522) and 88-
identity with other present isolates and 92% with other recognized CLCuKoV
cent percent with CLCuMuV-Pak but 88- isolates [CLCuKoV-Lay (HF549182), -
Luc (GU385879), -Kokh (AJ496286) and grouped together with CLCuKoV-Bur.

-Shah (FN552001). According to the For CP gene the isolates His-14, Hmg-14,
begomovirus species demarcation Si-14-1 and IARI- 45 showed 98-100%
threshold (Brown et al., 2015) these nt identity with all the recognized
isolates are members of CLCuKoV-Bur. CLCuKoV isolates. But the IARI-30
In phylogenetic analysis, these isolates
showed 80-81% with all the recognized 2739 to 2753nt, whereas the recognized
CLCuKoV isolates but 94-97% with all CLCuMuV isolates have genome lengths
the recognized CLCuMuV isolates ranging from 2722-2751nt. The present
(CLCuMuV-Dar, CLCuMuV-Fai, eight CLCuMuV-Raj isolates have
CLCuMuV-Hib, CLCuMuV-His, CLCuMuV- 2753nt, CLCuMuV-Fai isolate S-11 and
Pak). All these present CLCuKoV isolates Raj isolate Sa-3, both, had 2748nt,
showed 95-96% with CLCuKoV-Bur and CLCuMuV-Pak isolate Hi-3 had 2739 and
-Lay for C1. two CLCuMuV-Raj isolates S1-17 and
The present CLCuKoV-Bur isolates had Faz-14, both, had 2752nt. The
genome length of 2759-2762nt where differences in the length of genomes
isolates Hi-14, Si-14-1, Hmg-14 and IAR- clearly suggested the variations in
45 had similar genome length of 2759nt, biological consequences of the virus
and isolate IARI-30 had 2762nt. isolates.
However, other recognized CLCuKoV When the C4 ORF analysed, it was found
isolates showed different length of that C4 of of all the present CLCuMuV
2736-2759 indicating that CLCuKoV-Bur isolates had similar length of 303 nt
isolate IARI-30 is different from others. positioned at ~2142-2444 nt. All the
The present CLCuMuV isolates showed present CLCuKoV isolates showed
variation in genome length ranging from different lengths of C4; 303nt (IARI-45),
339nt (His-14, Si-14-1 and 441nt (IARI- large (~950bp) gene in the virion-sense,
30). Al the present CLCoKoV isolates typical of other alphasatellites and has
showed a point mutation which 48-95% nt identity among them. Six
terminates the protein at position of present alphasatellites (ARI-45-1, IARI-
2244 nt. In the isolates His-2014, Si-14- 45-2, IARI-50, Rh-4, Hi-3 and Sa-3)
1 and Hmg-2014, the Guanine residue in showed 84-87% nt identity to Cotton
the nucleic acid is replaced with leaf curl Burewala-Pak alphasatellite
Thymine at nucleotide position 2243nt (CLCuBuA-Pak; FR772090) available in
and the original ‘CGA’ codon which the databases. The present
codes for Arginine (R) is replaced by alphasatellite Uf-1 showed 95% nt with
stop codon‘CTA’. The same point CrYVMoA (KC577541). Alphasatellite of
mutation was observed in C4 ORF of Si-14-1 and Ma-14-3 showed 95% nt
isolates, IARI-30 and IARI-45 at nt identity between them and they may be
position of 2238nt. The C4 ORF starts members of Gossypium darwinii
248 nt earlier in all the present symptomless alphasatellite (GDSA;
CLCuKoV isolates. FJ218493) as they have 81-84% nt
identity with GDSA, althogh
Satellite molecules associated with alphasatellite species demarcation
CLCuD-begomoviruses threshold is 83 % (Mubin et al.,2009).
Eight betasatellite DNA molecules were
obtained from CLCuD-affected cotton Recombination analysis
plants in the present study (Table 2). Recombination is one of the driving
Sequence analysis showed them to forces for evolution of the variants of
encode a small (~350bp) gene in the the begomoviruses. In order to detect
complementary-sense, typical of other recombination events in the present
betasatellites. The present betasatellites CLCuD- begomovirus along with other
showed 89-90% nt identity with begomoviruses were analysed. The
CLCuMB (AY083590) available in RDP4 detected 13 isolates as
database. The present betasatellite recombinants and five isolates (SG14,
molecules grouped with CLCuMB in the Uf-1, Ma-14-3, IARI-34 and Hi-3) as non-
phylogenetic tree (Fig. 2a). As the recombinant. Twenty recombination
species demarcation threshold for events (break points) among the
betasatellite is of 78% nt (Briddon et al., present recombinant isolates were
2008), the present betasatellite determined.
molecules are considered to be Interestingly, for 8 recombinant events
members of CLCuMB. Single were detected by at least three
betasatellite species was obtained from algorithms involving same parent
the present CLCuD-begomoviruse sequences among the six present
isolates, CLCuMuV-Raj, CLCuMuV-Fai recombinants, Faz-14, Sa-3, Si-17, Rh-4,
and CLCuKoV-Bur. Earlier, single S-11 and IARI-45 which are considered
species of betasatellite were reported to to be having strong recombination
be associated with different CLCuD break points. In this case, the isolates
begomoviruses from India and Pakistan Sa-3 and IARI-45 had large recombinant
(Rajagopalan et al., 2012; Shuja et al., sequence from 62-1596nt (1535nt
2014). length) (IR, V1, V2, C1, C2, C3) and 25-
Nine alphasatellites were obtained from 874nt (850nt length) (IR, V1, V2)
CLCuD in fected cotton cotton samples respectively. Recombination events
(Table 2) plants. Sequence analysis were detected in IR regions of all the
showed that they encode either one present recombinant isolates that
indicated that IR regions are CLCuD symptoms (Godara et al., 2015).

recombination hotspots. Six isolates Akram et al. (2013) reported that Bt-
showed recombination events in C1 and cotton hybrids are more susceptible
equal number of isolates also showed host for whiteflies than non-Bt cottons
recombination events in V1 regions that in Pakistan resulting in higher disease
indicate these two regions are also are incidence in Bt-hybrid cotton.
recobinantion prones. Recombinatin CLCuD is a major constraint to cotton
evets in C4 region of isolates S9, S-11, Sa production in NW India and Pakistan.
3, IARI-42 and IARI 50 were detected. No commercially available genotypes or
All the betasatellites were detected as varieties of cotton or Bt-cotton hybrids
recombinants, four events in Ma-14-3, cultivated in Norhwest cotton
two events in both of IARI-30 and S-11, grwingareas are resistant to CLCuD
and one in each of Si-14-1, IARI-34, S- (Godara et al., 2015). The susceptibility
11. The complete βC1-ORF of of previously resistant/tolerant cotton
betasatellite Ma-14-3 (P=2.58x10 -7) lines to this disease prompted an
and S-11 (P=5.67x10 -4) were found to investigation into possible changes in
be recombinants. Recombination was the disease complex. CLCuD-
also found to encompass around ACR of begomovirus-betasatellite complexes
betasatellites of Ma-14-3 and S-14. The are evolving rapidly by recombination
betasatellites ToYLCuB (NC 019532), and/or mutation that influence in
LuLDB (JX315326) and ToLCuJVB (NC expanding host range and breaking
005497) were detected to be major resistance (Amrao et al, 2010; Bridon et
parents for recombination of βC1. al., 2014). Therefore, susceptibility in
Of nine present alpsasatellite, except Si- previously reported resistant/tolerant
14-1, other were were found to be cotton varieties or hybrids impelled the
recombinants. Recombinat fragments investigation for potential changes in
were detected around Rep gene of the CLCuD complex.
recombinant alphasattelites of Sa-3, Hi- The results obtained here showed that
3, Ma-14-3, IARI-45-1 and IARI-50, recent CLCuD epidemic in NW India is
where complete Rep genes of Ma-14-3 caused by CLCuMuV, predominantly by
and IARI-45-1 were recombinant CLCuMUV-Rajasthan isolate or mixture
sequences derived from other of this isolate with CLCuMuV-Pakistan
alphasatellite sequences associated with and –Fai/His isolates with betasatellite
many intra- and inter- begomovirus CLCuMuB. The synergistic interaction
species. between the CLCuMuV-Raj, -Pak and-His
complex might be the cause of epidemic
DISCUSSION or resistance breaking in India.
The present study reports the high However, presently CLCuD in resistant
incidence of CLCuD with high yield cotton varieties in Pakistan is caused by
losses in the current situation in NW CLCuKoV-Bur isolate with betasattelie
Indian cotton growing areas. The Bt- CLCuMBBur (Zaidi et al., 2016). A single
cotton hybrids were introduced in NW betasatellite and atleast two
India during the year of 2005 and after alphasatellite were obtained in the
that a large number of Bt-cotton hybrids present study. The present betasatellite
are introduced for cultivation in this is recombinant and is in agreement with
region. Mostly all of the Bt- cotton the earlier report of CLCuMB being
hybrids are recently observed to be recombinant containing sequences of
highly susceptible to CLCuD showing CLCuD begomovirus and ToLCuB of
67-100% disease incidence with typical tomato (Amrao et al. 2010b). As the
present betasatellite is a species of and for C1 (Rep gene) grouped with

CLCuMB, it is concluded that this CLCuKoV-Lay. The CP and C1 gene
molecule might be responsible for analysis can differentiate virus isolate
severe disease in New Delhi. till species level but not strain level.
The ORF C2 of CLCuKoV-Bur isolate Hi- Based on complete genome analysis, the
14, Si14-1, Hmg-14 and IARI-30 and present and previous reports
CLCuMuV-Raj isolate IARI-34 was determined occurrence of four CLCuD-
truncated to 210 instead of 453 nt in begomovirus variants, three strains of
other CLCuD-begomovirs isolates but CLCuMuV-Raj, -Pak and –Fai, and one of
the ORF C4 of these isolates was strain of CLCuKoV-Bur in cotton
comparatively larger (439-441nt) than growing areas of NW India. Previously,
the other (303nt) CLCuD-begomovirus Godara et al. (2015) reported existence
isolates. Amrao et al. (2010a) reported of two CLCuD-begomovirus strain
that C2 gene in several CLCuKoV-Bur CLCuMuV-Raj and CLCuKoV-Bur in
was truncated, it might be due to cotton field of Delhi condition.
mutation in C2 and C4 gene. The C2 For management, identification and use
gene encodes the transciptional tolerant varieties are most important
activator protein (TrAP) which is a for cultivation of cotton. Over
transcription factor that up-regulates dependenc or dominance of cultivation
virion-sense gene expression and the C4 of Bt-Hybrid cotton (monocrop) is an
gene encodes a protein which is important cause for increased disease
pathogenicity determinant and involved incidence. However, this study did not
in virus movement and host defence investigate whether this combination of
suppression. The gene products of C4 virus and betasatellite could break
and C2 have been identified as major resistance in cotton. In many of the
suppressors in begomoviruses cotton plants examined here identified
(Vanitharani et al. 2004). Moreover, in the alphasatellite CLCuMA was
deeper sequence analysis, it was identified. This indicates that, as was the
observed that sequence length of C4 and case before resistance breaking, the
C2 genes of CLCuKoV-Bur and virus causing CLCuD is associated with
CLCuMuV-Raj differed, that cannot an alphasatellite. The appearance of a
exclude the possibility in variations for form of the virus-complex causing the
suppression activities between these disease with potentially enhanced
viruses. It may be concluded that ttThe pathogenicity is thus not good news.
truncated C2 proteins in CLCuKoV-Bur Further studies will be needed to
might be unable to suppress silencing monitor the situation and see whether
but the enlarged C4 protein might be the coinfection persists and precisely
able to complement the suppressor what the effects are on the yield of
activity of this virus. cotton. Additionally, any efforts towards
The sequence analysis of complete developing resistance to the disease,
geneome, CP and C1 gene were found to either by conventional or non-
be similar for all the present isolates conventional means, would be wise to
except the isolate S-11. For cmmplete take into account the possibility of a
genome analysis the isolate S-11 more complex situation becoming
grouped with CLCuMuV-Fai. For CP gene important in cotton in the future.
analysis it grouped with CLCuMuV-His
Table 1. Origin and features of the present CLCuD-begomoviruses
SN Isolate Origin (Year of Associated NCBI Gen Size Coding sequences (coordinates) (nt)
collection) components Bank (nt)
Acc. No
V2 V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
1 S-9 CICR,Sirsa, Haryana CLCuMuV-Raj KJ959628 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
(2012) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
2 S-11 Panjwana, Haryana CLCuMuV-Fai KM096466 2748 117- 277- 1497- 1147- 1050- 2128- 62-793
(2012) 482 1047 2585 1599 1454 2430
3 Rh-4 Kharkhara,, Haryana CLCuMuV-Raj KM096470 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
(2013) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
4 Uf-1 CCSHAU, Hisar, CLCuMuV-Raj KM096468 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
Haryana (2013) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
5 Sa-3 Sahanwala, Haryana CLCuMuV-Raj KM096471 2748 118- 278- 1497- 1148- 1051- 2129- 62-793
(2013) 474 1048 2585 1600 1455 2431
6 Si-17 Sirsa, Haryana (2012) CLCuMuV-Raj KM096467 2752 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
7 Hi-3 Hisar, Haryana (2013) CLCuMuV-Pak KM096469 2739 116- 276- 1495- 1146- 1049- 2127- 60-584
481 1046 2583 1598 1453 2429
8 Hi-14 Hisar, Haryana (2014) CLCuKoV-Bur KX831889 2759 132- 292- 1505- 1295- 1059- 2242- 283-
488 1062 2596 1504 1463 2682 807
9 Si-14-1 Sirsa, Haryana (2014) CLCuKoV-Bur KT228328 2759 132- 292- 1505- 1295- 1059- 2242- 283-
488 1062 2596 1504 1463 2682 807
10 Hmg-14 Hanumangarh, Rajasthan CLCuKoV-Bur KX831890 2759 132- 292- 1505- 1295- 1059- 2242- 283-
(2014) 488 1062 2596 1504 1463 2682 807
11 SG-14 Sri Ganganagar, CLCuMuV-Raj KX831891 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
Rajasthan (2013) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
12 Ma-14- Manza, Punjab (2014) CLCuMuV-Raj KT228327 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
3 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
13 Faz-14 Fazilka, Punjab (2013) CLCuMuV-Raj KX831888 2752 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
14 IARI-30 IARI Farm, New Delhi CLCuKoV- KJ939341 2762 135- 295- 1508- 1298- 1062- 2245- 286-
(2012) Bur 491 1065 2599 1507 1466 2685 810
15 IARI-34 IARI Farm, New Delhi CLCuMuV-Raj KM070821 2759 132- 292- 1505- 1295- 1059- 2242- 283-
(2012) 488 1062 2596 1504 1463 2682 807
16 IARI-42 IARI Farm, New Delhi CLCuMuV-Raj KJ959629 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
(2013) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
17 IARI-45 IARI Farm, New Delhi CLCuKoV- KJ959630 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
(2013) Bur 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
18 IARI-50 IARI Farm, New Delhi CLCuMuV-Raj KM065514 2753 131- 291- 1510- 1161- 1064- 2142- 75-806
(2013) 487 1061 2598 1613 1468 2444
Table 3. Origin and feature of the present CLCuD-begomovirus associated betasatellite and alphasatellites
Associated CLCuD-begomovirus isolate Betasatellite molecule Acc No. Size Coding sequence bC1 Alphasatellite molecule Acc No. Size Coding sequence Rep
1 CLCuMuV-Raj S-9
2 CLCuMuV-Fai S-11 CLCuMB KM103522 1373 195-551(356)
3 CLCuMuV-Raj Rh-4 CLCuBuA/ GDSA KM103525 1386 70-1017/948
4 CLCuMuV-Raj Uf-1 Croton yellow vein mosaic alphasatellite (CrYVMA) KM103524 1382 58-945 (888)
5 CLCuMuV-Raj Sa-3 CLCuBuA KM103526 1378 70-1017/948
6 CLCuMuV-Raj Si-17
7 CLCuMuV-Pak Hi-3 CrYVMA KM103523 1374 70-1017(948)
8 CLCuKoV-Bur His-14
9 CLCuKoV-Bur Si-14-1 CLCuMB KT228326 1335 201-557 CLCuBuA/ GDSA KT228320 1359 80-1027/948
10 CLCuKoV-Bur Hmg-14
11 CLCuMuV-Raj SG-14
12 CLCuMuV-Raj Ma-14-3 CLCuMB KT228325 1282 194-550 (356) CLCuBuA/ GDSA KT228319 1353 80-1027/948
13 CLCuMuV-Raj Faz-14
14 CLCuKoV- Bur IARI -30 CLCuMB KJ959627 1371 195-551 (356) - - - -
15 CLCuMuV-Raj IARI -34 CLCuMB - - - -
16 CLCuMuV-Raj IARI -42 CLCuMB KJ959627 1371 195-551 (356) - - - -
17 CLCuKoV- Bur IARI-45 CLCuMB KJ959627 1371 195-551 (356) CLCuBuA/ GDSA KM070823 1376 69-1016 (Rep)
KM070824 1366 70-1017 (Rep)
18 CLCuMuV-Raj IARI-50 CLCuMB KJ959627 1371 195-551 (356) CLCuBuA/GDSA KM070825 1393 69-1022 (Rep)
Table 2. Origin and features of the Other CLCuD-begomoviruses strain/isolates taken from NCBI Gene Bank
SN Isolate Origin (Year of Associated NCBI Gen Size Coding sequences (coordinates) (nt)
collection) components Bank (nt)
Acc. No V2 V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
1 [PK-06] CLCuKoV- AM421522 2759 132-488 292-1062 1505-2596 - 1059-1463 2137-2682
Bur
2 Lucknow-[IN-10] CLCuKoV- GU385879 2736 131-487 291-1061 1505-2581 1153-1599 1058-1459 2091-2429
3 Kokhran-[PK-01] CLCuKoV- AJ496286 2750 132-488 292-1062 1511-2593 1204-1608 1059-1463 2137-2439
4 Shadadpur-[PK-05] CLCuKoV- FN552001 2748 132-488 292-1062 1505-2593 1156-1608 1059-1463 2137-2439
5 Layyah-[PK-11] CLCuKoV- HF549182 2751 118-474 278-1048 1497-2588 1643-1807 1051-1455 2129-2674
6 Rajasthan-[IN-94] CLCuMuV- AF363011 2754 132-488 292-1062 1511-2599 1162-1614 1065-1469 2143-2445
7 Rajasthan-[In:Sri:08] CLCuRV GQ220850 2751 183-485 289-1059 1508-2596 1159-1611 1062-1466 2139-2442
8 Rajasthan-[ [In:Sri:08] CLCuBuV- GQ247893 2760 184-486 290-1063 1503-2597 1202-1606 1057-1461 2138-2440
9 Hisar-[PK-97] CLCuMuV- AJ132430 2722 117-446 277-1047 1496-2581 1147-1599 1050-1454 2146-2430
10 Faislabad-[PK-95] CLCuMuV- AJ002447 2751 118-483 278-1048 1497-2588 1148-1600 1051-1455 2129-2431
11 Hibiscus-[IN-11] CLCuMuV- JN807763 2735 116-481 276-1046 1495-2583 1146-1598 1049-1453 2127-2429
12 Pakistan-[PK-06] CLCuMuV- EU365616 2738 116-481 276-1046 1495-2583 1146-1598 1049-1453 2127-2429
13 Darwinii-[Pk-06] CLCuMuV- EU365613 2740 120-485 280-1050 1499-2587 1150-1602 1053-1457 2131-2433
14 Lobatum-[PK-06] CLCuAlV- FJ210467 2730 121-483 281-1051 1500-2588 1151-1603 1054-1458 2141-2431
15 Multan-[PK-06] CLCuAlV- EU384575 2737 123-488 283-1053 1502-2593 1153-1605 1056-1460 2179-2436
16 Karnal-[IN-05] CLCuAlV- GU112004 2744 121-486 281-1051 1500-2591 1151-1603 1054-1458 2123-2434 629-985
17 Alabad-[PK-96] CLCuAlV- AJ002452 2744 121-486 281-1051 1500-2591 1151-1603 1054-1458 2177-2434
18 Haryana-[IN-05] CLCuAlV- GU112081 2744 121-486 281-1053 1500-2591 1151-1603 1054-1458 - 629-985
19 Bangalore-[IN-04] CLCuBV- AY705380 2751 131-478 291-1061 1510-2598 1161-1613 1064-1468 2142-2444
20 Sudan-[SD-96] CLCuGV- AF260241 2761 160-528 320-1096 1542-2630 1238-1642 1093-1494 -
21 Haryana-[In:His:07] CLCuRV- FN645912 2753 131-487 291-1061 1510-2598 1161-1613 1064-1468 2142-2444 75-806
22 Haryana-[In:His:10] CLCuBuV JF502370 2759 132-488 292-1062 1505-2596 1204-1608 1059-1463 2137-2682 283-807
23 Haryana-[In:Abo:10] CLCuRV- JF502364 2751 129-485 289-1065 1508-2596 1207-1611 1062-1466 2140-2442 -
24 Haryana-[In:Abo:10] CLCuBuV- JF502360 2759 132-488 292-1062 1505-2596 - 1059-1463 2137-2682 283-807
Table 4. Recombination events in the present CLCuD-begomovirus detected by recombination-detecting program RDP4
Isolate Recombination site (region) Length (nt) Event No Detected by methoda Major parent/minor parent Max. P valueb
S-9 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan 16-63 (IR) 48 1 R,G,3-S Ma-14-3,Faz-14/Hi-3, CLCuMuV-Hibiscus 7.35 x 10-4
1595-2610 (C1, C4) 1016 2 3-S,C,Si Si-17, Ma-14-3, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN6V5912/ CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912, Si- 1.2 x 10-2
17,Rh-4
S-11 CLCuMuV-Faislabad 1774-2442 (C1, C4) 669 3 Si,M,C CLCuMuV-Hisar/ CLCuAlV-Alabad (AJ002452), IARI-45 9.1 x 10-41
2623-2749 (IR) 127* 4 C,R,G CLCuMuV-Hisar/IARI-45 1.53 x 10-15
Rh-4 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan 900-1002 (V1) 103* 5 3-S,B,C,M,R S-9, CLCuBaV (AY705380), IARI -42/ CLCuBaV (AY705380), IARI-42 1.72 x 10-9
2632-2714 (IR) 83* 6 C,M,R,G S-9, Ma 14-3, Uf-1/ Faz-14, CLCuKoV-Burewala-JF502370 4.66 x 10-5
Uf-1 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan -
Sa-3 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan 62-1596 (IR, V1, V2, C1, C2, C3) 1535* 7 3-S,C,M CLCuKoV-Layyah/CLCuMuV-Faislabad 9.8 x 10-15
2586-2723 (IR, C1, C4) 141 8 C,M,G CLCuKoV-Layyah, CLCuMuV-Faislabad/ CLCuAlV-Multan, IARI-42, CLCuKoV-Kokhran 2.1 X 10-7
Si-17 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan 900-1002 (V1) 103* 5 C,3-S,R CLCuBaV (AY705380), S-9/S-9,IARI-42, CLCuBaV (AY705380) 1.71 x 10-9
2642-2752 (IR) 111* 6 G,M,R Uf-1, S-9/Faz-14 2.8 x 10-15
Hi-3 CLCuMuV-Pakistan -
Hi -14 CLCuKoV-Burewala 1-76 (IR) 76 9 R,B,G ToLCuNDV, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912/ CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912/ 2.78x10-3
CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912, CLCuBaV (AY705380), CYVMV (JN817516)
Si-14-1 CLCuKoV-Burewala 11-75 (IR) 65 10 B,C,G,R ToLCuNDV, CYVMV (JN817516), CLCuGV-Sudan, CLCuKoV-Layyah/ CLCuMuV- 2.78 x 10 -3
Rajasthan-FN645912, Si-17, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-GQ220850
Hmg-14 CLCuKoV-Burewala 1-76 (IR) 76 9 R,B,G ToLCuNDV, CLCuBaV (AY705380), CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912/ CLCuBaV 2.78x10-3
(AY705380), CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912, CYVMV (JN817516)
SG-14 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan -
Ma-14-3 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan -
Faz-14 CLCuMuV- Rajasthan 64-901 (IR,V1,V2) 838 11 R, M, B, G, Si CLCuBaV (AY705380), MeYVMV (FJ159262)/Rh-4, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan (FN645912), Si- 2.72x 10-9
17, S-9, Ma 14-3
975-1001 (V1) 27* 12 G,R,M IARI-30, CLCuKoV-Luckow/ CLCuMuV-Rajasthan (JF502364), CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 8.05 x 10-3
(GQ220850)
IARI-30 CLCuKoV-Burewala 12-76 (IR) 65 10 C,R,G,B CLCuMuV-Darwini, BhVYDY,ToLCuNDV, CYVMV (JN817516)/ CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 3.12 x10-5
FN645912, CLCuKoV-Burewala-JF502360,-JF502370, Rh-4
1196-1321 (C2, C3) 126 13 B,R,3S IARI-50, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan GQ220850, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan JF502364/ CLCuMuV- 2.25 x 10-6
Rajasthan 37507364, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan GQ220850
2568-2724 (IR) 157 14 C, Si, M IARI-50, CLCuKoV-Burewala, IARI-42/ CLCuKoV-Layyah, Rh-4, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 9.0 x 10-6
(GQ220850)
IARI-34 CLCuMuV-Rajasthan -
IARI-42 CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 64-1776 (IR, V1, V2, C1, C2, C3) 1713 15 B,G,R MeYVMV (FJ159262)/Ma-14-3,S-9 6.05 x 10-179
1787-2636 (C1, C4) 850 16 G,M,Si,35 MeYVMV (FJ159262), IARI-42,Ma-14-3, Rh-4, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan-FN645912, 4.7 x10-65
MeYVMV (FJ159262)
IARI-45 CLCuKoV-Burewala 25-874 (IR, V1, V2) 850* 17 G,R,M CLCuAlV-Alabad (AJ002452)/ CLCuKoV-Burewala 7.42 x10 -55
1538-1660 (C1) 123 18 Si,R,B,C,M,G CLCuKoV-Burewala-JF502760, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan, CLCuAlV-Alabad (AJ002452), 4.92 x 10-4
CLCuMuV-Darwini/ CLCuKoV-Burewala-GQ247893, CLCuKoV-Kokhran, Si-14-1,
CLCuKoV-Shadadpur (FN552001)
2471-2620 (IR, C1) 150 19 R,M,3S S-11,CLCuAlV--lobatum/ CLCuAlV-Multan, CLCuAlV-Karnal 1.4 x 10-4
IARI-50 CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 33-117 (IR) 85 20 M,B,Si,R,C Hi-3, BhYVDY, CYVMV (JN817516)/CLCuKoV-Lucknow,Faz-14, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan 3.62 x10-9
GQ220850, CLCuMuV-Rajasthan JF502364
2213-2740 (C1, C4) 528 21 G,R,Si Ma-14-3, IARI-30/ CLCuMuV-Rajasthan(GQ220850), CLCuMuV-Rajasthan (JF502364) 1.1 x 10-41
a: B Bootscan, M Maxchi, C Chimera and S Siscan, L Lard, 3s 3SEQ implemented in the RDP4, b :P value detected evidences of recombination events among the isolates and P value [0.05
was considered to be significant; Default settings were used with a standard Bonferroni-corrected highest acceptable P-value cut off of 0.05; *detected by 3 algorithms implemented in the RDP4 with same parents
Table 5. Recombination events in the present CLCuD-begomovirus associated betasatellite and alphasatellite molecules
Isolate Recombination site Major parent/minor parent Max. P valueb Detected by methoda
(region)
Betasatellite
Ma-14-3 17-762 ToYLCuB(Ph:07)/Si-14-1 2.58x10-7 R,B,3S
17-112 CLCuMuB/ToLCuB 15x10-17 G,B
1160-1201 PLCuB/GzB 7.6x10-5 G, M
1160-1201 ToLCuB, PLCuB/GzB 3.12x10-3 R,G, M
Si-14-1 1-110 ALCB/CLCuMuB 1.14x10-9 G,M
IARI-30 913-1344 CLCuMB/LuLDB 1.39x10-17 C, M
551-913 GzB,RLCuB, LuLDB/CLCuMB 5.9x10-20 G,B,3S
IARI-34 913-1344 CLCuMB/CuLDB 1.07x10-17 G,M
S-11 129-870 CuLDB, ToLCuJVB, Si-14-1/CLCuMB, GYVMoB 5.67x10-4 B, M, 3S
948-1028 IARI-30, Si-14-1, CLCuMB/GYVMoB, ToLCuB(Ph:07), LuLDB 1.38 x 10-3 R, B, C
Alphasatellite
Uf-1 30-53 PLCuA, MYMoVA,TYLCuACh/CLCuBuAPaK,GDSA,Hi-3 4.9x10-2 R,G,B
Sa-3 1185-1263 GDSA,Hi-3/CLCuMuA 5.9x10-4 B,M,C
64-639 IARI-45-2,CLCuBuAPak,CLCuGA/GDSA,Hi-3 2.1x10-2 R,G,3S
Rh-4 1030-1111 GDSA/ MYMoVA, CLCuMuA,CLCuBuAPak 1.7x10-9 R,M,C
Hi-3 1-996 AYVSA,OkVAlu,TLCuNA/Rh-4,Sa-3 5.01x10-8 B,G,3S
Ma-14-3 1-1025 TLCuNA,Rh-4, MYMoVA/Si-14-1 2.76x10-10 G,B,3S
1028-1086 Si-14-1/ MYMoVA, CLCuBuAPak 4.72x10-16 R,M,C
Si-14-1 - - - -
IARI-45-1 11-402 CLCuLA,AYVSA, CLCuMuA/IARI-50 3.18x10-2 R,C,3S
1016-1362* Hi-3/Sa-3 6.53x10-18 M,C
1369-1073 SYVVVA,IARI-45-2/Sa-3,ChLCuMuA 2.52x10-2 M,C
IARI-45-2 1158-1200 GDSA, Rh-4, PLCuA, Sa-3/ Si-14-1, CLCuGA, Sa-3, MYMoVA 7.8x10-7 R,G,B,M
IARI-50 5-60 Uf-1, SYVVVA/ IARI-45-2, Rh-4 2.82x10-4 R,G,C
5-406* CLCuBuAPak/ IARI-45-1 3.8x10-99 G,B
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Research Paper
GC-MS analysis and Characterization of antimicrobial
compounds from endangered tree species Humboldtia
bourdillonii Prain. from Southern Western Ghats
E. Marimuthu and K. Muthuchelian

Department of Bioenergy, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai – 625 021
Submission: April, 2022; Published: June, 2022
*Corresponding author E. Mail I. D.: marimuthu.jrf@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
We investigated the antimicrobial potential of extracts from endangered medicinal plant Humboldtia bourdillonii,
which is commonly used by the tribal’s of Western Ghats for the treatments of various diseases was evaluated
against few pathogenic bacterial strains. Medicinal plant extracts prepared using solvents such as ethanol,
methanol and acetone. The antibacterial test was performed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae and Proteus mirabilis.
Similarly, antifungal tests were performed against Rhizoctonia solani, Trichoderma viride, Macrophomina
phaseolina, a common storage fungus by using the agar diffusion assay. The medicinal plant exhibited
antimicrobial activity against all the nine pathogenic microbial strains. Notably, the methanol extract of medicinal
plants having certain active compounds showed better antibacterial and antifungal activity against the
pathogenic microbial strains. Antimicrobial compounds were identified and characterized by GC-MS
Chromatography. Our results form the basis for the development of the novel broad spectrum of the antibacterial
formulation from Humboldtia bourdillonii.
Keywords: Antimicrobial activity, Agar diffusion assay, GC-MS Chromatography, Humboldtia bourdillonii.
INTRODUCTION
Three crucial necessities of life are food, (Perumalsamyet al.,1998). Indian folk
cloth, and shelter. In search of food, the medicine comprises of numerous herbal
primitive man must have acquired prescriptions for therapeutic purposes,
knowledge as to which plants and which may be a variant as healing
animals possessed food value. wounds, treating inflammation due to
Consequently, people started using infection, skin lesion, leprosy, diarrhea,
plants by their pharmacological action scabies, venereal diseases, snake bite,
and classified them as an emetic (the ulcers, etc. It is interesting to note that a
one which causing vomiting) appetizer. particular plant could be used for
Thus, the healing power of individual different diseases. For example, the
plants on animals discovered decoction of Sebastiania chamaelea
accidentally, and this knowledge passed considered to be a tonic for diarrhea in
from generation to generation. India and China (Caius, 1993), while the
In India, herbal medicines have been the astringent effect of the juice is applied
basis for treatment andcure of various externally to cure leprosy. Similarly, the
diseases and physiological conditions bark of Terminalia arjuna widely used in
through traditional methods practiced, the Indian system of medicine for a
such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha variety of purposes (Jain et al., 1996),
and the bark is particularly effective in meeting this demand for newer drugs
cardiovascular therapy (Vaidya, 1994). with minimal side effects. The vast
The tribal peoples of Western Ghats biodiversity of our country is still
(Malaialli, Irulas and Paliyan) have been unexplored and many plants could be
traditionally used parts of various plant the source of novel drugs (Maadhumathi
species as therapeutic (Veale et al., et al., 2000). The plant produces many
1992). India has rich medicinal plant secondary metabolites and constitutes
diversity. The use of active compounds are important sources of pesticides,
isolated from these plant sources is micro-biocides and pharmaceutical
forever increasing in the drugs.
pharmaceutical, cosmetic and Because of these reasons, many people
biotechnology industries. To strengthen have interested in the traditional system
the medicinal plant resource base in of medicine. Whole plant, leaf, stem, and
India, in the context of primary health root extracts have been widely
care, a bilateral aided Indo-Danish evaluated for the identification of
project was launched in 1993. The antibacterial compounds in plants; the
research aspects intrusted with the leaves were found to have broad
foundation for the revitalization of Local antimicrobial activity amongst the other
Health Traditions (FRLHT) and Non- plant parts. Hence, the extracts could be
Government organization, which is in used as broad-spectrum antimicrobial
Co-ordination with the state forest agents (Saharkaret al., 1998).
Departments of Karnataka, Kerala and Presently, with this background
Tamil Nadu for undertaking herbal information and appreciating the
medicine (Jeyabarathi, 1999). knowledge on medicinal plants acquired
In India, a large number of medicinal by villagers, an attempt has been made
plants found in their natural habitats. in this study to evaluate the antifungal
Antifungal and antibacterial substances and antibacterial activities of
also found in numerous plant extracts. endangered plant species Humboldtia
In some plants, the compounds present bourdillonii collected from Southern
in tissues may protect specific plant and Western Ghats, Kerala. Gas
human pathogenic organisms chromatography, mass spectroscopy
(Shekhawat, 1977). According to an and hyphenated systems used for the
estimate of the World Health identification and quantification of
Organization (WHO), approximately active constituents in plant extracts. The
80% of the people in developing unknown organic compounds in a
countries rely on traditional medicine complex mixture could be determined
for primary health care needs. by interpretation with reference
Search for newer drugs from the plant spectral libraries and also by matching
has been on the rise since many of the the spectra with published data or with
microorganisms, including fungi, are other research portals.
posing severe health related disorders.
This may probably be due to the MATERIALS AND METHODS
prolonged and indiscriminate use of Collection of plant materials
antibiotics, an increase in the number of Collection of plant material mature
immune-compromised patients and plants of Humboldtia bourdillonii were
AIDS afflicted patients. Besides, many of used for this study was collected from
the exciting drugs cause various side the Poonkavanam and Southern
effects. Drug devolvement from plant- Western Ghats, Kerala. Different plant
based compounds could be useful in extraction (Methanol, Ethanol,
Petroleum Ether and water) were used strain was adjusted at a concentration of
for further studies. 108 cells/ml using 0.5 McFarl and
Processing the plant materials standard (Bhalodia and Shukla, 2011).
The plant materials were thoroughly The fungal inoculum was prepared from
washed in tap water to remove the dust the 48 h culture of fungal isolates in
particles and rinsed in distilled water. Potato dextrose broth (PDB) (Nisha et
The plant was spread over on blotting al., 2010). The spectrophotometer
papers to remove excess water and then (A595 nm) has been used to adjust the
dried under shade for 5-7 days. Then, spore density of fungus at a final
the dried plant samples were ground concentration of 106 spores/ml
well into a fine dust powder in a mixer Preparation of plant extract
grinder. The plant powder was packed Different organic solvents, such as
and labeled in separate bottles and acetone, methanol, and ethanol were
stored in the refrigerator till extraction. used to prepare plant extract, according
to Albuqueet et al., 1983.
Preparation of medium Table 3: Nutrient broth
Table 1: Composition of Mueller-
Hinton agar medium Composition Quantify
(gm/lit)
Composition Quantity Beef extract 3.0
(gm/lit.) Peptone 5.0
Casein acid 17.5
hydrolysis Sodium chloride 5.0
Beef-heart 2.0 Yeast extract 2.0
infusion Beef extract 1.0
Starch 1.5
Agar 17.0 Agar 1.05
28 g nutrient agar medium = 1 litre
38g Mueller Hinton agar medium =
1 liter 2.8g in 100ml sterile distilled water
3.8g in 100 ml of distilled water
Crude Extraction
Table 2: Composition of PDA Medium The crude extract was prepared using
solvents like acetone, methanol and
Composition Quantity ethanol in H. bourdillonii. 1 g of fresh
(gm/lit.) leaf was extracted separately with 10ml
Potato extracts 200.0 of each acetone, methanol, and ethanol
Dextrose 20.0 in a shaker at room temperature for
24h. Then extracts centrifuged at
Agar 15.0 5000rpm for 15 mins, and the
39 g PDA agar medium = 1liter supernatant was collected and then
concentrated by evaporation. Bioassay
3.9 g in 100 ml sterile Distilled
of the different solvent extracted was
water
conducted by agar diffusion methods.
Medium preparation methods
Extraction in Soxhlet apparatus
The Gram-positive and Gram-negative
Plant powder (10 g) was taken in
bacteria were pre-cultured in Mueller
Whatman no. 1 filter paper pouch and
Hinton broth (MHB) overnight in a
kept in Soxhlet unit, and 200mlof the
rotary shaker at 37°C. Afterward, each
solvent poured into it. The unit holds a in samples were obtained using
few ml, and the remaining solvent gets electron ionization (EL) at 70 ev, and
drained and collected in the round the detector by operating mass units
bottom flask. The condenser unit is (amu). Mass spectra were identified for
placed on the top end of the Soxhlet unit phytochemicals using the standard mass
tightly using Paraffin wax. Coldwater spectral database of WILEY and NIST
made to flow through the condenser. It libraries.
condenses the solvent vapor, which Medium sterilization
made to fall on the plant powder kept in The required quantity of water was
the Soxhlet unit. The temperature was added in the pressure cooker to cover
maintained at 50ºC. the bottom sieve plate. The chemical
After a continuous cycle of solvent in 8 constituents were dispersed in conical
to 10 h, the extract collected from a flasks. The mouths of the flask were
round bottom flask. The extract was placed on the sieve plate. The lid was
then concentrated by evaporation, and closed properly and heated to reach the
the extract was transferred to a screw 15lbs pressure for 15 to 20 min, after
cap tube and stored in the refrigerator. sterilization and complete exhaustion of
50µl of the extract was applied to the steam, the lid of the cooker was opened
sterile disk and made to dry for very carefully. The conical flasks were
bioassay. taken out and used for further analysis.
GC-MS analysis
Gas chromatographic analysis was Collection of test organisms
performed by following the method of Bacterial and fungal culture
Joachin and Hubschiman (2008). A total The bacterial cultures of Pseudomonas
of 5 ml leaf methanol extracts aeruginosa (Gram negative), Vibrio
evaporated separately todryness and cholera (Gram negative), Proteus
reconstituted in 2 µl of methanol. The mirabilis (Gram negative),
extracts were then subjected to GC-MS Staphylococcus aureus (Gram positive),
analysis. Chromatographic separation Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus
was carried out with CE, GC 8000 top aureus (Gram positive) and Salmonella
MSMD 8000 fusion instruments with DB typhi (Gram negative) and fungal
35 m column (10mm x0.5mm,0.25 µm cultures Rhizoctonia solani, Trichoderma
film thickness). Heating programmes viride and Macrophomina phaseolina
were executed at 100-250ºC for 3 were collected from the Department of
minutes by using helium as a carrier gas Microbiology, Madurai Kamaraj
with a flow rate of 1 ml/mines in the University.
split mode (1:50). An aliquot (1 µl) of The minimum inhibitory concentration
the extract was injected into the column of the plant extract was used potato
with injector heater at 250oC. dextrose agar medium (PDA) against
Analytical conditions Rhizoctonia solani, T. viride and M.
Injection temperature at 250 C, the phaseolina, a common storage fungus.
interface temperature in 200ºC, the To detect the fungicidal/ fungi static
quadruple temperature on 150ºC and nature of the plant extract, inhibited
Ion Source temperature at 250ºC were fungal specimen were gently washed
maintained. The injection was with sterile distilled water in aseptic
performed in splitless mode. conditions and were inoculated on fresh
medium, a revival of their growth was
Data analysis observed.
The mass spectra of compounds present
have been a primary source of

antibiotics. In recent times, however, the
plant world is showing increasing
promise as sources of novel antibiotic
prototypes. Plants have been exploited
as a natural source of anti-bacterial
substances as most of them exhibit
antibacterial activity. In the present
study, the antibacterial and antifungal
activities of leaf extract of H.
bourdillonii were studied in vitro. The
dried leaf powder was successively
extracted with ethanol, methanol and
acetone. All the three fractions were
screened for antibacterial activity
against gram positive and gram negative
Figure 1. Antibacterial activity of H. bourdillonii against (a) bacteria.
P. aeriginosa, (b) S. aureus, (c) Methicillium resistant S. Medicinal plants play a vital role in
aureus, (d) S. typhi, (e) P. mirabilis and (e) V. cholera.
RESULTS human health care. The plant (H.
bourdillonii) used in this study were
traditional medicines being used by the
tribal peoples in Western Ghats. Among
these plant, bark of H. bourdilloniiis
used for a curing biliousness, leprosy,
ulcers and epilepsy. H. bourdillonii were
used against six bacterial strains (P.
aeruginosa, S. aureus, Methicillin
resistantS. aureus, S typhi, V. cholerae,
and P. mirabilis) and three fungus
strains (R. solani, T. viride,
M.phaseolina). H. bourdillonii were
macerated into six different solvents
(ethanol, chloroform, methanol, acetone
and petroleum ether). The antibacterial
activity of these medicinal plants was
evaluated using agar diffusion assay
Figure 2. Anti-fungal activity of H. bourdilloniiagainst(b)R.
methods. The zone of inhibition was
solani,(d) T. viride, (f) M. phaseolina, Control (a, b and e). measured with the help of scale and the
results were represented in tables
RESULTS (Table4 and 5). These medicinal plants
The ever-increasing resistance of showed antibacterial activity against six
human pathogens to current day anti- available bacterial pathogen strains
microbial agents are a vexing problem (Table 4). Overall, the present study
for medicinal practitioners. This has suggests that the methanol extracts of
inspired a number of investigations for these medicinal plants contain active
alternative antibiotics. In the past, compounds that could form a basis for
products derived from microorganisms
Figure 3. GC-MS analysis of H. bourdillonii: (a) total ion current plot, (b) target spectrum
and (c) library search hit list.
further development of novel broad- contain active compounds, which are
spectrum antibacterial formulation. bioactive substances with antimicrobial
Explain more about the inhibition of activity. Hence, they were selected for
different solvent extracts against screening because it is an indication of
different mocibial strains P. aeriginosa, the pharmacological effects of the
S. aureus, Methicillium resistant S. plants.
aureus, S. typhi, P. mirabilis and V. Antibacterial activity
cholera. The results indicated that the leaf
extracts had significant antibacterial
DISCUSSION activity against both gram-positive
The results from the present study (Bacilluscereus) and gram-negative
showed that H. boudilloniifound to (P.aeruginosa) bacterial strains.
Similarly,Auduet al (2000) reported that inhibition zone was found to be 14 and

extracts of Sclerocaryabirrea had 10mm. Whereas, at 50 µl methanol
inhibitory action against E. coli. Mehta et extract of the antibacterial activity was
al., (1997) studied the inhibitory effect found to be at a lower level (10 and
of crude alcoholic leaf extracts of Vitex 8mm). Table4 showed the result of
negundo against B. subtilis, E. coli and P. antibacterial activity of the two plant
aeruginosa. They observed a maximum leaf extracts at a concentration of 100 µl.
zone of inhibition of 20mm against Minimum inhibitory was observed
E.coli. But, at low concentration, there against S. typhiin the acetone extract of
was no significant activity against H.bourdillonii. Similarly, Dutta
Pseudomonassps and Micrococcus Choudhury et al., (1997) tested some
sps.Similarly, an ethanolic of Quercus antibiotics, such as Ciprofloxacin,
acutatrunk showed antibacterial activity Gentamycin, and Streptomycin against
against both Gram-positive and Gram- Streptococcussps and Staphylococcussps.
negative bacteria (Baratta et al., 1998). They found that both the bacteria were
In the present study, the alcoholic crude more sensitive to known antibiotics in
leaf extract showed maximum zone of comparison to leaf extract of
inhibition (20 to 22mm) against S. typhi. Sonchusbrachyotus. Amikacin was used
The minimum inhibition of zone to find out the antibacterial activity
(11mm) was observed at 30 µl alcoholic against V.cholerae and P.mirabilis,
leaf extract. When the concentration of whereas Chloramphenical (30mg/disc)
extracts was lower, there was almost no was used against Pseudomonassps. It
inhibitory activity against Pseudomonas showed that the plant extract appeared
and Bacillus. Similar results were to be less active, however, this is
reported with an alcoholic extracts of obvious since extracts typically contain
Vitex negundo leaves against a variety of other plant constituents.
Micrococcus pyogenes, B. cereus and E. The antibacterial activity of leaf extract
coli (Das and Das, 1995; Mehta et al., of H. bourdilloniiwas compared with
1997). The leaf extracts at the Amikacin antibiotics (30mg/disc)
concentration of 100 µl had maximum against gram-positive (S. aureus and
inhibitory activity (16mm) against P. Methicillin resistant S. aureus) (Figure1)
aeruginosa. The lowest zone of and Gram-negative (P. aeruginosa, S.
inhibition (11mm) was observed when typhi, V. cholerae and P. mirabilis)
50 µl of methanol leaf extracts of H. (Figure2.1) and Pseudomonas
bourdilloniiwas used (Table4). sp.Significant antibacterial activity was
Table4 showed the antibacterial observed when both leaf extracts and
activity of methanol leaf extract H. antibiotics soakeddisc were used
bourdillonii at different concentrations against test microorganisms (Table4).
against V. cholerae. The methanol leaf The leaf extract of H.bourdillonii showed
extracts of H. bourdilloniishowed a significant antifungal activity against the
lesser zone of inhibition (12 mm) at100 plant pathogen (Table 5), (Figure
µl concentration and the maximum zone 2).However, there was no antifungal
of inhibition. The methanol extracts of activity against Rhizoctoniasolani.
H. bourdillonii showed significant Significant antifungal activity was
antibacterial activity against the observed when the methanol leaf
standard strains of both Gram positive extracts and the antibiotic soaked discs
(S. aureus) and Gram negative (P. were used together against the test
mirabilis and V. cholera. When 100 µl of microorganisms (Table 2). Similarly,
methanol leaf extracts was used, the aqueous and alcoholic root extracts of
Tribulus terrestris, Ocimum americanum,

Opuntia dilleni, Calotropis procera and CONCLUSION
Argemonemexicana inhibited the growth The results showed that H. bourdillonii
of fungi (Gehlot and Bohra, 2000). The could be a source of potential
antifungal activity of these plant antimicrobial medicine towards the
extracts may bedue to the presence of treatment of bacterial and fungal
some phytochemical or alkaloids diseases. The variation in activities
present in them (Gehlot and Bohra, might have been due to the presence of
2000). In our study, the medicinal various other groups of secondary
plantextracts exhibited inhibitory action metabolites. In future, the research
against Staphylococcus sp. and work should focus on active compounds
Pseudomonas sp.The inhibitory effects identified by GCMS in H. bourdillonii leaf
on S. aureus and P. aureus are extracts and consequently the
interesting because they indicate the development of new antimicrobial
usefulness in the management of drugs.
opportunistic infections caused by these
bacterial strains (Adamuet al., 2000).
Table1. Antibacterial activities of Humboldtia bourdillonii extract various concentrations
Control Zone of inhibition (mm)

Types of Bacteria Zone of inhibition (mm)
Positive Negative Concentration of plant extract
Sample solvent
Ampicillin 50 µl 75 µl 100 µl
(Methanol)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 7 No 11 14 16
Staphylococcus aureus 6 No 10 10 13
Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus 8 No 10 10 11
Salmonella typhi 7 No 19 20 22
Vibrio cholera 6 No 8 14 10
Proteus mirabilis 8 No 10 12 14
Table2. Antifungal activitiy of various concentration of Humboldtia bourdillonii plant extract
Zone of growth development

Types of Fungus
Concentration of Plant extract
Control
Solvent 50 µl 75 µl 100 µl
Positive Negative
Rhizoctonia solani Methanol + - + + +
Trichoderma viride Methanol + - + + +
Macrophominaphaseolina Methanol + - + + +
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Review Paper
Development of spot blotch resistance in bread wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) using DH technology
Shahnishan Tabassum1, Nishi Kumari2, Amrita Singh1, Ujjwal Kumar1 and
Awadhesh Kumar Pal1*
1Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, India
2Department of Botany, Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur, India

*Corresponding author Email.I.D.: awapal@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is affected severely by spot blotch disease caused by Bipolaris
sorokiniana (Sacc.), mainly when the flag leaf gets infected before head emergence and shows heavy
decline grain yield. Genotype showing resistance to spot blotch are not grown commercially due to
their poor yield performance and the one with high yielding traits doesn’t show strong resistant to the
spot blotch disease. By the time a variety attains homozygosity through conventional breeding
method which takes 7-10 years; the pathogens get altered and transformed into more virulent form.
Doubled haploid (DH) technology fastens the breeding procedure in wheat for granting pure
homozygous lines in less time of 2-3 years. In our study, F1 developed from crosses involving one spot
blotch resistant parent and other high yielding were sown in pots on regular interval of five days in
synchronization with the maize plants, so that their flowering coincides with each other. Around 670
pseudo seeds were produced out of which 346 contained haploid embryos. Haploid plants germinated
on B5 basal media supplemented with 3 % sucrose. The number of pseudo seeds and haploids
development needs to be enhanced by further modification of the process. A greater understanding of
the physiology underlying these results will enable manipulation of environmental conditions for
enhancing the overall efficiency of such systems.
Keywords: Doubled haploid, embryo, heat, maize, pseudo seeds, wheat
INTRODUCTION Terminal heat tolerance and low

In 2017, with the annual global agricultural inputs had been
production of 771.7 million tons and a emphasized but the terrible effect of
productivity of 3.53 tons/ha) wheat was notorious fungus has evolved to be a
the third most produced crop after major concern.
maize and rice (FAOSTAT, 2018). It is SPOT BLOTCH DISEASE CAUSED BY
grown in an area of about 218.5 million BIPOLARIS SOROKINIANA (SACC.)
hectare all over the globe. India invest SHOEMAKER
largest area (30.6 million hectares) for The spot blotch disease is caused by
wheat cultivation as compared to other Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker
nation of the world but ranks second in [teleomorph, Cochliobolus sativus (S. Ito
total production (98.5 million tons) with &Kurib.) Drechsler ex Dastur] a
productivity of 3.22 tons/ha, after China notorious wheat fungal pathogen
which produces 131.6 million tons in (Dubin and Van Ginkel, 1991; Duveiller
just 24.3 million hectares of its land and Gilchrist, 1994; Nagarajan and
with productivity of 5.48 tons/ha. Kumar, 1998; Mehta, 1998; Duveiller et
al., 2005). Besides spot blotch, this
fungus is also the causal agent of other During a crop health survey carried out
diseases like common root rot, foot rot, in various parts of the country by the
seedling blight and seed rot of wheat. scientists of Directorate of Wheat
Duveiller (2013) expected an increase in Research (DWR), Karnal, the
spot blotch severity and incidence in cooperating scientists of AICW&BIP,
future in wheat growing areas where KVK’s scientists and officers of State
the disease does not cause significant Department of Agriculture of different
losses today. Since the Eastern Gangetic states, Directorate of Wheat
Plains of South Asia (especially India) is Development, Ghaziabad and CIPMC
considered crucial for meeting future centers during February, 2013. Dr.
food demands, elite germplasm lines Ramesh Chand and Dr. V.K. Mishra
having superior agronomic performance (BHU, Varanasi) recorded spot blotch on
and high spot blotch resistance are all locations i.e. in UP (Mughal Sarai,
being sought with the utmost priority Chandauli, Sakaldiha) and Bihar
(Joshi et al., 2007a). It is generally (Durgawati, Mohania, Mahurbati,
believed that the level of resistance in Sirodha, Harnathpur, Kochas, Dinara,
currently grown high yielding wheat Manpur, Gaura, Semari, Buxar,
genotypes is still unsatisfactory and Sonbarsa, Karwania, Jagdishpur, Esadi,
needs to be improved significantly in Dulhinganj, Rajapur, Ara, Danapur,
warmer humid regions of South Asia Mahua and Pusa) during the survey
(Sharma et al., 2004; Sharma and carried out between February 24-25
Duveiller, 2006; Joshi et al., 2007b). (Wheat Crop Health Newsletter, DWR,
Duveiller and Sharma (2009) reviewed 2012-2013).
the severity of the disease and BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE
estimated the total loss of about 15 % in IN WHEAT AGAINST SPOT BLOTCH
South Asia. Since the resistance is not Apart from Indian lines i.e. Chirya 3 and
100% complete, the ultimate goal is the Chirya 7, some Chinese lines Long 98-
accumulation of minor genes of 4554, Long 98-4546, Long mai 24, Long
resistance in adapted high yielding mai 23 and Canadian line 181-5
genotypes. These authors emphasized (Mikhailova et al., 2004) have also
that the use of resistant varieties, timely shown resistance. These genotypes
seeding, adequate fertilization, crop although resistant to spot blotch, are not
rotation, and the judicious use of commercially grown in the Eastern
fungicides can be part of an integrated Gangetic Plains due to their poor
management strategy for controlling performance in terms of yield. HD 2733,
yield losses due to spot blotch. PBW 343, WNW012, IID 2824, HD 2967,
Genotypes which are tolerant or HD2985, DBW39, RAJ4015, HD2967,
resistant to spot blotch also show DBW14, K9107, K307, Kanchan,
tolerance to heat stress, suggesting a Sonalika, BL 1473, Nepal 297 etc. are
common physiological mechanism to high yielding varieties in Eastern
combat both stresses in tolerant Gangetic Plains but doesn’t show strong
genotypes. resistant to the spot blotch disease
Spot blotch has been a serious threat in (Singh and Singh, 2011). New virulent
the South Asian nation mainly Indian pathotypes of different diseases are
Eastern Gangetic plain. It is a major emerging day by day that pose new
biotic factor responsible in lowering the challenges to overcome through new
wheat productivity in hot and humid breeding strategy by identifying
environments of eastern India. resistant parents, crossing and selection
to develop new resistant varieties. Rust
and spot blotch have to be considered uniparental chromosomal elimination

on priority basis as one of the major technique. While pollen and anther
breeding objectives through culture has very low yield of haploids,
development of resistant wheat chromosomal elimination has gained
varieties (Gurung, 2013). Any hybrid worldwide acceptance due to higher
developed in the near future involving efficiency of obtaining haploids
one spot blotch resistant parent and (Chaudhary et al., 2013). Once the
other for high yield or any other haploids are obtained, their genome can
beneficial trait would definitely gain an be doubled by colchicines treatment to
overall high yielding performance. get DH lines of wheat. So, chromosome
DOUBLED HAPLOID TECHNOLOGY elimination has been studied and
FOR RAPID IMPROVEMENT OF investigated by researchers to a great
WHEAT extent and nowadays is being utilized
The old conventional breeding method for large-scale practical applications.
takes long duration of about 7-10 years At present, different methods such as
for getting a homozygous pure line anther culture, ovule culture, haploid
(Forster and Thomas, 2010). ). By the inducer gene/s, chemical treatments
time a variety attains homozygosity and chromosome elimination following
through conventional breeding wide hybridization have been applied by
techniques; the pathogens get altered researchers for production of double
and transformed into more virulent haploids in wheat (Riera-Lizarazu et al.,
form. So there is an utmost need to 1992; Hassawi et al., 2012; Niroula et al.,
fasten the breeding procedure. Advent 2009; Forster et al., 2007; Basu et al.,
of molecular biology has fastened the 2011; Devaux and Pickering, 2005;
identification of superior genotypes Hussain et al., 2012). These methods
eventually making the breeding cycle have varying rate of accuracy and
shorter. Though marker assisted efficacy but interspecific/intergeneric
selection and QTL mapping are playing a hybridization e.g. wheat x maize
leading role in crop breeding, they can hybridization has been routinely used in
only fasten the ongoing breeding breeding programmes due to high
procedure but couldn’t produce 100% efficacy and wheat x maize
homozygous populations. In this context hybridization being the most suitable
technology like Double Haploid (DH) method.
using plant tissue culture methods is In 1964, Guha and Maheshwari at Delhi
emerging like a blessing for the crop University were the first to produce
improvement programs especially in haploid plants from anthers of Datura
wheat. DH systems are now available in inoxia, since then this technique has
a number of crop species (Li et al., 2012; been used in many plant species (Bakos
Chaudhary et al., 2013) et al., 2003). Anthers are cultured in test
DH technology provides greater tubes containing N-6 medium or Potato-
efficiency of selection in plant breeding. 2 medium (Chuang et al., 1978) or
It improves the precision of genetic and modified W14 basic media (Jia et al.,
mapping studies. It also accelerates gene 1994) having varying concentrations of
pyramiding and improves efficacy and 2,4-D, BAP, NAA or different
efficiency in screening for biotic or combinations of BAP and NAA for callus
abiotic stress tolerance (Forster and induction (Liu et al., 2000). The cultured
Thomas, 2010). Haploids can be test tubes are kept in dark in incubation
generated through pollen culture, room for 15 days at 28-30°C to enhance
anther culture or recently highly used reaction in case of 2,4-D which increase
the embryo development rate (Kisana et Wheat x maize is the best method of
al., 1993; Sadasivaiah et al., 1999; Zheng haploid production in wheat (Lefebvre
et al., 2001; Grauda et al., 2010; Basu et and Devauxm, 1996; Khan and Ahmad,
al., 2011). 2011; Basu et al., 2011). It was reported
For harvesting healthy and responsive first time by Zenkteler and Nitzsche
anthers or pollens, the stage of spikes (1984) that when wheat spikes are
are standardized for getting mid late pollinated by maize anthers this results
uninucleate pollens. Stress of different in the formation of embryos. Later,
sort viz. dark treatment, low Laurie and Bennett (1989) who are
temperature, starvation of NO3 and credited for the first haploid production
sucrose, heat shock treatment, drought using wheat x maize hybridization
stress etc. are applied (Fig. 1). Different system (Bains et al., 1995) . Another
media formulations in supplement to N6 member of grass family called Cogon
(Chu) media has been utilized for grass (Imperata cylindrica) is also found
haploid development through able to produce haploid of wheat in the
anther/pollen culture. Apart from being same manner as of maize. Production of
genotypes specific, anther/pollen haploid depend upon genotypes of
culture for haploid generation has wheat, the timing and concentrations of
limitations in the form of chemicals (2,4-D and colchicines) and in
albino/chimera formation and less vitro nutrient media/culture conditions
responsive taking lots of time. for embryo rescue (Chaudhary et al.,
Several inter-specifc/inter-generic 2013). DH113 (Him Pratham) was the
hybridization methods are used for first doubled haploid wheat variety of
haploid production in wheat. All these India developed through wheat x maize
methods include embryo rescue system by Chaudhary et al. (2013) at
technique and haploids are formed due CSKKV, Palampur, H.P. for the high hill
to chromosomes elimination of the region of north west Himalayas. Mehta
pollen parent during embryo and Angra (2000) at the Instituto
development. The wheat x maize for Agronômico do Paraná-IAPAR, Brazil
haploid production was genotype non- have reported to produced spot blotch
specific because of the insensitivity of resistance DH lines from the somaclonal
maize pollen to the action of Krl, Kr2, variatiants of seven mild resistance
Kr3 and Kr4 genes thereby rendering wheat genotypes using wheat x maize
the chromosome elimination technique hybridization system. A schematic
more efficient and of practical value representation of DH wheat production
(Laurie and Bennett, 1988). is shown in Fig.2.
numbers of haploids were produced and
CONCLUSIONS were tested for DH conversion using
Spot blotch is one of the notorious colchicines. Still deep analytical
diseases of wheat leading to varied understanding is required in the
degree of yield loss. Conventional physiology of DH wheat production; so
breeding programme takes longer that good number of spot blotch
duration for varietal development. By resistant lines can be obtained.
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Research Paper
The Role of Farmer Group in Increasing Productivity
of Rain Feeding Rice Farming in Semidang Aji District, OKU
Yustiana Arianti1, Munajat1, Rini Efriyanti1, Ni Luh Suriani2*

1University of Baturaja, Jln. HOS Cokroaminoto No.0172 East Baturaja, Code 32115 OKU Regency, South
Sumatra.
2Biology Study Program, mathematics and natural sciences Faculty, Udayana University, 80232, Bali,
Indonesia
Submission: April, 2022, Published: June, 2022
*Corresponding author E. Mail I.D.: niluhsuriani@unud.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Agricultural growth necessitates the empowerment of farmer communities. Forming farmer groups in rural
regions is one approach to do this. Farmer groups have a vital role in agricultural growth as (1) a vehicle for
learning, (2) a vehicle for cooperation, and (3) production units. The goal of this study is to see how farmer
groups can help increase the productivity of rainfed lowland rice production. A multi-stage sample strategy was
utilized to survey farmers who are members of the Farmers Group in Semidang Aji District, OKU Regency. The
Spearman's Rank Test was used to assess the association between group roles and productivity. The findings
revealed that farmer organizations may be used as a tool for social change.
Keywords: The role of farmer groups, productivity, rainfed lowland rice.
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is an agricultural country The duties of farmer groups are divided
whose agricultural sector is known as into three categories, according to the
the largest livelihood sector for its Minister of Agriculture's Regulation
population. Agriculture seeks the No.67/Permentan/SM.050/12/2016,
availability of food to support the needs namely as a vehicle for learning, a
of the world community. So, it is vehicle for cooperation, and a
necessary to empower the farming production unit. So that indirectly
community so that farmers can farmer groups can be used as an effort
independently solve the problems they to increase farm productivity through
face. According to Handayani et al., simultaneous farming management.
(2019), development in the agricultural Making agriculture advanced and
sector is needed to increase developing, the realization of good
productivity. This can be realized by agriculture, optimal farming and
empowering farming communities so prosperous farming families are the
that farmers are able to independently group's wishes (Kasdir, 2019).
solve the problems they face. One of the Lowland rice farming in South Sumatra
government's efforts with farmers is to Province is mostly found in rural areas.
form farmer groups in rural areas. Based on data from the BPS South
Sumatra Province in 2020, it was
recorded that it had 551,242.1 hectares capital, physical capital to social capital,
of rice fields with rice productivity of as well as obstacles in the ability of
4,892 tons/ha. OKU Regency is a modern technology as well as advanced
potential area for lowland rice innovation which is still relatively low,
production in South Sumatra Province so this is a problem. a common
and is the 8th in the entire city of South challenge for the central government to
Sumatra with an area of 3,687.5 ha of the regions in empowering these
paddy fields. with a rice production of communities (Handono, et al., 2020).
16,807.12 tons-GKG with a productivity Whereas in the context of advancing
of 4.56 tons/ha, so it has sufficient agricultural development, farmer
opportunities for the development of groups are a valuable asset (Palar et al.,
the agricultural sector (Central Bureau 2019). According to Tarigan (2018), in
of Statistics of South Sumatra Province, increasing farm productivity it is
2019). An overview of the last 5 years of necessary to form farmer groups
the development of lowland rice because farmers will become more
farming which is one of the livelihoods advanced by exchanging ideas,
carried out by farmers in OKU Regency experiences, knowledge, and expertise
can be seen in Table 1 below: in innovation.
Rice planting activities in Semidang Aji
Table 1. Data on Land Area, Production, and Productivity of Rice
Paddy Crops in OKU District
Sub-district are growing even though
Harvest Area Production Produktivity they are still rainfed rice fields that rely
Year
(Ha) (Ton) (Ton/Ha) on irrigation from rainwater with an
2016 8.593 48.418 5,63 area of 125 ha of rainfed rice fields (BPS
2017 9.484 53.395 5,63 OKU, 2020) and has 29 groups of
rainfed rice farmers with a total of 639
2018 9.652 54.079 5.60 people spread across the villages of
7.689 41.886 5,44
Semidang District. Aji are the villages of
2019
Pandan Dulang, Pengaringan, Singapore,
2020 5.091 27.337 5,37 Raksa Jiwa, Tebing Kampung, Keban
Source: Department of Agriculture in 2021 Agung, Ulak Pandan, Bedegung, Panggal
Panggal, Padang Bindu, Sukarami, Nyiur
Sayak, and Batanghari (Anonim, 2021).
Based on Table 2 shows that the highest
Farmers in Semidang Aji Sub-district
paddy harvested area in 2018 was 9,652
carry out their farming activities in a
ha and in 2020 the paddy harvested
farmer group forum, but the
area decreased, namely 5,091 ha. With
management and empowerment of
the ups and downs of harvested area,
rainfed rice farming farmer groups in
this also affects production which also
Semidang Aji District are still collective
fluctuates, based on data in table 1,
in which each member carries out their
lowland rice production in 2018 was
respective farming activities
54,079 tons and in 2020 lowland rice
individually. Farmer groups seem active
production was 27,337 tons. This
if there is only an aid program from the
situation also significantly affects the
government, this will certainly have a
productivity of lowland rice so that it
significant effect on the productivity of
fluctuates. In addition, other agricultural
rainfed lowland rice. Based on the above
problems that are often faced by most
background, the researcher is interested
farmers in Indonesia, namely, have not
in researching "The Role of Farmer
been able to develop their farming
Groups in Increasing the Productivity of
business, because they still have limited
Rainfed Rice Farming in Semidang Aji
capital, both limitations in financial
District, OKU Regency". The author is analyze the relationship between the
interested in analyzing whether farmer role of farmer groups and farm
groups carry out their duties according productivity, the Spearman rank test
to their roles and is there a relationship was used. The interpretation of the
between the role of farmer groups on magnitude of the correlation or
rice crop productivity. relationship between variables is used
by the Correlation Coefficient Criteria
RESEARCH METHODS Guidelines from Sugiyono (2017), as in
A survey was employed as the research the following table 2.
approach. According to Sugiyono
(2017), the survey approach is utilized Table 2. Guidelines for Correlation Coefficient Criteria
to collect data from natural (rather than Meaning Correlation Value

Coefficient
man-made) locations. This research 0.00 – 0.19 Very low
makes use of both primary and 0.20 – 0.39 Low
0.40 – 0.59
secondary data. Primary data is 0.60 - 0.79
Currently
Strong
gathered by completing research 0.80 – 1.00 Very strong
questionnaires. The sampling method is Source Sugiyono 2017
carried out using multi-stage sampling.

The steps taken are: First, determine the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
selected sub-district, namely Semidang The Role of Farmer Groups
Aji District, Second, determine 3 villages The farmer groups of Semidang Aji
from the selected Semidang Aji District, District, OKU Regency are categorized as
namely Desa Keban Agung, Singapore having quite a role in carrying out their
Village, and Panggal Panggal Village. role as a vehicle for learning and
Third, determine the respondents, cooperation, and the role as a
namely 3 farmer groups from each production unit is categorized as having
village, the selection of respondents is a role, as shown in the following table 3.
done randomly (Simple Random
Sampling). So that samples were Table 3. Categorization of the Role of Farmer Groups
obtained from 3 villages, Semidang Aji The Role of

Frequency Percent Categories
Farmer Groups
Subdistrict, OKU Regency as many as 71 Learning Vehicle 51 71,8 enough role
samples for correlation research. This is Cooperation
35 49,3
enough role
Vehicle
based on the consideration that the Production Unit 52 73,2 role
population is homogeneous, namely Data source processed 2021
rainfed lowland rice farming with IP
200 (planted 2 times in 1 year). The role of farmer groups as a learning
Using classification based on scoring vehicle felt by farmers is as a medium of
using the categories NO ROLE, ENOUGH discussion for farmers if there are
ROLE, and ROLE, examine the role of problems in farming, so that farmer
farmer groups as a vehicle for learning, groups feel helped in terms of lowland
a vehicle for cooperation, and a rice cultivation and in the end, it will
production unit. The relative frequency have implications for high production
of the number of respondents expressed yields, even though visiting activities or
as a percentage is used to calculate the comparative studies to other places and
distribution of farmer groups in each the intensity of farmer group meetings
category. The Spearman rank test was which are still felt to be less intensive
employed to investigate the association because they are only held once a
between farmer groups' involvement month. According to Schmidt et al,
and agricultural productivity. To (2015) farmer groups are a forum for
farmers to increase their knowledge, marketing units. Planning units carried

skills, and attitudes. This is also in line out include planting time, use of seeds,
with Anwarudin's research (2017) that and pest and disease control.
farmer groups can be a vehicle for Farmer Group Productivity
mobilizing farmers to be more involved Productivity is a comparison of output
in various development programs and input results, where what is
because involvement can raise measured in this study is the production
awareness about their knowledge, and land area. The average production
abilities, and attitudes in developing in farming obtained is 233,800 kg and
their agriculture. the total land area is 47.70 ha so that the
The role of farmer groups as a vehicle productivity is 49.01 ku/ha. When
for cooperation is frequently carried out compared with the average Paddy
by farmer groups in this study, namely Productivity by Regency/City and Land
cooperation in the provision of Type in South Sumatra, 2020 (ku/ha),
agricultural production facilities. This the productivity in the study area is
collaboration is carried out by farmer higher, namely under the same
groups with production and production conditions, namely rainfed lowland rice
kiosks to provide production facilities farming, the average Paddy Productivity
that can be purchased by group according to Regency/City and Type of
members, such as irrigation systems Land in South Sumatra, 2020 (ku/ha)
(seeds, fertilizers, and fertilizers). for OKU Regency is 46.25 ku/ha (BPS
pesticides), and agricultural services Sumsel, 2020). This demonstrates that
such as (processing and capital) but are farmer groups have fulfilled their
still carried out collectively by farmers. purpose as a vehicle for learning,
In addition, farmer groups also namely expanding knowledge, skills,
collaborate with assistant extension and attitudes, as well as growing and
workers who regularly guide and help developing independence in farming to
distribute government assistance in the boost productivity. It is intended that
form of crops such as fertilizer seeds, through working together, farming
seeds, hand tractors, and so on. would become more effective and
However, the role of farmer groups in capable of dealing with threats,
collaborating with business partners is problems, barriers, and interruptions.
still not optimal for farmers, especially This condition is consistent with
in cooperation with production Hamilton et al (2015), who claim that
processing and marketing institutions. farmer associations help strengthen
Through this collaboration, it is hoped farmers by providing a venue for
that farming will be more efficient and cooperation.
better able to face threats, challenges, Finally, the farmer group serves as a
obstacles, and disturbances so that it production unit, with each member of
has implications for increasing the farmer group operating as a
productivity (Relamareta, 2011). business unit that may be developed to
The role of farmer groups as production reach economies of scale in terms of
units is, farmer groups are directed to quantity, quality, and consistency
have the ability to make decisions in (Hermanto et.al., 2011). This is in line
determining profitable product with the findings of Wajdah (2021),
development. The farmer groups in this Nahak et al., (2021) and Pranata et al.,
study have played their roles in terms of (2018), who found that while the level
planning units, production facilities of productivity is relatively high, the
supplying units, and processing and
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Review Paper
The Effectiveness and Efficiency of Fertilizer Subsidy Policy

in the Sub-district of Buay Madang Timur of Ogan Komering
Ulu Timur Regency
Novitalia1, Yunita Sari1, Fifian Permatasari1, Munajat1, Ni Luh Suriani2
1University of Baturaja, Jln. HOS Cokroaminoto No.0172 East Baturaja, Code 32115 OKU Regency, South
Sumatra
2Biology Study Program, mathematics and natural sciences Faculty, Udayana University, 80232, Bali,
Indonesia
Submission: May, 2022, Published: June, 2022
*Corresponding author E. Mail I.D.: niluhsuriani@unud.ac.id
ABSTRACT
The fertilizer subsidy program attempts to help the agriculture industry by determining subsidized fertilizer HET
and giving input subsidies. Using six measures of fertilizer subsidy accuracy, this study intends to assess the
effectiveness and efficiency of fertilizer subsidy programs on rice farmers in East Buay Madang District, East OKU
Regency. The descriptive quantitative analysis approach was utilized to assess the efficiency of the fertilizer
subsidy policy using six measures of subsidized fertilizer accuracy. The findings of this study show that the
fertilizer subsidy program in East Buay Madang District, East OKU Regency, is effective when measured against
the six parameters. However, various indicators, including the indicators of the correct price and the right use,
indicated that it was less/ineffective since farmers purchased subsidized fertilizers at a higher price than the
predetermined price. Furthermore, the usage of subsidized fertilizers in rice farming is still not in agreement with
the calculated recommended fertilizer dose. Except for organic fertilizers, the typical use of subsidized fertilizers
is in conformity with official recommendations. As a result, using subsidized fertilizers in research is wasteful
from both a technical and a financial standpoint.
Keywords: Agriculture, Fertilizer subsidy policy, Farmer.
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is an agrarian country, with at any given moment becomes the
farmers making up the majority of the primary focus of a country's food policy.
population. Furthermore, the As a country with a big population,
agriculture industry is quite significant. Indonesia confronts complicated issues
So that the agricultural sector is in providing its people's food demands,
prioritized for development in order to hence food security has become a
meet food and industrial needs at home, fundamental concern in development
improve exports, increase farmer and the focus of agricultural
income, and extend job opportunities development (Supyandi, 2021).
(Ribawanto et al, 2018). One of the government's roles is to
Nourishment is a basic human necessity provide subsidies for the agricultural
for survival, and hence adequate food sector. Subsidies are a form of
for everyone at all times is a human government assistance to reduce the
right that deserves to be realized burden on the community by paying
(Yawson et al., 2010). As a result, the part of the price that should be paid by
problem of supplying the food demands the community or certain community
of the entire population in a given area groups to provide goods or services
concerning the interests of many national food security. One of the

people's lives. The fertilizer subsidy is government's policies is to provide
one of the agricultural sector's fertilizer subsidies to farmers in order
subsidies. Subsidized fertilizers are to reduce production costs (Wijetunga &
regulated items whose procurement and Saito, 2017).
distribution are subsidized by the Year to year, the fertilizer subsidy policy
government to meet the demands of has advantages and disadvantages. On
agricultural farmer groups and farmers. the one hand, the government continues
Subsidized fertilizer is a government- to follow its fertilizer subsidy program
funded program that helps farmers in order to ensure food security by
improve the quality of their agricultural maintaining output levels. By supplying
or plantation goods in Indonesia (Azhari good inputs, such as fertilizer,
et al, 2019). production may be sustained to fulfil
Fertilizers are organic or inorganic food needs. To decrease the decline in
materials containing nutrients added to soil fertility and promote sustainable
planting media or plants to meet the production, adequate fertilizer use in
nutritional needs of plants with the aim terms of quantity, quality, and
of maximizing growth and productivity. consistency is required (Feryanto and
Fertilizer is needed to increase Mantau, 2010), hence it is expected that
agricultural productivity. In the reducing fertilizer subsidies could
distribution of fertilizers, fertilizer disrupt productivity. The financial
prices are often unstable, so the allocation for the fertilizer subsidy
government provides subsidies in the policy, on the other hand, is very
form of subsidized fertilizers. significant. The female. The government
Subsidized fertilizers are highly should begin eliminating fertilizer
considered and supervised by the subsidies and redirecting funds to other
government in their distribution in each programs, particularly agricultural
region. The government provides technology investment. Year to year, the
subsidized fertilizers such as urea, SP benefits and drawbacks of the fertilizer
36, ZA, NPK and Organic. In fact, various subsidy policy change.
problems are often encountered, such as Fertilizer subsidies are considered still
the scarcity of subsidized fertilizers. needed because fertilizers have a very
Various government policies to support important role in increasing agricultural
increased productivity and quality of production. In the context of
food commodities continue to be carried agricultural development, fertilizer is an
out. This is none other than in the important and strategic element in
context of maintaining the availability of increasing production and productivity
domestic food or realizing national food as well as being an inseparable part of
security. One of the government's the farming system (Supriyati, 2013). In
policies is to provide fertilizer subsidies line with this, Darmveer (2015) states
to farmers in order to reduce that fertilizer subsidies can increase
production costs (Sunaryato et al, production.
2020). The implementation of balanced
Various government policies to support fertilization must be aided by the
increased productivity and quality of availability of fertilizers at reasonable
food commodities continue to be rates (Ministry of Agriculture, 2020).
implemented. This is none other than in The Ministry of Agriculture develops
the context of maintaining the policies to ensure that the delivery of
availability of domestic food or realizing subsidized fertilizers adheres to the six
principles (quantity, kind, time, place, which the company's production

quality, and price) (Jorgi, et al, 2019). capacity will ensure to meet the needs
Two of the six indications, namely the of South Sumatra. The distribution of
appropriate quality and type, are not subsidized fertilizers is in accordance
utilized as indicators because they are with the mechanism for the Definitive
difficult to define. According to Marisa Plan for Electronic Group Needs (e-
(2021), the fertilizer subsidy scheme is RDKK) managed by the Ministry of
ineffective based on these four Agriculture. The application of the e-
variables. However, Hermawan (2014), RDKK system can minimize fraud so
stated in his research that the fertilizer that the distribution of subsidized
subsidy policy in Kendal Regency was fertilizers is right on target. In
very effective on time indicators. distributing subsidized fertilizers, Pusri
According to Prasaktiyoga (2021), refers to the Regulation of the Minister
stated in his research that the fertilizer of Trade Number 15/M-
subsidy policy in Sukaasih Village, DAG/PER/4/2013 concerning the
Sukatani District in Bekasi Regency was Procurement and Distribution of
not effective on 4 indicators. Subsidized Fertilizers for the
Some farmers in South Sumatra admit Agricultural Sector nationally starting
that it is difficult to get subsidized from Line I to Line IV. So far, Pusri has
fertilizers, which makes the planting ensured that subsidized fertilizer stocks
process less than optimal. Deputy are available in accordance with the
Chairman of the Indonesian Farmers allocation set by the government. In
Harmony Association (HKTI) of South addition to ensuring the stock of
Sumatra Farmers' Youth, Khoiril Sabili, fertilizers at retail shops is fulfilled,
said that difficulties in obtaining Pusri also ensures that there is no
subsidized fertilizers have occurred misuse and shortage of fertilizer in the
since the planting period in early 2021. distribution of subsidized fertilizers. For
“The amount of fertilizer given is the South Sumatra region, until
different from what is usually received, February 8, 2021, the distribution of
for now it is a bit difficult. According to subsidized urea fertilizer has reached
Khoiril (2020), most of the farmers in 11,607.30 tons and subsidized NPK
his area rely on non-subsidized fertilizer has been distributed for
fertilizers because the allocation for 10,657.55 tons. 18,482 tons to meet the
subsidies is limited. growing season of October 2021-March
Farmers complain about this situation 2022.
because the government is targeting an East OKU Regency is also one of the
increase in production. Subsidized largest rice-producing areas in South
fertilizer is very limited, the amount is Sumatra. This is supported by the
not much. So that many farmers are Perjaya Dam and adequate irrigation
non-subsidized, but in reality it is also networks. East OKU Regency has
difficult to get it. The company potential in terms of production and
distributes subsidized fertilizers area of food crops after the expansion
according to the mechanism determined conditions. Many farmers rely on this
by the government. In 2021, Pusri is irrigation network, although there are
obliged to distribute 230,000 tons of also agricultural cultivation and rainfed
subsidized urea and NPK fertilizers to rice fields.
17 districts/cities in South Sumatra. East OKU Regency as an area that has
Regarding the needs of farmers, Pusri great potential in the primary sector of
also provides non-subsidized fertilizers agriculture and plantations, has the
development of an increasing number of is an approach used to see whether or

agricultural production. In 2005 the not the specified goals or programs have
harvested area reached 104,905 ha, been achieved. Based on the problems
increased to 105,972 ha with total grain above, it is necessary to study the
production in 2006 reaching 617,943 effectiveness and efficiency of fertilizer
tons of harvested dry grain (GKP). This subsidy policies in East Ogan Komering
means that per hectare of rice land Ulu Regency. This study really needs to
produces 5.91 tons. Rice production be done to describe the implementation
increased by 1.01% from 2005. 19.36% of the fertilizer subsidy policy in East
of the 391.732 tons of total rice Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.
production was consumed by the people
of EAST OKU while 80.64% became a LITERATURE REVIEW
national food commodity. Concept of Effectiveness
The largest rice-producing sub-districts The word effective comes from English,
in this district are East Buay Madang namely effective which means
District, Semendawai District III and successful or something that is done
Buay Madang District. In 2006 the level successfully. Popular scientific
of lowland rice production in East OKU dictionaries define effectiveness as the
Regency reached 617,943.46 tons of dry proper use, use or support of goals.
harvested rice (GKP), with an area of Effectiveness is the main element to
rice harvested in 2006 of around achieve the goals or targets that have
104,634 Ha. Of the production, as much been determined in each organization,
as 98,288.3 tons or 15.91 percent is the activity or program. It is said to be
result of production from the East Buay effective if the goals or targets have
Madang District. been achieved (Azhari, 2019). Based on
Buay Madang Timur sub-district is the Permendag No. 15/M-
total recipient of the largest fertilizer DAG/PER/4/2013 there are 6 (six)
subsidy assistance and the largest land principles for the procurement and
area among other sub-districts. During distribution of subsidized fertilizers
the third recess activity at East OKU, the which include the accuracy of type,
democratic party, several farmers quantity, price, place, time, and quality
complained about the increasingly (Mulyadiana et al., 2018). The success of
scarce subsidized fertilizers. fertilizer subsidies depends on whether
Communication and synergy between farmers have access to fertilizers
stakeholders related to filling out the through fertilizer subsidy policies or not
RDKK. The RDKK must be in accordance (Azumah & Zakaria, 2019).
with the potential for planting plans in
each village and sub-district so that later Conception of Subsidized Fertilizer
it is hoped that there will be an accurate Subsidized fertilizers are fertilizers
allocation of the required fertilizer so whose procurement and distribution
that it is hoped that subsidized receive subsidies from the government
fertilizers in East OKU are effective and for the needs of farmers which are
efficient. This research is to examine the carried out on the basis of government
effectiveness of fertilizer subsidies in programs. Companies that produce
Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency. Urea, SP-36, ZA, NPK Phonska and
Effectiveness and efficiency are organic fertilizers domestically are PT
generally used to measure the level of Pupuk Sriwidjaja, PT Pupuk Kujang, PT
success in carrying out an activity or Pupuk Kalimantan Timur, PT Pupuk
activities carried out. Thus, effectiveness
Iskandar Muda and PT Petrokimia the accuracy of price, timeliness,

Gresik (Arisandi and Rantau, 2016). accuracy of quantity and accuracy of
place, qualitative descriptive analysis
Concept of Efficiency was used. To measure the percentage,
The Efficiency is a metric of success that primary data in the form of the number
is calculated based on the amount of of respondents' answers was collected
resources/costs required to achieve the using a questionnaire compiled with the
desired outcomes of the activity. Cost Guttman scale. To identify the extent of
control difficulties are linked to the conditions experienced by farmers
efficiency challenges. The expenses of in the distribution of subsidized
generating profits are less than the fertilizers and obtained the following
profits gained from the utilization of formulation Dharmveer (2015)
these assets, which is referred to as
operational efficiency. Banks that are Percentage of achievement = (ƩS_(ij)
inefficient in their commercial real)/(ƩS_(ij ) expectation) x 100%
operations will be unable to compete in
the mobilization of public money and Information :
the distribution of these monies to i = Variable to i
people in need of business capital. The j = Respondent to j
government should begin reducing
fertilizer subsidies. The effectiveness assessment criteria
are calculated per effectiveness
RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION indicator. Calculations can also be made
The research location is in East Buay to assess effectiveness in general (all
Madang District, East OKU Regency. The indicators) by averaging the total of the
location of the research was determined four percentage indicators of
purposively considering that Buay effectiveness.
Madang Timur District is the most To answer the second problem
extensive sub-district in terms of paddy formulation, the level of price efficiency
field area and irrigated rice production is measured by price efficiency
and related to fertilizer subsidies, the (Soekartawi, 2002). Price efficiency is
farmers involved are farmers who an effort where the marginal production
receive subsidies. The method used in value of an input must be the same as
this research is a survey method. The the input price, price efficiency is
sampling method in this study was the calculated by
simple random sampling method from
9,335 populations, namely the group EH (Py PMx )/Pxi
receiving fertilizer subsidies in East
Buay Madang District, East OKU Where,
EH is the level of input efficiency/ subsidized
Regency. To determine the sample size fertilizer price (Rp), PMx is the marginal production
using the Slovin formula. So the sample of Xi input (Kg/Ha), Py is the average price of output
size obtained is 100 samples taken from (Rp/Kg), and Pxi is the average price of Xi input (Rp/
kg).
3 to 4 farmers from 30 villages who use
subsidized fertilizers. Data collection is Marginal production was analyzed using
done by direct observation in taking a multiple regression estimator model
from primary and secondary data. with the function Y = f (X1, X2, …, X6)
To determine the effectiveness of the where Y = lowland rice production (kg),
subsidized fertilizer policy for farmers X1 – X8 are variables that are thought to
in East Buay Madang District seen from have an effect on lowland rice
production consisting of (seeds ( X1), expensive fertilizer prices at the farm

land area fertilizer (X2), subsidized urea level still arises at the beginning of each
fertilizer (X3), subsidized Phonska NPK planting season.
fertilizer (X4), subsidized organic The average purchase price of
fertilizer (X5), labor (X6), and use of subsidized fertilizer in East Buay
pesticides (X7)). Madang District, East OKU Regency is
also above the price it should be. This is
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION because there are some farmers who
Effectiveness of Fertilizer Subsidy Policy pay after harvest. Fertilizers are
in East Buay Madang District, East OKU purchased by farmer groups using
Regency. group cash and members buy at prices
above the HET price and are paid after
Right Price harvest. The proceeds from the profits
The average price of fertilizer received are put into the group treasury.
by farmers is presented in Table 4.1. As many as 19% of the total
respondents said that the price of
Table 4.1. Average Purchase Price of
fertilizer received was not in line with
Fertilizer
their expectations, while the rest the
No. Description Urea NPK price of fertilizer could be in accordance
The mean cost of with the HET.
1 Purchase (Rp/Kg) 2.500 2.530 On Time
Recommendation Figure 4.1 shows the number of farmers
2 cost 2.250 2.300 who have received subsidized fertilizers
3 difference (Rp/Kg) 250 230 when they need/buy them.
Table 4.1 shows that the average

subsidized fertilizer purchase price is
higher than the highest retail price. The
discrepancy between the purchase price
and the HET is due to retail stores
profiting from subsidized fertilizers at a
low or reasonable rate. This is possible
because farmers are charged for porters
and transportation charges.
According to the study's findings, all Figure 4.1. Timely Indicator Chart
respondents purchased subsidized (Source: Primary data, processed, 2022)
fertilizers that did not comply with the
HET. Because there are administrative A total of 79 people, or 79 percent of the
charges if farmers buy fertilizers in cash, total, claimed they acquire fertilizer
shops or merchants who offer when they need it. This indicates that
subsidized fertilizers cannot follow the the level of effectiveness on the timely
HET requirements in selling subsidized indicators is acceptable. These findings
fertilizers. There are additional are consistent with the findings of a
transportation fees that farmers must study conducted in Kendal Regency by
pay. The Supreme Audit Agency (BPK) Hariningtyas (2014), which found that
suspected that there was ineffectiveness fertilizer subsidies are very successful
in implementing the fertilizer subsidy on timely metrics, with a percentage of
policy (Suryana et al. 2016). In addition, 100 percent. Farmers in Kendal Regency
the issue of fertilizer scarcity and have no trouble getting subsidized
fertilizers, and all farmers get according to the time of the rice growing
subsidized fertilizers when they need season.
them.
Exact Amount
Right Place Figure 4.2 shows the number of farmers
Appropriate indicators require farmers who have implemented the
to buy subsidized fertilizers at shops or recommended dose of fertilization and
authorized retailers who have been who have not implemented the
appointed by fertilizer distributors to recommended dose of fertilization.
distribute subsidized fertilizers in their
areas. The results of the study of the
right place indicators are presented in
Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Percentage of Right Place

Indicators
Percentage
No. Place Respondent (%)
Official
1 shop 100 100
General Figure 4.2. Exact Indicator Chart Usage
2 store 0 0
Amount Fertilizer (person)
Jumlah 100 100 (Source: Primary data, processed, 2022)
Based on Table 4.2, all respondents buy Based on Figure 4.2, there are 74% of
subsidized fertilizers at designated the total respondents who have
authorized retailers. Farmers buy fertilized according to the
subsidized fertilizers at the nearest recommended dose, while 26% still
location, namely official shops located in have not fertilized according to the
every village that is the center of rice recommended dose. The amount of
production. These official shops are fertilizer used for each type varies, some
determined to be places to buy are below the recommendation or above
subsidized fertilizers for farmers. the recommendation. In the calculation
Overall, the research respondents said of fertilizer subsidies, the recommended
that Kios Jaya Sumatra was located quite dose of urea fertilization by the
close to the location of their homes or government is only 250 kg/ha, but in
rice fields and did not make it difficult in practice, for example in Bogor Regency
terms of access or transportation. This (Angelia, 2011), many farmers use this
result is in accordance with research type of fertilizer in the range of 350-500
conducted by (Rigi et al., 2019) which kg/ha (Feryanto and Mantau , 2010).
states that fertilizer is rationed every These results are in accordance with
month in accordance with government research (Joan & Diana, 2018), the
regulations. In other words, fertilizer is results show that the average dose of
distributed by distributors to retailers subsidized fertilizer use (Urea, SP 36,
every month. Conditions like this show ZA, NPK Phonska) is in accordance with
that timely indicators are well the recommended dose, as well as the
implemented in accordance with efficiency level of using subsidized
government regulations. Subsidized fertilizers in terms of technical and cost
fertilizers are available in the field
efficient, both for sharecroppers and experience difficulties in accessing

sharecroppers. subsidized fertilizers and all farmers
receive subsidized fertilizers when
Right Quality needed.
In accordance with the provisions and
information from the agricultural Exact Type
service and the fertilizer and pesticide Based on Table 4.3. The overall
supervisory commission KP3 that percentage of the six indicators of the
quality indicators can be seen from the effectiveness of the fertilizer subsidy
packaging label, weight, color, and price. policy is an average of 88.5 percent so
To be able to declare that the fertilizer that the level of effectiveness of the
distributed is in accordance with the fertilizer policy in East Buay Madang
accuracy of the quality, all these aspects District, East Ogan Komering Ulu
must be fulfilled. Regency based on the six indicators is
rightly categorized as effective.
Table 4.3. Percentage of Effectiveness of

Fertilizer Subsidy Policy in East Buay
Madang District, East Ogan Komering
Ulu Regency
No. Indicator Appropriate Not Total

(%) Appropriat (%)
e (%)
1 Right 78 22 100
Figure 4.3. Quality Right Indicator Price
Diagram 2 Right
Time
79 21 100
(Source: Primary data, processed, 2022) 3 Right 100 0 100
Place
From Figure 4.3. It can be seen that 100 4 Right 74 26 100
dosage
respondents stated that the quality of 5 Right 100 0 100
subsidized fertilizer distributed was Quality
6 Right 100 0 100
appropriate or 100 percent so that the Type
effectiveness of the subsidized fertilizer Mean 88.5 11.5 100
policy based on quality indicators was
categorized as effective.
A total of 79 respondents or 79 percent Based on Table 4.3, all farmers stated
of the total respondents said that they that they were greatly helped by the
get fertilizer when needed. This means fertilizer subsidy policy. The need for
that the level of effectiveness on the fertilizers is guaranteed to be affordable,
timely indicators can be categorized as especially when compared to having to
effective. The results of this study are in buy non-subsidized fertilizers whose
line with the results of research prices are far above subsidized
conducted by Arisandi et al., (2016) in fertilizers. Farmers hope that the
Subak Breech, Tibubiu Village, Tabanan fertilizer subsidy policy will continue.
Regency which states that the From the research results, the average
effectiveness of fertilizer subsidies on use of subsidized fertilizers in the study
timely indicators is categorized as very area and the percentage of the total
effective with a percentage of 100%. sample can be seen from the following
Farmers in Kendal Regency do not table:
Table 4.4. Number of Subsidized paddy field area for both sharecroppers
Fertilizer Users in East Buay Madang and sharecroppers exceeds the dose
District, East Ogan Komering Ulu recommended by the government. From
District the conditions that have been observed
during the research, the production
No Subsidized Type Percentage factors that are thought to affect the
Fertilizer Number of production of lowland rice in Buay
Users
1 Urea 100 100
Madang Timur District, East OKU
2 NPK 25 25 Regency are (seeds (X1), land area
Ponska fertilizer (X2), subsidized urea fertilizer
3 Organic 22 22 (X3), Phonska NPK fertilizer subsidized
(X4), subsidized organic fertilizer (X5),
(Source: Primary Data Processed) labor (X6), and use of pesticides (X7).
Before the model that has been obtained
Table 4.4 shows that Urea fertilizer is is determined as a production function
the fertilizer used by all samples in the model, it is tested to meet the multiple
study with a percentage of users as linear regression assumption test
much as 100% of the total sample, while criteria.
Organic fertilizer users are the least From the results of the multicollinearity
with a percentage of 22% users. The test, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)
average use of subsidized fertilizers, value for each variable has a value < 10
except for organic fertilizers, is more and a Tolerance value > 0.1 except for
than the amount recommended by the land area. The use of variables X1 to X7
government, which can be seen from is generally based on land area,
Table 4.5 below: therefore the influence of land area is
considered to have been represented.
Table 4.5. Average Use of Subsidized Based on the results of the normality
Fertilizer in East Buay Madang District, test, the distribution of the data spreads
East OKU Regency based on Land Area around the diagonal line and the
Strata and Land Ownership Status distribution follows the line. From these
results it can be concluded that the
Strata I Strata Strata regression model used has met the
II III
Subsidized Recommend Mean of Mean Mean of assumption of normality. From the
Fertilizer ation using of using results of the heteroscedasticity test, the
(Kg/Ha) (Kg/Ha) using (Kg/Ha) data are scattered without forming a
Result( (Kg/H Result(
%) a) %) certain pattern, thus it is concluded that
Result the assumption of heteroscedasticity
(%) has been fulfilled. From the results of
Urea 150 355,09 366,67 387,83
(142,03 (146,6 (155,13 the linearity test, it was found that there
) 7) ) was no non-linear relationship between
NPK 250 178,02 0(0) 209,57 the independent variable and the
(118,68 (139,71
) ) dependent variable, so that the linearity
Organic 500 235/ 0(0) 296,86 test was also considered to be
(47,00) (59,37) satisfactory. After carrying out these
tests, the estimating model of the
(Source: Primary Data) production function is obtained as
follows:
Table 4.5 shows that the average use of
subsidized fertilizer for each hectare of
Y = -61.182 + 71.886 X1 + 5.353 X2 + much as 1 kg, it will increase production

2.932 X3 + 0.351 X4 - 1.275 X5 + 4.968 by 5.353 kg. The influential variable is
X6 (0.355) (6.128)* (2.979)* (1.497)* also subsidized urea fertilizer (X3)
(0.240) (-1.027) (4.755)* + 103.311 X7 where the t count value obtained is
R2 = 95.7% ; adjusted R2 = 95% Fcount 1.497 and is greater than the t table
= 135,432 value. Subsidized Organic Fertilizer (X5)
with t count value obtained is 4.755 and
The adjusted R2 value indicates that the is greater than t table value with a
variable capability of seed (X1), land significance value smaller than the error
area fertilizer (X2), subsidized urea degree (0.000), meaning that partially
fertilizer (X3), subsidized Phonska NPK the use of subsidized Organic fertilizer
fertilizer (X4), subsidized organic has a significant effect on increasing rice
fertilizer (X5), labor (X6), and the use of production. The regression coefficient
pesticides (X7) together are able to value is 4.968, meaning that if 1 kg of
explain the variation of the production subsidized organic fertilizer is added, it
variable (Y) by 95%, while the will increase production by 4.968 kg.
remaining 5% is influenced by other Then the Labor variable (X6) where the
variables. The Ftable value is 1.798942 tcount value obtained is 2.619 and is
with a significance value of 0.000 < 0.10, greater than the ttable value with a
indicating that all independent variables significance value smaller than the error
(seeds (X1), land area fertilizer (X2), degree (0.012), meaning that partially
subsidized urea fertilizer (X3), the use of labor has a significant effect
subsidized Phonska NPK fertilizer (X4), on increasing rice production. The value
organic fertilizer subsidized (X5), labor of the regression coefficient is 103.311,
(X6), and the use of pesticides (X7)) meaning that if 1 HKP is added, it will
together significantly affect lowland rice increase production by 103.311 kg. And
production. However, in the individual Pesticides (X7) where the tcount value
significance test using the t test at a 90% obtained is 2.029 and is greater than the
confidence level (α = 10%) with a t table table value with a significance value
value of 1.29, it shows that not all smaller than the degree of error (0.048),
independent variables have a significant meaning that partially the use of
effect. pesticides has a significant effect on
The variable that has a significant effect changes in lowland rice production. The
is Seed (X1) where the calculated t value regression coefficient value is -149.290,
obtained is 6.128 and is greater than the meaning that if 1 liter of pesticide is
t table value with a significance value added, it will reduce the amount of
that is smaller than the degree of error production by 149.290 kg. This
(0.000). The regression coefficient value indicates the occurrence of excessive
is 71.886, meaning that if 1 kg of seed is use of pesticides for each area of land so
added, it will increase production by it is necessary to pay more attention to
71.886 kg. Subsidized urea fertilizer the number of doses and composition of
(X2) is also a significantly influential the right pesticides to avoid this.
variable where the t count obtained is However, for the variable seeds,
2,979 and is greater than the t table subsidized urea fertilizer, subsidized SP
value with a significance value smaller 36 fertilizer, and pesticides have a
than the degree of error (0.004). The relatively high VIF value (> 7). The high
regression coefficient value is 5.353 VIF value for seeds, which is 9.579, has
which means that if the use of met the criteria for the absence of
subsidized urea fertilizer is added as multicollinearity symptoms, but also
indicates the large number of seeds Table 4.6 Results of Price Efficiency
used for each land area. With a Analysis
recommendation of about 1-2 clumps of
perforation, farmers in the study area Variabel PM1 Efficiency Result
used 3-5 clumps of perforation. This is Value
Seeds 71,886 34,65 Not
done by farmers to overcome pest Efficient
attacks or natural disturbances such as Land Area 5,353 9,72 Not
climate and weather. That is, the more Efficient
use of seeds, the higher the plant's Urea 0,351 0,74 Not
survival ability. Meanwhile, the VIF Efficient
NPK -1,275 -1,80 Not
value for subsidized urea is also Efficient
relatively high, each at 9.933, indicating Organic 4,986 25,27 Not
a tendency to overuse. This is in Efficient
accordance with the state of the average Employee 103,311 0,15 Not
use of subsidized fertilizers that has Efficient
Pesticide -149,290 -0,49 Not
been described previously. This shows Efficient
that there is a need for re-examination (Source: Primary Data)
to determine the right amount of dosage
in East OKU District. From the results of the price efficiency
From local PPL information, information analysis in Table 4.6, it can be seen that
on the amount of production that should all inputs are inefficient. Of all the
have been achieved by the Inpari 32 components of price efficiency (Py, Px, Y
variety (ŶI) was 8.3 tons/ha but in and X), farmers can only determine X.
reality, what was achieved was 7,468.47 farmers can change the amount of input
kg/ha, so that the level of technical used in order to get the value of
efficiency in Buay Madang Timur NPM/Px= 1. However, the exact amount
District, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency cannot be determined by a partial
are as follows: analysis as used in this study, because
the amount of output is not only
ET = 7.468,47 = 0,878 determined by the number of individual
8300 inputs but is also determined from the
combination/ the composition of these
These results indicate that the average inputs.
production achieved is almost 90% of
what it should be. This is influenced by, CONCLUSION
among other things, the use of inputs The fertilizer subsidy policy in East
that are not in accordance with the Buay Madang District, East OKU
recommended ones. The level of price Regency, when viewed from the six
efficiency is obtained by comparing the indicators, can be concluded to be
ratio of the value of the marginal effective. However, several indicators
product of a production input to the stated that they were ineffective, namely
price of the input of the production the indicators of the right price and the
factor, which can be seen in the right use because farmers bought
following table: subsidized fertilizers at a higher price
than the predetermined price. In
addition, the use of subsidized fertilizers
in cultivation is still not in accordance
with the recommended dose of fertilizer
for rice that has been determined. The
average use of subsidized fertilizers District, Bogor Regency) [Thesis].

already uses fertilizers according to the Faculty of Economics and
recommendations given by the Management, Bogor Agricultural
government. As a result, the use of University, Bogor.
Arisandi., N. W. W., I. M. Sudarma, and I. K.
subsidized fertilizers in the research
Rantau. 2016. The Effectiveness of
area is inefficient both from a technical
Organic Fertilizer Distribution and Its
and price point of view Impact on Rice Farming Income in
Subak Sungsang, Tibubiu Village,
SUGGESTION Tabanan Regency. E-Journal of
The government must ensure the Agribusiness and Agrotourism 5(1):
acceleration and mitigation of obstacles 1-10
to the implementation of subsidized East Buay Madang District, East Ogan
fertilizer supply in the regions. The Komering Ulu Regency Statistics
implementation of distribution and use Center. 2017. East Buay Madang
of subsidized fertilizers must be District, East Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency in Figures 2017.
tightened with collaboration from
Batang : BPS East Buay Madang District,
related parties so that the recipients and East Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.
use of subsidized fertilizers can be Central Bureau of Statistics. 2017.
effective, targeted and appropriate. The Dervish V, Saptana. 2010. Institutional
drawback of this research is that it does reconstruction and fertilization
not participate in reviewing the technology testing: Strategic policies
implementation of the farmer card to overcome fertilizer scarcity. Pertan
because it is still in the preparation Wisdom Anal. 8(2):167-186.
stage in Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Dharmveer. (2015). Fertilizer Subsidy in
Regency. Recommendations for further India. International Research Journal
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Humanity, 6(12), 98-106.
effectiveness of the implementation of
Feryanto, W.K and Mantau, Z. 2010.
the farmer card because the farmer card
Fertilizer and Subsidies: Policies that
will be used as a condition for farmers are not Targeted. Summarized from a
to obtain subsidized fertilizers. Paper on Evaluation of Fertilizer
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Research Paper
The Nyishi Tribe and their Traditional Agricultural Practices

in Papum Pare District of Arunachal Pradesh, India: A study
Popiha Bordoloi1* and D. Bala Subramanian2

1KVK Ri- Bhoi, ICAR (RC) for NEH Region, Umiam (Barapani), Meghalaya; 2Department of
Environment and Forest, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh.
*Corresponding author E. Mail I.D.: popiha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The ‘Nyishi’ or Nishings are the dominant tribe of Papum Pare District of Arunachal Pradesh. The ‘Nyishi’ belong
to the Indo-Mongoloid group of people and their language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family. The total
population of Papum Pare district is 1,76,573 numbers and population density are 51 Per Sq. Km. The Literacy
rate is 68.55%. The agriculture of Arunachal Pradesh in the backbone of the socio-economic development of the
state. The Gross cropped area is 3,20,601 ha and Net cropped area is 2,34,500 ha. in Arunachal Pradesh. The
Cropping Intensity is 136 %. The area under Organic Farming is recorded as 81%. The major crops grown in
Arunachal Pradesh are rice, maize, millet, potato, ginger, mustard, off season vegetables, large cardamom. Mostly
the Nyishi people are practicing shifting cultivation by their own. The different types of cropping system followed
by Nyishis of Papum Pare District like sole cropping, mono-cropping, multiple cropping etc. In Jhum cultivation,
mix cropping is very common. The Nyshis are also practicing home garden and agroforestry and wet rice
cultivation for their livelihood which leads to socio-economic development of the Arunachal Pradesh.
Key words: Nyishi, Dafla, Traditional Agriculture, Cropping Pattern, Arunachal Pradesh.
INTRODUCTION
Nyishi is one the most dominant and Lowland valley, Upland valley and
traditionally rich tribe of Arunachal Terrace cultivation system (Bordoloi et
Pradesh. Although the Nyishi people are al., 2021). Mostly the Nyshi people are
exposed to modernization in present practicing shifting cultivation by their
day, the agricultural activities are still own, along with that agroforestry, home
performing traditionally in maximum garden and wet rice cultivation are
part of Nyishi dominating area. The common agricultural practices followed
different types of agricultural land use by Nyishi community. The Jhum
systems practiced by the ‘Nyishi’ for the cultivation practice is more diverse in
production of crops depending upon the North East Region of India compare to
topography and resource availability. any other part of the world mainly due
After detailed survey four common land to the diverse socio-cultural, socio-
use system were found namely Jhum, economic and socio-religious practices
of over hundreds of tribes in the North language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman

East Region (Ramakrishnan, 1993). But family. Racially, according to Prof.
the people of Papum Pare District are Haimendorf (1950, 1982), “The Daflas
gradually diverting themselves towards are far less homogeneous than many
settled cultivation by adopting terrace other hill tribes on the borders of
on the slopes and valley cultivation Assam, and though the majority bears
systems in the foothills. some of the features commonly
associated with the paleomongoloid
MATERIAL AND METHODS race, there are at least two outstanding
A survey was conducted in the Papum and greatly divergent types. The more
Pare district of Arunachal Pradesh to frequent is characterized by a round flat
study the living standard and tradition face with a broad snub nose, prominent
of Nyishi people. Moreover, survey was cheek bones, eyes lying in flat sockets
conducted for collect the data on and a small weak chin. Comparatively
agricultural system mainly the cropping small stocky stature and a sallow yellow
systems and cropping patterns followed brownish skin colour seem often go to
by the Nyishi community. The methods with this type”.
used were visual observation and
questionnaire method. For Dress and ornaments
questionnaires, a pre-tested Nyishis dress is peculiar to his tribe. A
questionnaire schedule was used for ‘Bopia’, a neatly woven cane cap on his
necessary data collection. For the head, a knot at the forehead called
personal interview, fifty randomly ‘Padum’ with a cane basket looks like
located household from the Doimukh havershack call ‘Nara’, a smocking pipe
circle of Papum Pare District were in his mouth and a long ‘Dao’ (long
selected for the study. Secondary data bladed knife), he looks like a proud man,
were collected from Libraries, proud for his race and tradition. Dr.
Department of Agriculture, Arunachal Verrier Elwia has said about them as
Pradesh, books and from the Internet. thus, the ‘Dafla’s were in the past a
turbulent and unruly people and the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION man’s method of dressings the hair, is a
knot in the front of the forehead, gives
THE PEOPLE them even today a proud and
The ‘Nyishi’ or Nishings are the independent appearance. “‘Dafla’ men
dominant tribe of Papum Pare District. wear round the waist carefully woven
Till a few years ago they were known as bands of cane which are an inheritance
‘Dafla’. But the term ‘Dafla’ has been from the days of the war, when they
dropped and it has almost been were some short of protection for the
replaced by ‘Nyishi’ or ‘Nishings’. In vital parts” (Elwin 1988). Like men folk,
popular uses in Assamese, particularly a Nishi lady usually caries a neatly
in Upper Assam, the word ‘Dafla’ weaves cane basket for multipurpose
denotes sturdy and robust build and use on her back called ‘Egin’.
also good looking features. ‘Dafali’ is
given to any good looking, well built and Nyishi Villages
sturdy woman (Chaliha, 1992). Nyishi villages are rarely found in
cluster. It may even consist of a single
Racial character long house on an isolated hillock. Prof.
The ‘Nyishi’ belong to the Indo- Haimendorf has said “the size of
Mongoloid group of people and their villages’ ranges from three or four
Figure. Tradition of ‘Nyishi’ tribe in Papum Pare District
houses in small settlements to about believes in common ancestry in their

thirty houses in the large villages. But as legendary father `Abo-Tani’.
most houses are join family dwellings
with as many as twelve hearths and Religious belief and practices
rooms for many families; a ‘Dafla’ village The tribe believes in a number of spirits.
of ten houses may well have a They believe any omission and
population of about three hundred. commission caused by a man due to the
The primary social unit is the household spell of evil spirits. The number of
comprising usually several families and spirits among the ‘Nyishi’ is legion
in some cases as many as sixty or whose exact number is not known even
seventy members. The household is for to the priest who is called `Nyub’. There
practical purposes autonomous and self are sprits both benevolent and
contained, there is no system of village malevolent. Compared to the benevolent
headman whose office gives them spirit, the number of malevolent spirits
authority over the other householders is more. Whenever a `Nyishi’ is affiliated
(Haimendorf, 1950). by any disease the cause is always
The Nyishi’s follows the clan exogamy attributed with the evil spell of
and are patrilineal. A man can marry malevolent sprite and to get rid of its
any number of wives irrespective of his omen is seen either on chicken liver or
brides’ age in comparison to his wealth on row eggs and on the prescription of
and number of Mithun (Bos frontalica) the omen, elaborate rituals are
he possesses. The tribe is the believer of performed and sacrifices are offered.
Dony-Polo meaning the sun and the They have corresponding spirits for
moon. Further the tribe strongly rain, thunder, bad crops, fire, disease
etc.
‘Opo’ which is popularly called Apong is army (Devi, 1960). The Ahom king
the popular traditional drink of the Sukhapha with a view to protect his
Nyishis. The use of ‘Opo’ is considered subjects had created for the first time
sacred as like rice; ‘Opo' too was the office of the Solal Gohain with his
brought to the society by ‘abo-tani’. headquarters in Koliabor on the south of
There is hardly any occasion where opo Brahmaputra. His primary duty was to
is not served. The Nyishi’s life is full of protect the eastern part of the Sonitpur
rituals and festivals. The ‘Nyukum’ Districts and the Northern part of the
festival is the main festival which is Lakhimpur Districts at present day
celebrated in the month of February. Assam, against the inroads of the Akas
The festival is celebrated at the time of and ‘Nyishi’. The ‘Nyishi’ came in to
starting of the ‘Nyishi’ agricultural prominent again during the reign of
practices and it may be called as ‘Nyishi’ King Pratap Singh (1603-1641 A.D.),
New Year festivals. As a whole ‘Nyishi’ when he dispatched the forces against
are hardworking, simple, fun loving and them. This expedition was a failour was
friendly people. a part of the Ahoms. The ‘Nyishi’s used
to indulge in the frequent raids at the
Livelihood border village of Ahoms kingdoms.
The Nyishi people are fond of hunting Having failed to brings the ‘Nyishi’ to
and fishing in which they perhaps excel terms, King Pratap Singh granted them
any other neighboring tribes. According the right to ‘posa’ viz. the right to
to professor Haimendorf “their economy receive payment from certain specific
is based on agriculture and animal villages in the foothills provided they
husbandry. Trade and barter play only a paid annual tribute to the king. Further
secondary role”. Most of the Nyishis are the king appointed Kotokies to act as go-
dependent on jhum cultivation. But wet between.
rice is also preferred by the people
residing in the foot hills areas. Demographic Study of Papum Pare
Agroforestry and home garden is also District
commonly practiced. Nowadays, the The total geographical area of Papum
Nyishis prefer settled form of cultivation Pare District is 3462.00 Sq Km. The total
such as in the terraces on the slopes and population of Papum Pare district is
in flood plains of the valleys for their 1,76,573 numbers and population
livelihood. density are 51 Per Sq. Km. The Literacy
rate is 68.55%. The Demographic Study
‘Nyishi’ in the History of Papum Pare District is presented in
The Ahom Buranjis (history) made the Table 1.
first reference of the ‘Nyishi’ as alies of
the Koches who invaded Assam in 1562 THE AGRICULTURE
A.D. During the reign of Sukhapha, alias The Agriculture of Arunachal Pradesh in
Khora Raja (1552-1603 A.D.) when the the backbone of the socio-economic
Koaches under the King Sukladdhaj, the development of the State. The Gross
brother of Koach king Naranarayana, cropped area is 3,20,601 ha and Net
invaded the Ahom kingdom, the ‘Nyishi’ cropped area is 2,34,500 ha. The
offered their submission to the Koach Cropping Intensity is 136 %. The area
King and join the ranks of the Koach under Organic Farming is recorded as
Table 1. Demographic study of above jhum cycle by leaving enough

Papum Pare District time for revive of the soil. But for
fulfilling the demands of the increasing
PARAMETERS DATA population the cycle is now reduce to 3
Total population 1,76,573 numbers
to 4 years, resulting in large scale
Male 89,182
Female 87,391
damage to the forest. Although in the
Population Density 51 Per Sq. Km.
North eastern region the secondary
Total villages 485 succession is very quick due to its
Total Household 35,730 (14,245 Rural diverse climatic condition, but in the
+ 21,485 Urban)) most cases the area is occupied by
No. of Sub-Divisions 04 weeds, useless shrubs, tall grasses and
Blocks 05
different species of bamboos. After the
Education
land is abandoned, it is rarely occupied
Literate 68.55%
Illiterate 31.45%
by the original vegetations
Income Sources Agriculture, Services (Arunachalam et al., 2000, Bordoloi et
Total Geographical area 3462.00 Sq Km al., 2021).
(Source: https://papumpare.nic.in, 2022) The government is promoting Terrace
cultivation system as a form of settled
cultivation. The hill slopes are cleaned
Around 81%. The major crops grown in
first and then terraces are prepared
Arunachal Pradesh are Rice, Maize,
conforming to the contours in the slope.
Millet, Potato, Ginger, Mustard, Off
Here the farmers mostly follow the
season vegetables, large cardamom
monocropping of rice, maize, millet and
(Anonymous, 2020 a). More than 94%
vegetable crops. Mixed cropping as well
of the total population of Arunachal
as sequential cropping is also common
Pradesh resides in the rural belt; hence,
in the terraces. About 10 % of total
agriculture is the major occupation of
cultivable land is under terrace
the people of this region (Anonymous,
cultivation. Valley cultivation, which is
2015, Bordoloi, 2021 a). The North
mostly mono-cropped, is common in the
Eastern regions of India are mostly rain-
foot hills and plateau of Arunachal
fed and the agriculture practice is
Pradesh. Paddy being the dominant
almost organic in nature which is
crop, the rice varieties cultivated are
achieved by wisdom (Bordoloi, 2020,
monohar sali, masuri, ranjit, kola joha
Sanjay-Swami, 2021). The productivity
etc. But sequential cropping and mixed
of crops is very low in this region
cropping of vegetable is also seen. The
primarily because of low use of organic
average land holding for valley is 0.65
and inorganic fertilizer coupled with soil
ha. About 50% of the land of total
acidity problem (Sanjay-Swami et al.,
cultivable lands is under valley
2019, Bordoloi, 2021 b).
cultivation system, out of which 80 % of
The different types of agricultural land
the valley are under wet rice cultivation
use systems practiced by the ‘Nyishi’.
(Bordoloi, 2014). The indigenous
Shifting cultivation, locally known as
communities of Arunachal Pradesh have
‘jhum kheti’ which includes the slash-
the tradition of maintaining
and-burn system of agriculture that is
homegarden. The people of Doimukh
an age-old practice follows by the
prefer to cultivate arecanut, coconut,
‘Nyishi’ of the Arunachal Pradesh. About
banana, pineapple, orange, guava,
35% of total cultivable land is under
papaya and vegetables crops in their
jhum cultivation and average land
homegardens. Agroforestry is a system
holding of jhum is 0.45 ha. In the early
where the farmers cultivated
days, people allow 10 to 20 years or
agricultural crops in between the cabbage/cauliflower, rice-brinjal

horticultural and timber yielding crops. /tomato/chili, millet-vegetable crops
Nowadays, it is becoming common in were found. Although the triple
the farmers of Arunachal Pradesh. The cropping was not that much common,
Government of Arunachal Pradesh some of the farmers follows it mainly in
introduces and popularized this system the valleys and terraces. Tripple
among the farmers as a substitution of cropping of rice-potato-vegetable and
jhum cultivation. maize/millet-potato–vegetable like
ladies’ finger/brinjal/chilli, millet-
Cropping system followed by Nyshis of potato-chilli were practiced. It is found
Papum Pare District almost in 3% of land.
Sole cropping Relay cropping

Here the farmer prefers one crop It is very rare in the study site. Relay
variety grown alone in pure stands at cropping of pea with rice and pumpkin
normal density. The farmers prefer with potato were practiced in 1% of the
mostly sole cropping in valley land.
agricultural system and home garden.
Sole cropping of rice, maize, banana, Mixed cropping
orange, papaya, mango, pineapple, Mixed cropping is mostly followed by
turmeric, and ginger are common in the the farmers in the jhum cultivation,
study sites. About 15% of land is although monocropping is also seen.
occupied by sole cropping of maize and Mixed cropping is very much common in
vegetables. jhum cultivation system. The
productivity of jhum land is more due to
Mono-cropping this system. In the first year of
The rice as a single crop is cultivated cultivation in the jhum land farmers
commonly in the foothills of Arunachal prefer mixed cropping to reduce the risk
Pradesh. About 40% of land is under of crop failure due to weather calamities
monocropping of rice. and sudden pest and disease attack.
Mixed cropping of rice with millet,
Multiple cropping maize with pineapple, chili with
Ruthenberg (1971) defined the multiple colocassia and brinjal, potato-
cropping as “the process of growing radish/carrot, brinjal-cabbage/leafy
more than one crop on the same land in vegetables were common in Doimukh
one year. The various types of multiple area.
cropping found in the study sites were
discussed below Intercropping
Intercropping is also very much
Sequential cropping common in jhum land. In the valley
Sequential cropping is found in valley, cultivation systems also, the
jhum land and terraces. Double intercropping is also practiced to
cropping and triple cropping are also increase the productivity. Some of the
found. Double cropping of rice and common intercropping systems
vegetables crops and millet and followed by the farmers are potato-
vegetables crops were practiced about radish, maize-cowpea, sugarcane-
18% of land, where water is not a cowpea/beans, banana-pineapple, and
constrain for crop cultivation. In double papaya-turmeric/yam.
cropping rice-rice, rice-
Change (MoEFCC).
CONCLUSION https://www.drishtiias.com/summary-
The agricultural land use system and of-important-reports/india-state-of-
cropping pattern of a particular place forest-report-2019
Anonymous (2020). Department of
depends on the topography, resource
Agriculture, Govt of Arunachal Pradesh.
availability and climatic condition of a
Arunachalam, A. and Arunachalam, K.
particular place. Although the Hilly (2000). Influence of gap size and soil
people of North East India mostly follow properties on microbial biomass in a
the traditional method of cultivation subtropical forest of northeast India.
that is shifting cultivation (locally Plant and Soil. 233: 185-193.
known as ‘jhum kheti’), present day, Bordoloi P. (2021, a). Organic Farming for
people start thinking about the Sustainable Soil Health Management:
alternative of jhum cultivation. Prospects and Potential in North
Government also introduces some Eastern Region of India. Indian Journal
system of cultivation, which can be used of Agriculture and Allied Sciences. 7
(2). 34-38.
by the farmers as an alternative of jhum
Bordoloi P. Arunachalam, A. and
cultivation. Moreover, many Arunachalam, K., Singh N.D. (2021).
Governmental and non-Governmental Agricultural land use systems and its
organizations are doing the Research characteristics followed by the Nyishis
and Extension work for motivate of Papum Pare District of Arunachal
farmers for diversification of crop from Pradesh. In Book: Recent Advances in
their traditional practice of mono Agriculture, Engineering and
cropping so as to increase production Biotechnology for Food Security.
and income level. From the State Publisher: Mahima Research
government side steps are taken for Foundation and Social Welfare,
removal of rural poverty through Varanasi, UP, India.
Bordoloi, P. (2014). Organic Agriculture: Its
introduction of modern agricultural
Impact and Application in Different
practices. empowerment of rural
Land Use Systems of Arunachal
women for improvement of nutritional Pradesh. O. B. Publication U.P., India.
standards and quality of life of the rural (ISBN 13: 978-81-910077-5-6, OB
people. More Researches are required publication, UP, India, ISBN 10: 81-
for socio economic development of the 910077-5-4.
state. Moreover, Government should Bordoloi, P. (2020). Productivity
take all possible measures to ensure enhancement of Maize (Zea mays)
timely and adequate supply of quality through liming under rain-fed
inputs and services such as seeds, condition of North east India.
fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural International Journal of current
microbiology and applied sciences,
implements etc. for increase the
Special issue 11 pp 2875-2881.
productivity of crops which leads to
Bordoloi, P. (2021, b). Lime Application for
improve the living standard and Higher Productivity of Potato (Solanum
livelihood of the people of Arunachal Tuberosum L.) and managing soil
Pradesh. acidity in RiBhoi District of Meghalaya.
Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 21 (2&3): 202.
REFERANCES Chaliha, S. (1992). Life and Culture of the
Anonymous (2015). FarmerGuide. Nishis (With special Reference to
https:/farmech.dac.gov.in/FarmerGuid folklore material), Ph.D. Thesis
e/NE/Introduction.htm. (Unpublished), Guwahati University,
Anonymous (2020 a). India State of Forest Guwahati.
Report, 2019: Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate
Cochran, W. G. and Cox, G. M. (1957). series: V.10), The Parthenon Publishing

Experimental Design. Asian Pub. House, Group, Paris. 424.
New Delhi. Sanjay-Swami (2021). Bio-fertilizers:
Devi, L. (1960). “Ahom Tribal Relation”, Source of Climate Resilience to Soil
Guwahati. Fertility and Crop Productivity. Climate
Elwin Verrier. (1988). The Art of the North Change Management through Agro-
East frontier of India (Reprint), Technological Approaches. Jaya
Itanagar. Publishing House, New Delhi, India.
Haimendorf, C. V. F. (1950). Ethnographic Sanjay-Swami and Singh, S. (2019).
notes on the Tribes of the Subansiri Harnessing production potential of
Region, Shillong. acidic soils: Impacts of Azolla (Azolla
Haimendorf, C. V. F. (1982). Highlanders of pinnata) bio- fertilizer and urea on rice
Arunachal Pradesh, New Delhi. (Oryza sativa L.) performance,
Ramakrishnan, P. S. (1992). Shifting temporal soil P availability and acidity
agriculture and sustainable indices. South Asian Res. J. Agric. &
development, (Man and Biosphere Fisheries, 01 (01): 01-07.
Research Paper
Analysis of Factors Affecting Onion Production in Semendawai District
Suku III Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency
Province of South Sumatra
Vera Audizawati1*, Yunita Sari1, Fifian Permatasari1, Munajat1, Ni Luh Suriani2

1University of Baturaja, Jln. HOS Cokroaminoto No.0172 East Baturaja, Code 32115 OKU Regency, South Sumatra.
2Biology Study Program, Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty, Udayana University,80232, Bali, Indonesia
*Corresponding author E. Mail I.D,: deniravera@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This study aims to analyze the factors that influence the production of shallots in the District of Semendawai
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency. The type of research used in this research is the descriptive
quantitative method. The data analysis used in this research is multiple regression analysis. The results showed
that the factor of land area, number of seeds, and pesticides had a significant effect on shallot production in
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency. Meanwhile, labor and fertilization had no
significant effect on shallot production in Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency. The
most influential factor on shallot production in Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency
is the land area with a standard value of a partial regression coefficient of 0.505.
Key Words: Onion, Productivity, Semendawai District.
INTRODUCTION
Agribusiness systems and businesses sector for both livelihood and

are one of the spearheads of economic development.
revival in Indonesia that need to be The agricultural sector is the most
developed. According to Saragih in Agus important and leading sector of
et al.,(2019), agribusiness will appear to development; this cannot be divorced
be the backbone of the overall national from the agricultural sector's major and
economic development. Agribusiness important role. As a result, agricultural
can accommodate 50 demands so that growth must continue to be carried out
the national economy continues to grow sustainably to raise the added value of
and at the same time fulfills the agricultural goods and the income of
principles of democracy, sustainability, farmers (Nursan & Septiadi, 2020).
and equity, both between individuals Because Indonesia is known for its
and between regions. Because Indonesia enormous natural resources, it is
is known for its enormous natural frequently referred to as an agrarian
resources, it is frequently referred to as country, which refers to a country that
an agrarian country, which refers to a relies on the agriculture sector for both
country that relies on the agriculture livelihood and development.
The agricultural sector is the most increase along with the increase in
important and leading sector of population (Putra et al., 2020). Based on
development; this cannot be divorced data from the Ministry of Agriculture
from the agricultural sector's major and (2019), the total national demand for
important role. As a result, agricultural shallots in 2019 is predicted to reach
growth must continue to be carried out 898.27 thousand tons and in 2021 it is
sustainably to raise the added value of predicted to reach 927.57 thousand tons
agricultural goods and the income of (Adetya, 2021).
farmers (Nursan & Septiadi, 2020) Consumption of shallots tends to
The development of strategic increase every year with an increase in
agricultural commodities needs to be a population. The rate of consumption of
priority in sustainable agricultural shallots every year has a growth rate of
development programs and policies. 1.18 percent (Ministry of Agriculture,
The agricultural sector consists of the 2015) and from the results of the 2019
food crops sub-sector, the plantation Susenas survey, the level of shallot
sub-sector, the livestock sub-sector, and consumption per capita reaches 27.72
the horticulture sub-sector. The kg/capita/year (BPS, 2019). To meet the
horticulture sub-sector consists of consumption needs of the community, it
commodities of fruits, vegetables, is not surprising that almost all
ornamental plants, and medicinal plants provinces in Indonesia are cultivating
(Hasri et al., 2020). shallots and even less, so it must be met
Shallots are one of the strategic by importing shallots from other
agricultural commodities in Indonesia countries such as Vietnam, India and
because they have high economic value Thailand (Nursan & Wathoni, 2021).
and are widely used as raw materials or Dependence on the supply of kitchen
cooking ingredients for various types of spices from outside the region, the
processed foods and are often a Provincial Government of South
contributor to inflation along with Sumatra overcomes it by developing the
several other strategic commodities shallot area center. Initially, shallots
such as rice, chili, beef and chicken meat were supplied from various Brebes,
(Mutiarasari et al., 2019). Shallots can Tegal, and West Sumatra (West
be regarded as a commodity that has an Sumatra). Six regions in South Sumatra
important role in meeting the Province will become development
components of people's food needs and areas. The six areas are Pagaralam City
are classified as a non-substituted spice covering an area of 30 hectares, Ogan
group so their availability must be Komering Ilir (OKI) Regency covering
fulfilled (Afrianika et al., 2020). Shallot an area of 10 hectares, and Lahat
production in Indonesia is still seasonal Regency covering an area of 10
(Astuti et al., 2019). Shallots are one of hectares. covering an area of 10
Indonesia's leading vegetable hectares and Ogan Komering Ulu Timur
commodities that have many benefits Regency covering an area of 10
and high economic value (Astuti et al., hectares.
2020). Based on this premise, the Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency is
development of agribusiness systems one of the regencies that has a fairly
and businesses is seen as the most large area of agricultural land. With this
appropriate form of approach for potential, it provides an opportunity for
Indonesia's economic development. In the community to develop businesses in
terms of domestic market opportunities, the field of agriculture itself. This refers
the need for shallots will continue to to the development of the agricultural
sector as something that must be Table 2. Cultivated Area, Production,

emphasized because if this agricultural and Productivity of Shallots in 2020
development in a region is not
successful, it will have an impact on
overall national development, namely
the widening gap between regions and
between groups regarding income
levels.
Semendawai District III is one of the
sub-districts with an area of 183.27 km²
or 5.44 percent of the total area of the
Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency. This
district is one of the areas that are the
main target in the development of
horticultural crops, especially shallots.
This can be seen from the largest
planting area among other sub-districts
which can be seen in Table 1 below:
is one of the sub-districts with an area of
Table 1. Planted Area, Production, 183.27 km² or 5.44 percent of the total
and Productivity of Shallots year area of East Ogan Komering Ulu
2019 Regency. This district is one of the areas
that are the main target in the
development of horticultural crops,
especially shallots. In addition, the
Development of Shallots is one of the
programs of the Regional Government
of Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency as
can be seen in the attachment to the
Decree on the Determination of Groups
of Beneficiaries of Government
Assistance (Prospective Farmers for
Locations) Activities to Increase
Production of Vegetables and Medicinal
Plants Development of Shallots (Seeds)
Areas at the Office Agriculture of East
Ogan Komering Ulu Regency for Fiscal
Year 2018 and Fiscal Year 2019.
(Source: Agricultural Data of Ogan Komering Ulu Given this context, more research into
Timur Regency)
the factors that influence shallot
production in Semendawai District,
From the data in table 1 and data in
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur
table 2, it can be seen that the
Regency is required. As a result, the size
Semendawai District of Tribe III has the
of the product received is determined by
largest production and productivity data
the production factor, which is an
in 2019 and 2020 compared to other
important agricultural sector. Based on
sub-districts among the sub-districts in
the aforementioned issues, it is required
Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency,
to make efforts in farming to boost
therefore this sub-district determined
shallot output to increase farmers'
intentionally (purposive sampling).
income in Ogan Komering Ulu Timur variables described (Y) and the
Regency by analyzing the elements that explanatory variables (X).
affect shallot production. From the The production function is always
description above, the author is expressed in the form of a formula,
interested in conducting research by which is as follows (Sukirno, 2008),
formulating a title "Analysis of Factors
Affecting Shallot Production in Q = f(K,L,R,T)...........(2.1)
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan Where :
Komering Ulu Timur Regency". Q : Total output (production)
Farming activities such as land area, F : Function
seeds, fertilization, use of pesticides, and K : Capital (capital),
plant maintenance, as well as other L : Labor (labor),
work, can be done on time if sufficient R : Natural wealth (raw material)
manpower is available the factors used Q: Technological level.
in this study are:
a. Onion Production (Kg) If the input used in the production
b. Land area (Ha) process only consists of capital (K) and
c. Onion seeds labor (L) then the production function
d. Amount of fertilizer (Kg) in question can be formulated as
e. Amount of Pesticide (Ltr) (Joesron and Fathorrozi, 2003),
f. Number of workers (Days of working
people) Q = f(K,L) .............(2.2)
Based on the description above, the The role of production

problem can be formulated as follows: The production function, according to
What factors affect the production of Cobb-Douglas, is the physical
shallot farming in Semendawai District, relationship between production inputs
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur (inputs) and outputs (outputs)
Regency? (outputs). The Cobb-Douglas production
function is a function or equation with
LITERATURE REVIEW two or more variables, one of which is
referred to as the dependent variable
Production Theory (Y) and the other as the independent
Cobb-Douglas function analysis is a variable (Z) (X). The most common
mathematical technique for knowing the method for resolving the relationship
production factors that affect the between X and Y is regression, in which
production of shallot farming or in other the variation of Y is influenced by the
words an analytical tool used to explain variation of X. Thus, the rules on the
the relationship between production regression line also apply in solving the
factors (X) and production (Y) (Rijal et Cobb-Douglas function (Soekartawi,
al. ., 2016). Furthermore, the production 2003) which can be written as follows,
function is also explained by Nicholson Q = ALαKβ ............................................ (2.3)
(2002), the production function is a Where :
function that shows a mathematical Q = Quantity of output
relationship between the inputs used to A = ProductivityTotal Factor
produce a certain level of output. L = Labor
Meanwhile, Soekartawi (2003) suggests K = Capital Goods
that the production function is a & = Positive parameters determined by
physical relationship between the Analysis data
The Cobb Douglass production function maximum possible income (Mamusung,

can be seen in two ways, namely the 2019).
long-term production function and the Factors that affect onion farming income
short-term production function, so that include land area, seeds, organic
it can be seen how much influence the fertilizers, pesticides, and labor
input has on the output. In the short-run (Suswadi & Prasetyo, 2022):
production function, a producer can
change one of the variable factors of Land
production L used in the production According to Mubyarto (1989), the land
process, while the production factor K is a factor of production that serves as a
cannot be changed because it is a fixed factory for agricultural products and
factor of production. Short Run Cobb- contributes significantly to farming. The
Douglas Production Function The magnitude of agricultural production,
condition in the short run is that there is among other things, is impacted by the
at least one factor that hinders the little amount of land utilized.
production factor (or price) adjustment
process so that it doesn't happen Plants and seeds
"instantly". So the short-term concept A commodity's supremacy is
shows friction in the economy that determined by its seed. Superior seeds
hinders the relocation process in the are more likely to generate high-quality
economy. The phenomenon of economic products. So that the more superior the
friction usually appears in the form of seeds of agricultural commodities, the
prices that are difficult to change, such higher the agricultural production that
as the price of labor (wages) (Gaspersz, will be achieved.
2005).
If the capital input is considered fixed in Fertilizer
the short-run production period, and Fertilizers with the right composition
there is only one labor input variable can produce quality products. Fertilizers
that is considered in the production that are often used are organic
analysis, then the Cobb-Douglas fertilizers and inorganic fertilizers.
production function in the short run is According to Sutejo (2007), organic
denoted in the following model: fertilizer is the fertilizer that comes
from the decomposition of parts or
Q = Lβ ......... (2.4) residues of plants and animals, such as
Information, manure, green manure, compost, cake,
Q = quantity of output produced guano, and bone meal. Meanwhile,
L = quantity of labor used. inorganic fertilizers or commonly
referred to as artificial fertilizers are
Onion Farming fertilizers that have been processed at
Farming is a human business activity to the factory, such as urea, TSP, and KCl
cultivate the land with the intention of fertilizers.
obtaining plant or animal products
without reducing the ability of the land Pesticides
concerned to obtain further results Pesticides are needed by plants to
(Imas et al., 2019). Farming also learns prevent and eradicate pests and
how farmers determine, organize, and diseases that attack them. On the one
coordinate the use of production factors hand, pesticides can benefit farmers, but
as effectively and efficiently as possible on the other hand, pesticides can harm
so that these businesses provide the farmers. Pesticides can be a loss for
farmers if there is an error in their use, The dotted line in the figure shows the
both in terms of method and alleged interrelationships that influence
composition. These losses include each other. Production theory explains
environmental pollution, damage to the technical relationship between
agricultural commodities, and poisoning inputs and outputs. Where inputs are
that can result in death for humans and goods and services needed in the
pets. production process, and outputs are
goods and services produced from a
Labor production process. While the
One of the influencing factors, especially production process is a process of
for farming that is seasonal, is labor. converting inputs into outputs so that
Planting has declined as a result of the value of the goods increases
manpower scarcity, affecting plant (Adiningsih, 2003).
growth, productivity, and product Inputs or factors of production in the
quality (Mubyarto, 1995). agricultural sector are all sacrifices
given to plants so that these plants can
Research Approach Model grow well and produce optimally.
The production process will produce Factors of production will determine the
onion output. Shallots are a commodity size of the product obtained. Various
that fluctuates in terms of price and experiences show that land production
production. Farmers cannot control the factors and capital to buy seeds,
price of shallots and production results. fertilizers, medicines, labor, and
Therefore, the price of shallots is highly management aspects are the most
dependent on market prices, while important production factors among
shallot production depends on natural other production factors (Soekartawi,
conditions. These natural conditions 2003).
consist of weather and pest and disease
attacks. This causes the risk of farmers RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION
selling shallots to be quite difficult to This research was conducted in
control so that losses will be Semendawai Tribe III District, Ogan
experienced by the farmers. Komering Ulu Timur Regency.
The relationship between the factors of Determination of the location of the
production with the number of products study was done intentionally (purposive
produced. The analytical research sampling) considering the area of
approach model that affects the planting and production of shallots in
production of shallots is more clearly Semendawai District, Tribe III is the
shown in the form of Figure 1. The largest among the districts with shallot
The research Approach Model is below: plants in Ogan Komering Ulu Timur
Regency. This research is planned to be
carried out in December 2021.
The type of research used in this
research is the descriptive quantitative
method. The data obtained from the
sample of the research population were
analyzed according to the statistical
methods used and then interpreted.
The types and sources of data used in
this study are primary data and
Figure: Research Approach Model secondary data. In this study, the
sampling technique used was random using SPSS with Regression analysis
sampling, also known as probability with the Cobb-Douglass production
sampling. The population and sample function to analyze the factors that
are shallot farmers in Semendawai affect the production of shallots.
District, Tribe III who are still active in Theoretical Model, The theoretical
onion farming, both on their land and on model used in this research is as
land rented from landowners in follows:
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan Y = f(X1,X2,X3,X4,X5) ….……. ………………(
Komering Ulu Timur Regency. 1)
Data was collected through primary where :
data and secondary data. Primary data Y = Total production of shallots
was obtained through a questionnaire. X1 = Land area
Secondary data was obtained through X2 = Seed
literature studies and related agencies X3 = Fertilization
in this study. Primary data were X4 = Pesticide
distributed through questionnaires to X5 = Labor
shallot farmers and by direct interviews. To analyze the data using the Ordinary
In this study, the sample calculation was Least Square method in identifying the
used according to the Slovin formula factors that influence the production of
(Sugiyono, 2011:37): shallots, the Cobb-Douglass production
Information: function is used. Mathematically the
n : Sample size Cobb-Douglass production function can
N : Population size be written by the equation:
e : Allowance to inaccuracy or degree of
tolerance. Q = Kα.Lβ ................................................ (2)
The following is a sample calculation Information :
using the Slovin formula with data on Q = Total output (production)
the number of samples of Shallot K = Capital input
farmers can be seen in Table 4. Data of L = Labor input
Shallot Farmers in Semendawai District, = Elasticity of capital input
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur = Elasticity of labor input
Regency. Based on the production function above,
in this study, the Cobb Douglass
This population number is the production function which can be
population size (N) in the solving written based on equation (3) is:
formula. The specified degree of Y= X1α1. X . X . X . X . ………………. ......... (3)
tolerance of 0.1% is obtained based on
an accuracy of 90% minus 100%, to give The estimated model The Cobb-Douglas
the result that the number of research production function model in equation
samples is at least 82.69 or equal to 83. (3) is a non-linear equation. In order to
The data analysis used in this research analyze the data, the non-linear
is multiple regression analysis. Multiple regression model must be linearized
regression analysis was used to answer first. In the form of a linear equation, the
the first research objective, which was model written in the form of a
to determine the effect of the use of functional relationship in equation (3)
production factors for land area, seeds, can be written as follows:
fertilization, pesticides, and the number LnY = LnA + 1Ln X1 + 2L2 X2 + 3Ln X3 +
of workers on the total production of α4Ln X4 + 5Ln X5 + e …(4) Description :
shallots. In processing the data analysis Y = Production of shallots
A = Constant 20 – 25 cm. Planting is done directly by

X1 = Land area (Ha) inserting the shallot seeds into the soil
X2 = Number of seeds (kg) with the tip on top. The soil is drilled
X3 = Fertilization (Kg) into small pieces using a tugal. The
X4 = Pesticide (ml) depth of planting is the same as the
X5 = Number of workers (HOK) height of the seed tubers, the onion
e = Error (error term) planting wine is between 10-15 cm.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 = coefficient of independent Follow-up fertilization is carried out 1-3
variable times, depending on each farmer. The
Classical Assumption Test to see fertilizers used include TSP, Phonska,
whether the results in the above urea, and NPK. The method of
equation meet the BLUE (Best Linear fertilization is by sprinkling it between
Unbiased Estimator) criteria, it is rows of plants. Weeding is done by
necessary to carry out several tests on pulling grass or weeds. Weeding is done
violations of classical assumptions 1-4 times during the planting period
which include: depending on the number of weeds that
1. Heteroscedasticity Test grow on the plant. Pests that usually
2. Multicollinearity Test attack onion plants are armyworms.
3. Autocorrelation Test While the diseases that usually attack
Statistic test are late blight or leaf blight, fusarium
t test wilt, especially during the rainy season.
F Uji test The control of pests and diseases that
attack shallot plants is carried out by
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION spraying insecticides and fungicides.
Shallot Farming in Semendawai District, The spraying is carried out
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur approximately every 3-7 days. The
Regency. The onion cultivation process process of irrigation during the rainy
includes seed preparation, soil season does not exist, or only uses
processing, planting, fertilizing, rainwater. Irrigation in the dry season is
weeding, pest control, irrigation, carried out with the leb system, namely
harvesting, and post-harvest. Farmers by inundating the bunds with water
generally do their own seeding. Shallots which is carried out 1-2 times a week.
that will be used as seeds are cleaned of Shallots that are ready to be harvested
leaf residue and soil, dried in the sun to are usually aged above 90-100 days
dry, and then stored. On average, after planting (DAT) or according to
farmers who have a land area of 400- plant resistance in the dry season, while
500 m2 need 1 quintal or 100 kg of in the rainy season 60-70 days after
seeds. The stage of processing the soil is planting. After the onion is harvested,
usually at the same time providing basic the next step is drying. Before drying,
fertilizer, namely manure and organic. the shallots are cleaned of remaining
Some farmers use chemical fertilizers soil and leaves that are still attached. If
such as phonska and TSP. After mixing the weather is sunny with enough hot
and the soil has been leveled, the next sun, 3-4 days the shallots are dry
process is making mounds. The size of enough.
the mounds is adjusted to the condition The characteristics of shallot farmers in
of the soil, usually with a width of ± 80 – the Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan
100 cm, a height of ± 30 – 40 cm, and the Komering Ulu Timur Regency, most of
length adjusts to the size of the plot of the farmers are in the productive age,
land. The distance between mounds is ± namely in the age range of 15-64 years
with a total of 50 farmers. Age level will Classic assumption test

affect the knowledge and absorption of The normalcy test, multicollinearity test,
information and technology of each and heteroscedasticity test are all used
farmer. Age differences can affect in this study to see if there are any
farmers' decision-making in running departures from the classical
shallot farming. The education of most assumptions. The asymp value was
farmers is that 38 people have determined from the significance of the
graduated from elementary school or normalcy test with the Kolmogorov-
63.33 percent, which means that it is Smirnov test. The data in this
still low. A low level of education will investigation are normally distributed,
affect farmers in running their farms. as Sig (2-tailed) is 0.960 > 0.05. The
The average farming experience is 31.9 multicollinearity test of all variables
years and the average area of cultivation revealed that the Tolerance value was
is 0.053 ha. Even though the farmers larger than 0.1 (Tolerance > 0.1) and the
have a low level of education, they have VIF value of each variable was less than
quite a long farming experience. This 10 (VIF 10), indicating that there is no
experience is used as a guide for multicollinearity in the regression
farmers to cultivate shallots better so model. The results of the
that they can increase production. heteroscedasticity test using a scatter
According to Sjamsir (2017) that socio- plot diagram show that the points
economic characteristics affect the spread randomly and do not form a
agricultural production process, certain or regular pattern. This shows
especially in the decision-making that the confounding error has the same
process in farming management variance (homoscedasticity) and it can
including farmer education, farmer be concluded that the estimated
experience, and others. Most of the regression model does not occur
farmers with cultivator status with 48 heteroscedasticity.
farmers or 80 percent of the total Statistic test
farmers. In general, sharecroppers are
more efficient in spending on Table 3. Results of Regression
production costs than tenant farmers Analysis of Factors Affecting Shallot
who have to incur additional costs for Production in Semendawai District,
renting land. Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur
The influence of production factors on Regency
the production of shallots in
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan
Komering Ulu Timur Regency can be
known by using the Cobb-Douglas
production function model. The results
of data analysis carried out with SPSS
software produce the following models:
Log Y = Log 2.508X1 + 0.706 LogX2 –

0.229 LogX3 + 0.443 LogX4 – 0.055
LogX5
The equation that has been antiloged is:
Y = 2.508X1 0.706X2 -0.229X3 0.443X4 - ** = significant effect on 95% confidence
0.055X5 level
ns = no significant effect
Adjusted R Square value is 0.631. The is 0.706, which means that the land area
value of Adj R2 means that 63.1% of has an elasticity value of 0.706, meaning
shallot production in Semendawai that if there is an additional 1% of land
District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu area, there will be an increase in the
Timur Regency can be explained by amount of shallot production by 0.706%
independent variables described in the with the assumption that other
model, such as land area (X1), the variables are considered zero or
number of seeds (X2), fertilization (X3 ), constant.
pesticides (X4), and labor (X5). These results are in line with the
Meanwhile, the remaining 36.9% is research of Mutiarasari et al., (2019),
explained by other variables outside the Lawalata et al., (2015), and Nurjati et al.,
study, such as weather, climate, farming (2018) which stated that the land area
experience, farmer's age, technology, factor had a significant effect on shallot
and others. production. However, the results of this
The results of the F test show the results study differ from the findings of Sarlan
of simultaneous testing of all suspected (2020) and Waryanto et al., (2014) that
parameters at a 95% confidence level, the land area factor does not have a
indicating that the value of F table > significant effect on shallot production.
Fcount (13,393 > 2,13). It can be said The increase in land area means that
that the independent variables which there is an increase in the plant
include land area (X1), number of seeds population, thus production increases
(X2), fertilization (X3), pesticides (X4), along with the increase in the number of
and labor (X5) together have a plants.
significant effect on shallot production The workforce has a t count < t table,
in Semendawai District. Tribe III, East which is -0.955 < 2.00665, which means
Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. The that labor does not significantly affect
results of the t-test showed that the the production of shallots in
variables of land area, number of seeds, Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan
and pesticides individually had a Komering Ulu Timur Regency.
significant effect on shallot production These results are in line with the
in Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan findings of Abdul et al., (2020), Junaidi
Komering Ulu Timur Regency. et al., (2020) and Mutiarasari et al.,
Meanwhile, labor and fertilization (2019) where the labor factor does not
variables had no significant effect on significantly affect the production of
shallot production in Semendawai shallots. While different results were
District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu found in the research of Sarlan (2020),
Timur Regency. Nurjati et al., (2018), and Waryanto et
The land area has a value of t arithmetic al., (2014) which stated that the labor
> t table which is 3.265 > 2.67373 which factor had a significant effect on the
means that land area has a significant production of shallots. Too many
effect on shallot production in workers will not affect the addition of
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan shallot production. This will result in
Komering Ulu Timur Regency at a 99% excessive labor being devoted and the
confidence level. The magnitude of the use of labor being inefficient.
regression coefficient in the Cobb- The number of seeds has a value of t
Douglas production function shows the arithmetic > from t table that is 2.811 >
elasticity of the factors of production to 2.67373 which means the number of
their production (Soekartawi, 2003). seeds has a significant effect on onion
The regression coefficient for land area production in Semendawai District,
Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur pesticides does not have a significant
Regency at a 99% confidence level. The effect on the production of shallot
number of seeds has an elasticity value farming. Pesticides have an elasticity
of 0.443, which means that if there is an value of 0.194, which means that if there
increase in the number of seeds by 1%, is an addition of 1% of pesticides, there
there will be an increase in the amount will be an increase in the amount of
of shallot production by 0.443 % with shallot production of 0.194% with the
the assumption that other variables are assumption that other variables are
considered zero or constant. These considered zero or constant. The role of
results are in line with research by Rijal pesticides on shallot production is
et al (2016) which states that the different from other inputs. Pesticides
number of seeds is one of the factors do not increase production but save the
that affect the production of shallots. production from pests and diseases. The
The more the number of seeds planted, relationship with increased production
the more likely the plants will grow, so occurs because healthy plants will be
that the production of shallots produced more responsive to nutrient absorption
is also large. so that shallot production increases. The
Fertilization has a value of t count < t standard value of the highest partial
table, 0.350 < 2.00665, which means regression coefficient (beta coefficient)
that fertilization has no significant effect is a land area with a value of 0.505,
on shallot production in Semendawai which means that land area has the
District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu greatest influence on shallot production
Timur Regency. These results are in line in Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan
with the research of Ismail et al (2019) Komering Ulu Timur Regency.
and Abdul et al., (2020) which state that The land is a very basic and decisive
fertilizer does not affect the production factor of production in terms of farming
of shallots. Meanwhile, different results activities. The area of land that is
were found in the study of Monica et al., cultivated does not only directly affect
(2021), and Astuti et al., (2020) that production. The area of land will also
fertilizer had a significant effect on affect the farming management system,
onion production. The use of fertilizers which will then affect the use of
that are not following these doses can technology, capital, and other
reduce productivity per unit of land, production factors which will ultimately
resulting in a decrease in production. affect production.
Pesticides have a value of t count > t
table, which is 2.296 > 2.00665, which CONCLUSIONS
means that pesticides have a significant Factors of land area, number of seeds,
effect on onion production in and pesticides have a significant effect
Semendawai District, Tribe III, Ogan on the production of shallots in the
Komering Ulu Timur Regency at a 95% District of Semendawai Tribe III, Ogan
confidence level. These findings are in Komering Ulu Timur Regency.
line with Monica et al., (2021), Meanwhile, labor and fertilization had
Mutiarasari et al., (2019) and Susanti et no significant effect on shallot
al., (2018) who found that pesticides production in Semendawai District,
had a significant effect on the Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur
production of shallot farming. However, Regency. The most influential factor on
in contrast to the findings of Sarlan shallot production in Semendawai
(2020), Nurjati et al., (2018) and District, Tribe III, Ogan Komering Ulu
Waryanto et al., (2014) that the use of Timur Regency is the land area with a
standard value of a partial regression 72.

coefficient of 0.505. Based on the https://doi.org/10.33096/paradox.v3i4.59
9
description above, the suggestions that Junaidi, M., Hindarti, S., & Khoiriyah, N. (2020).
can be given based on the results of this Efficiency and Factors Affecting Shallot
study are the production of shallot Production (In Tawangsari Village, Pujon
farming in Semendawai District, Tribe District, Malang Regency). Seagri :Journal of
III, Ogan Komering Ulu Timur Regency Socio-Economic Agriculture and
Agribusiness, 8(2), 69–82.
is influenced by land area, number of Imas, M., Lestari., Rahayu., Waluyati. (2019).
seeds, and pesticides, so it is Production Efficiency in Shallot Farming in
recommended to farmers in Madiun Regency. Journal of Agricultural
Semendawai Subdistrict, Tribe III, Ogan and Agribusiness Economics (JEPA) 3(1),
Komering Ulu Timur Regency to 128-137
https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jepa.2019.00
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amount seeds, and pesticides in order to Joesron, Suhartati and Fathorrozi. 2003.
increase production to be more Microeconomic Theory. Salemba Four.
productive and the government is Jakarta.
expected to be able to pay attention to Lawalata Marfin, Dwidjono Hadi Darwanto, and
Slamet Hartono. 2015. The Relative
the agricultural production of onion Efficiency of Shallot Farming in Bantul
farming, one of which is the limited Regency Using a Data Envelopment
supply of fertilizer. Analysis (DEA) Approach. Journal.
Agricultural Science Vol. 18 No.1, 2015 :1-8
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Research Paper
The Use of Seated Grinders Reduces Complaints of Musculoskeletal
Disorders, Workload, and Increases Work Productivity of Pandai Besi in
Gubug Village, Tabanan-Bali
Ida Ayu Made Sri Arjani1*, Cok Dewi Widhya Hana Sundari1,
IGA.Sri Dhyaputri, 1 Ni Nengah Ariati1, I Wayan Juniarsana1, Nyoman Mastra1, Ni
Luh Suriani2
1Lecturer of Polytechnic of Health Denpasar, Indonesia
2Biology Study Program, Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia
Submission: May, 2022; Published: June, 2022
*Corresponding author: ri_arjani62@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Pande Besi is one of the small industries that is developing in the village of Gubug, Tabanan Regency. One of the
processes in the manufacture of household utensils in the form of small knives, large knives, sickles, and
machetes will be faced with a tool in the form of a grinder. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect
of using a seated grinder to reduce complaints of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), workload, and increase work
productivity of Pande Besi in the village of Gubug Tabanan. Methods of this research is an experimental study
with treatment by subject design. The population is 40 people from 10 industries. The results of this research
mean age of the subjects was 49.112±12.15 years, body weight was 66.68±6.64 kg, height was 162.31±6.78 cm
and the subject's body mass index were 25.29±1.71 kg/m2. There was a decrease in musculoskeletal complaints
by 13.23%, a decrease in workload by 12.77%, and an increase in productivity by 50.14%. There was a significant
decrease between musculoskeletal complaints, and workload before and after the use of the seated grinder
(p<0.05), and there was a significant increase in work productivity before and after the repair of the seated
grinder.
Keywords: Seated Grinder, Musculoskeletal Complaints, Workload, and Work Productivity
INTRODUCTION
Skeletal muscle complaints can be of large loads (Tarwaka, 2015).
caused by the use of uncontrolled Occupational risks are listed as one of
muscle power, continuous exercise, and the top 10 causes of mortality and
a static body position for an extended illness by the World Health Organization
period of time (Suma’mur, 2013). (WHO). According to the Workplace
Musculoskeletal diseases (MSDs) are Safety and Health Institute's Global
complaints that occur in the portions of Estimates of Occupational Accidents and
the skeletal muscles as a result of long- Work-related Illnesses 2017, 2.4 million
term forced movement and acceptance employees died from occupational
diseases in 2015. In 2016-2017, over such as Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome,

507,000 workers in the United Kingdom Raynaud's Syndrome, Tenosynovitis,
were sickened by work-related and Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
musculoskeletal disorders (Indonesian (Newington, at.al, 2015).
Ministry of Health, 2016). In high-risk work on the wrist, the
The prevalence rate of diagnosed prevalence of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
musculoskeletal disease is 24.7 percent, is between 5.6% and 15%.
and work attitude is one of the factors Musculoskeletal complaints found
that influences the incidence of include tingling and pain in the fingers,
musculoskeletal complaints (Indonesian reduced grip strength, and difficulty
Ministry of Health, 2014). Workload and holding small objects. There are
musculoskeletal complaints in pelvic disorders of blood vessels, and
workers in the Candi Industrial Area of disorders of the nerves caused by
Semarang City have a p-value of 0.003 > compression of the median nerve that
0.05, and the test results are considered passes through the carpal tunnel, these
significant (Masliah, 2014). According to nerve disorders are related to work that
the International Labor Organization, has repeated exposure to vibration in
one person dies in a workplace accident the long term (Indonesian Ministry of
every 15 seconds, and 160 employees Health, 2016 and Vihlborg, et.al, 2017).
suffer from work-related illnesses. After conducting limited interviews with
Every year, the International Labour seven workers, they found that all
Organization (ILO) records up to 2 workers felt pain, tingling, and stiffness
million deaths due to accidents and in their hands, wrist pain, and pain in
occupational diseases (ILO, 2013). The the right arm, elbow, waist, back, and
world suffered losses of 1.25 trillion neck. Working with heavy grinding tools
dollars, or 4% of global GDP (Indonesian and being exposed to vibrations for
Ministry of Health, 2014), as a result of more than an hour certainly has an
this tragedy. impact on the health of workers. Based
Pande Besi is one of the small industries on this, the researchers raised the above
that is growing in the village of Gubug, problems by using a sitting grinder to
Tabanan Regency. These craftsmen have reduce complaints of musculoskeletal
been in the job for quite a long time and disorders (MSDs), and workload and
are hereditary from their ancestors. increase the work productivity of
They accept the inheritance as it is and blacksmiths in Gubug Tabanan Village.
engage in this work as the responsibility
of their ancestors. One of the processes MATERIALS AND METHODS
in the manufacture of household This research is an experimental study
utensils in the form of small knives, with treatment by subject design (Nasir,
large knives, sickles, and machetes they 2013). The total population is 40 people
are faced with a tool in the form of a from 10 industries. Sample selection by
grinder to smooth and sharpen the simple random sampling with a table of
knife. In this process, the worker holds a random numbers. The minimum
vibrating grinder, weighing more than number of samples was calculated using
1.5 kg with one hand, with the other the Colton formula so that the sample
hand holding the knife to be ground. size was determined to be 16 people.
Working with hands exposed to The sample inclusion criteria included:
vibration for a long time is a burden that blacksmith workers living in the village
will cause complaints and of Gubug Tabanan aged 20-60 years,
musculoskeletal diseases for workers physically healthy with a doctor's
examination, at least one year of work use a Paired Sample-t-Test test at a

experience, and willing to be research confidence level of = 0, 05 to evaluate
subjects. While the exclusion criteria the difference in treatment effects. Table
were not present during the trial, those 3 shows the results of the various test
who became unwell during it withdrew data for musculoskeletal symptoms.
from the sample for various reasons. Table 3 shows the results of the Paired
Data analysis and processing: Age, Sample-t-Test difference test before
weight, height, and BMI are all working in Treatment I and Treatment
descriptive tests for subject condition II, with no significant difference
data. The following data was subjected (p>0,05), showing that the initial
to a normalcy test: musculoskeletal conditions in Treatment I and
complaints, workload data, and work Treatment II were the same. While there
productivity data. On data that is was a significant difference (p<0,05)
normally distributed, parametric between Treatment I and Treatment II
statistical tests (different test paired following the analysis.
samples t-test at significance level =
0.05) were used in treatment I and Workload
treatment II on musculoskeletal In treatment I and treatment II, the
complaints, workload, and work workload was measured by measuring
productivity, and non-parametric the pulse before and after working.
statistical tests (Wilcoxon's difference Workload was reduced by 12,77 percent
test at significance level = 0.05) were after working in treatment I and
used if the data was not normal. treatment II. Test the normality of the
data with the Shapiro-Wilk test at a
RESULTS confidence level of = 0,05,
Subject Condition demonstrating that all data are normally
In the village of Gubug Tabanan, the distributed (p> 0,05), and then use a
research subjects discovered 16 Paired Sample-t-Test test at a
blacksmiths. The age, weight, height, confidence level of = 0, 05 to evaluate
and BMI of the participants in this study the difference in treatment effects. Table
were all recorded (BMI). Table 1 shows 4 shows the results of the workload data
the results of the analysis of the difference test.
subject's condition description. Paired Sample-t-Test analysis of
workload data in treatment I and
Musculoskeletal complaints treatment II before working, got no
Measurement of musculoskeletal significant difference (p> 0,05). This
complaints was done by interviewing shows that the initial conditions of the
respondents with a Nordic Body Map two periods are the same or
questionnaire. Complaint data was comparable. Analysis of treatment I and
collected before and after work in treatment II after work found that there
Treatment I (manual grinding) and was a significant difference (p<0,05).
before and after work in Treatment II
(sitting grinding). After working in Productivity
Treatment I and Treatment II, there was It is defined as the output to input ratio
a 13,23 percent reduction in complaints. per unit of time. Productivity is
Test the normality of the data with the measured in this study by comparing
Shapiro-Wilk test at a confidence level the number of successfully forged plates
of = 0,05, demonstrating that all data are (output) with the number of work
normally distributed (p> 0,05), and then pulses (input) in one hour of work
Table 1: Descriptive Analysis of Subject Conditions
No. Subject Condition Means±SD Min Max
1. Age (year) 49,12±12,15 23 60
2. Height (cm) 162,31±6,78 150 172
3. Weight (kg) 66,68±6,64 56 78
4. Body Mass Index (BMI (kg/m2) 25,29±1,71 22,55 29,14
Table 2: Results of Different Tests for Musculoskeletal Complaints in Treatment I and

Treatment II (Before and After Work)
No Complaints Period I Period II t P
1. Before Work 34,93±1,87 34,68±1,74 1,168 0,261
2. After Work 41,56±2,09 36,06±1,34 9,409 0,000
Table 3: Workload Data Difference Test Results

No Workload Period I Period II T p
1. Before Work 79,12±1,70 79,13±1,40 0,000 1,000
2. After Work 102,38±3,70 89,31±2,15 20,140 0,000
Table 4: Productivity Data Difference Test Results

No Productivity Perlakuan I Perlakuan II Z p
1. The resulting plate (1 hour) 3,63±1,25 4,75±1,29 -13,17 0,000
2. Productivity (1 hour) 0,35±012 0,53±0,14 -15,77 0,000
(time). The average plate generated in measures how well a person's dietary
treatments I and II increased by 30,85%, intake is balanced. In the long run, an
from 3.631,25 to 4.751,29, and the unbalanced state can be generated by
productivity in treatments I and II the consumption of nutrients,
increased by 50,14, from 0.350.12 to particularly carbohydrates and
0.530.14. excessive fats, thus this situation must
After using the Shapiro-Wilk Test at a be remedied and examined so that the
confidence level of = 0,05 to determine subject does not embark on the path to
the normality of the data in treatment I obesity. A high nutritional status will
and treatment II, it was determined that boost immunity and enhance health,
all data were not normally distributed allowing them to function better in daily
(p<0,05). To determine the difference in activities and so improve their quality of
the effect of treatment on treatment I life.
and treatment II, the Wilcoxon
difference test was used at a confidence Complaints of Musculoskeletal
level of = 0,05. Table 5 summarizes the Disorders
results of the various productivity data A Nordic Body Map questionnaire with
checks. 28 question items was used to assess
The analysis of the different tests of the subjects' musculoskeletal problems.
plate data produced and productivity in Following a 13.23 percent
one hour in Period I and Period II found improvement, the study discovered a
that there was a significant difference drop in complaints. There was a
(p<0,05). significant difference (p<0,05) in the
difference test between Treatment I and
DISCUSSION Treatment II after work. As a result, the
Subject Condition addition of a sitting wheel has an impact
16 subjects participated in the complete on complaints.
study, and all of them were in good MSDs are complaints or disturbances
health based on a physical examination that are felt by a person ranging from
from a doctor. Subjects aged between mild complaints to feeling very sick in
20-60 years follow the limits that have the skeletal muscles which include the
been determined in the determination joints, nerves, muscles, and spine due to
of the sample. This type of work to make unnatural work. If the muscles are
knives is a craft that is passed down disturbed, the activities of doing daily
from generation to generation so that work can be disrupted, because muscle
workers will always work even though strength is one of the most important
they are already elderly, as long as they parts of the body's organs to be able to
are still able to do this work. move. In this study, it was found that
The patient weighed between 56 and 78 there was a decrease in complaints
kg and was between 150 and 172 cm among workers who used a seated
tall. The average BMI of the subject after grinder 13,23%. The results of this
calculating the body mass index (BMI) study are in line with other studies
to estimate the nutritional state of the which state that improving ergonomics-
subject was 25,29 kg/m2, with a range based work systems can reduce worker
of 22,55 – 29,14 kg/m2. The subject's complaints. This research is supported
BMI was assessed as overweight by research that explains that the work
(Altmasier, 2009 and Indonesian is in a static posture in the lower body
Ministry of Health, 2015) when and experiences repetitive movements
compared to WHO norms. The BMI in the hands (Ulfah, 2014). When in a
static position, the body will experience Workload

a blockage of blood flow, resulting in a One of the most crucial aspects in
lack of oxygen and glucose from the determining the lightness or severity of
blood in that section. In addition, the a job, including grinding work, is the
body will produce lactic acid which can workload. Workers' workloads must be
cause pain. Muscles cannot work tailored to their physical and
naturally if a person works with an psychological capacity in order to avoid
unnatural posture, this causes the compromising their health (Andreani
muscles to require more strength to and Paskarini, 2013). Planning and/or
carry out their duties, thus triggering building a technology that can prevent
fatigue and tension in the muscles and complaints due to an unreasonable
tendons (Andreani and Paskarini, 2013). workload (Brighenti, et.al, 2016) can be
This research is supported by research done in an effort to reduce worker
on improving work attitudes to reduce workload. Because the pulse is one of
musculoskeletal complaints by 34,6% the markers that may be used to
(Arjani, et.al, 2021), research in the measure the amount of a person's
form of improving work systems and workload, the workload can be
the work environment reducing worker estimated from the frequency of the
fatigue by 22,09% (Santosa, 2012), worker's pulse. After a 12,77 percent
research in the form of improving increase in productivity, the study
ergonomics-based SKKB work stations discovered a decrease in workload.
reducing worker fatigue by 18, 84%, After working, the examination of the
and research in the form of improving difference test revealed a significant
ergonomics-based work aids reduces difference (p<0,05) between Treatment
worker fatigue by 30,31%. The higher I and Treatment II.
the workload, the higher the perceived The drop in workload in Treatment I
musculoskeletal complaints (Diana, and Treatment II was projected to be
2012). attributed to a reduction in workplace
In knife grinding, workers are presented stress. An increase in pulse rate (Arjani,
with repetitive movements of the hand et.al, 2019) is one of the impacts of
with a hammer weight that is quite external stress. External stress can be
heavy, so that the load on the right hand reduced in this study by using a seated
is more dominant. When the grinding grinding wheel to make improvements.
wheel rotates and hits the steel plate, As assessed by the work pulse, there is
the vibrations arise and propagate from an efficiency of energy utilization that
the tool to the hands when the can lower workload. Workload
vibrations are not felt directly by the reductions of 21,43% in the
workers. The vibrations that are felt modification of Tri Hita Karana-based
continuously while working will ergonomics for rice mill workers
accumulate over time and can have an (Ruliati, et.al, 2017), 15.3% in the dodol
impact on causing Hand Arm Vibration industry workers in Bali (Santosa and
Syndrome (HAVS), which is a disease Yusuf, 2017), and 3.41% in the steamed
caused by vibrations in the hands. bread industry workers in Denpasar
Exposure to hand-arm vibration, (Dinata, 2018). The findings of this
prolonged work with flexed hands, and study support the notion that suggests
repetitive use of CTS as well. that as workload increases, so do
musculoskeletal complaints
(Mindhayani and Hari, 2016).
Work Productivity enhancements such as seated grinding

Crafters and entrepreneurs will see an have been shown to minimize
improvement in production and income musculoskeletal complaints, workloads,
as a result of improved working and increase job efficiency.
conditions. The increase in productivity
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occupational diseases (Tarwaka, 2015), Workload and Increasing Work
Productivity of Pande Besi in Gubug
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of improved physiological response, and work capacity across occupational
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productivity of 54,95% in the use of a dengan Keluhan Muskuloskeletal pada
solar dryer with a Techno-Ergonomic Pekerja Bagian Weaving di PT. Delta
Marlin Dunia Tekstil Kebakkramat
approach in making dodol in Singaraja. Karanganyar. Skripsi. Surakarta:
Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas
CONCLUSION Sebelas Maret
According to the findings of this study, Dinata IMK (2018) Pouring Tools Based on Total
there was a considerable decrease in Ergonomic Approach Improve
Physiological Responses and Increase
musculoskeletal complaints and Worker Productivity on Steamed
workload before utilizing a seated Sponge Cake Industry in Denpasar
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Mini Review
Evidence of Barriers to Evidence-Based Physiotherapy

Practice in Northern Africa
Krishna Nand Sharma

Submission: May 2022; Published: June 2022
* Managing Director, Virtued Academy International, Dr. L. Sharma Campus, Muhammadabad Gohna,
Mau, U.P., India 276403; Email: me@drkrishna.co.in
ABSTRACT
Physiotherapists are in charge of rehabilitative programme assessment, planning, and implementation. As
members of a medical team, it is critical that they apply research findings to their therapy. The concept of
Evidence-Based Physiotherapy is gaining popularity around the world. However, there are still obstacles in the
way of its implementation. This mini-review looks at the evidence of impediments to evidence-based
physiotherapy practice in the nations of northern Africa.
KEYWORDS: Physiotherapy, Research, Barriers, Evidence-Based-Physiotherapy, Evidence-Based-Practice,
Northern Africa
INTRODUCTION steady increase in higher-quality

research methodologies.
The International Standard
Classification of Occupations (ISCO) EVIDENCE-BASED-PHYSIOTHERAPY
defines physiotherapist as the ones who PRACTICE
“… assess, plan, and implement
rehabilitative programmes that improve According to the World Confederation
or restore human motor functions, for Physical Therapy (WCPT), the
maximize movement ability, relieve pain evidence-based-physiotherapy is “a
syndromes, and treat or prevent commitment to use the best available
physical challenges associated with evidence to inform decision-making
injuries, diseases and other about the care of individuals that
impairments.” (International Labor involves integrating physiotherapist
Office, 2012). Evidence-Based Medicine practitioners and individual
(EBM) is becoming more prevalent in professional judgement with evidence
healthcare, and physiotherapy is no gained through systematic research.”
exception. To find research trends in (Evidence based physiotherapy, 2018).
Evidence-Based Medicine, Hung et al. This definition by WCPT was inspired
(2015) evaluated more than 50 years by the evidence-based medicine’s
of publication data. They discovered a definition given by Sackett et al. (1996).
The World Confederation for Physical boundaries with Cyprus, Turkey, and
Therapy has made several Greece; in the Red Sea, it has maritime
recommendations to its member borders with Jordan and Saudi Arabia
organizations (MO) to improve the (Egypt – Country Profile, 2021).
evidence-based-physiotherapy practice. They Egyptian physiotherapists have
Hence, the active presence of formed their independence organization
physiotherapy organizations in named- the General Physical Therapy
countries and regions is crucial for Syndicate of Egypt. However, the World
better research participation by Confederation of Physical Therapy
physiotherapists (Evidence based terminated their membership on 4
physiotherapy, 2018). September 2018 (World Confederation
of Physical Therapy, 2018). Salwa and
BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED Akram (2012) in their study reported
PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN that the majority of physiotherapists in
ALGERIA Egypt support evidence-based-practice
and standardized outcome measures,
The Mediterranean Sea borders and nearly half of them use them in
Algeria's northern border, making it the clinical settings, particularly when
largest Maghreb state in North Africa. It treating patients with musculoskeletal
shares borders with Niger in the issues and needing clear, objective
southeast, Western Sahara, Mauritania, means to monitor their progress. The
Mali, and Tunisia in the northeast, Libya main thing seen as a barrier to their
in the east, Morocco in the west, and adoption is a lack of time.
Niger in the southwest (Algeria –
Country Profile, 2021). There is no BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED
known independent physiotherapy PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN LIBYA
council or association in Algeria. Lack of
research sensitization due to absence of The majority of Libya is covered by the
organization might also be one of the Sahara desert, and there are only a few
reasons why there is no publication sparsely spaced oasis in the eastern
regarding the research participation of Libyan desert and the southern Fazzan
physiotherapists based in Algeria. region where people can live. (Libya –
Country Profile, 2021). There is no
BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED publication found that talks about the
PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN barriers to evidence-based
EGYPT physiotherapy practice in Libya. There
is no known independent physiotherapy
The Arab Republic of Egypt is a council or association in Libya. Lack of
transcontinental nation that spans the research sensitization due to absence of
Sinai Peninsula in Western Asia and organization might also be one of the
northeastern Africa (Middle East). To reasons why there is no publication
the north, the Mediterranean Sea, and to regarding the research participation of
the east, the Red Sea and the Gulf of physiotherapists based in Libya.
Suez, the country share borders. Its
western border is with Libya, its BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED
northeastern and southern borders are PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN
with Israel and the Gaza Strip, and its MOROCCO
southern border is with Sudan. In the
Mediterranean Sea, Egypt has maritime
Officially known as the Kingdom of east. Additionally, it shares maritime

Morocco, Morocco is a member of the borders with Saudi Arabia and is
Arab world and is located in the western bordered by Libya in the north-west,
Maghreb region of North Africa. The Chad in the west, the Central African
nation shares maritime boundaries with Republic in the south-west, South Sudan
Portugal and Spain and is bordered by in the south, and Ethiopia in the south-
the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the east. (Sudan – Country Profile, 2021).
Mediterranean Sea to the north. The physiotherapists in Sudan formed
Morocco shares borders with Western Sudanese Physiotherapy Association
Sahara to the south and Algeria to the and became member of the World
east. In the region of Western Sahara Confederation of Physical Therapy in
that Morocco controls, there is a non- 2019 (Sudanese Physiotherapy
autonomous territory that borders Association, 2019). However, there is no
Mauritania. The Spanish exclaves of publication found that talks about the
Ceuta and Melilla, the two populous barriers to evidence-based
Spanish possessions on the African physiotherapy practice in Sudan.
continent, form Morocco's land
boundary with Spain (Morocco – BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED
Country Profile, 2021). PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN
The physiotherapists in Morocco TUNISIA
formed National Fédération of
Physiothérapeute in Morocco (National The smallest nation in both North Africa
Federation of Physiotherapists in and the Maghreb is Tunisia. Tunisia is a
Morocco) in 2008. The association has Mediterranean Sea country that borders
estimated that there are over 4,000 both Algeria and Libya. Italy and the
practicing physiotherapists in Morocco nation are separated by water on both
(National Federation of sides (Tunisia - Country Profile, 2021).
Physiotherapists in Morocco, 2021). There is no known independent
However, there is no publication found physiotherapy council or association in
that talks about the barriers to Tunisia. Lack of research sensitization
evidence-based physiotherapy practice due to absence of organization might
in Morocco. also be one of the reasons why there is
no publication regarding the research
BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED participation of physiotherapists based
PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTICE IN in Tunisia.
SUDAN
CONCLUSION
Formerly, Sudan was the biggest nation
in Africa. In 2011, Sudan was divided Except for Egypt, Morocco, and Sudan,
into South Sudan, formerly the southern the physiotherapy profession in the
portion of Sudan, now officially the northern African region is unorganized.
Republic of South Sudan, with a majority Only publication has reported the
population of people of Black African egyptian physical therapists' beliefs,
origin, and Northern Sudan, officially perceptions and adoption of evidence-
the Republic of the Sudan, with a based practice and standardized
predominately Arab population. The outcome measures and reported lack of
nation is located in northeastern Africa, time as a barrier to adoption of
bordering the Red Sea in the northeast evidence-based-practice.
and Egypt to the north and Eritrea to the
REFERENCES https://www.nationsonline.org/onewor
ld/morocco.htm
Algeria – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations
Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from
https://www.nationsonline.org/onewor National Federation of Physiotherapists
ld/algeria.htm#Countryprofile in Morocco (2021). World Confederation
for Physical Therapy. Retrieved August
Egypt – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations 18, 2021, from
Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://world.physio/membership/mor
https://www.nationsonline.org/onewor occo
ld/egypt.htm
Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M. C., Gray,
Evidence based physiotherapy (2018). J. A. M., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W.
World Confederation for Physical S. (1996). Evidence based medicine:
Therapy—European Region. Brussels: what it is and what it isn’t. BMJ,
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2021, from https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.
http://www.erwcpt.eu/education/evid 71
ence_based_physiotherapy_evidence_an
d_research Salwa B. El-Sobkey and Akram M. Helmy
(2012). Evidence-Based Practice and
Hung, B. T., Long, N. P., Hung, L. P., Luan, Standardized Outcome Measures:
N. T., Anh, N. H., Nghi, T. D., van Hieu, M., Egyptian Physical Therapists' Beliefs,
Trang, N. T. H., Rafidinarivo, H. F., Anh, Perceptions and Adoption. World
N. K., Hawkes, D., Huy, N. T., & Hirayama, Applied Sciences Journal, 16(9), 1282-
K. (2015). Research Trends in Evidence- 1291
Based Medicine: A Joinpoint Regression
Analysis of More than 50 Years of Sudan – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations
Publication Data. PLOS ONE, 10(4), Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from
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121054
Sudanese Physiotherapy Association
International Labor Office. (2012). (2019). World Confederation for
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Occupations (ISCO–08). International 2021, from
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an
Libya – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations
Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from Tunisia – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations
https://www.nationsonline.org/onewor Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from
ld/libya.htm https://www.nationsonline.org/onewor
ld/tunisia.htm
Morocco – Country Profile. (n.d.). Nations
Online. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from WCPT terminates membership of two
associations (2018). World
Confederation for Physical Therapy.

Retrieved August 18, 2021, from
https://world.physio/news/WCPT-
terminates-membership-of-two-
associations
Mini Review
Historical Exploration of Dry Needling
Chakshu Bansal
Director: PhysioNeeds Academy, New Delhi, India
ABSTRACT
Dry needling involves insertion of needles into tender points to treat painful musculoskeletal conditions. This
article traces the history of dry needling and trigger point theory. To review the origins and development of dry
needling through an examination of relevant literature.
Keywords: History, Dry Needling, Musculoskeletal, Trigger Points
The term “dry needling” arose from the The credit for getting on the right track
need to provide a contrast to the is usually given to John Kellgren (Good,
injection of a fluid through a 2001; Simons, Travell, & Simons, 1999).
hypodermic syringe (now sometimes In the late 1930s, Kellgren was working
referred to as wet needling). Dry under the supervision of Sir Thomas
needling does not involve the injection Lewis, who had experimentally
of any substance, merely the insertion of determined that injecting a saline
a needle (Brav & Sigmond, 1941). The solution into muscular tissue could lead
history of dry needling is inextricably to pain being experienced some distance
bound up with the search for effective from the site of the injection. Lewis
treatment of painful musculoskeletal encouraged Kellgren to explore this
disorders. In particular, it was the phenomenon and both researchers
research into the use of injections, to published their findings in consecutive
both cause and relieve pain in muscular articles in 1938 (Kellgren, 1938; Lewis,
tissue, that led to the development of 1938). Kellgren’s paper contained
trigger point theory and then to the use several important observations that
of dry needling as a treatment.
have been substantiated by subsequent an investigation of 25 cases of low back

research: pain with no evidence of organic
 Pain from muscles is often disease. The part of the paper relevant
referred in specific patterns. to dry needling refers to attempts to
 Tenderness could also be eliminate pain by injection into the
referred. tender points. Paulett established that
 Tenderness was not a useful relief could be obtained not only from
diagnostic guide unless the the injection of procaine but also by
patient winced when a tender injecting saline and “even dry needling”.
point was palpated (now known The needling method required deep
as the jump sign or recognition of needling into the tender points that
pain by patient). resulted in a jab of pain and a reflex
 Some pain could be relieved by spasm of the muscle in order to produce
injecting procaine into acutely a beneficial outcome. Subcutaneous
tender points which were often needling or deep needling that was
at some distance from the site of painless did not lead to relief (Paulett,
the pain. 1947).
 The relief obtained often far In 1941, Brav and Sigmond published a
outlasted the effects of the clinical trial exploring the efficacy of
anesthetic and in many cases anesthetic injection and the importance
could be considered permanent. of the location of the injection for low
The first paper found in which the term back pain or sciatica. One notable
“trigger point” occurred as an index finding was that relief could be obtained
term, keyword, or in the title was by from simple needling without the
Pugh and Christie (1945). It reported injection of any substance. They
that trigger points were more common attributed this finding to the earliest
in servicemen with a history of descriptions of acupuncture (Brav &
musculoskeletal pain (more than 30%) Sigmond, 1941). Despite these early
than in those without such a history findings, there was little further
(3%). exploration of dry needling over the
The earliest paper identified in which next few decades.
the term “dry needling” arose was by In the 1970s, interest in acupuncture
Paulett in 1947. This paper reported on surged, particularly for anesthesia and
treatment of painful conditions. Some practitioners stay within the strong

studies compared needling at traditional research evidence, others continue
acupuncture points versus tender points extending the scope to other tissues
(dry needling). They concluded that the based on clinical experience of
location perhaps did not matter as much beneficial “needle effects”.
as the intensity of the stimulus in
producing an analgesic effect (Ghia,
Mao, Toomey, & Gregg, 1976; Melzack,
1981).
By 2000, dry needling was emerging as
distinct from acupuncture, with a closer
association to trigger point theory and
manual therapy professions. Reasons
for growing interest include the
introduction of acupuncture needles,
relatively quick training programs,
publications providing diagnostic and
treatment guidance (e.g. Gunn, 1996;
Travell & Simons, 1993), and a growing
evidence base supporting its use.
There remains a lack of consensus on
the appropriate scope for dry needling.
Some restrict it to deactivating
myofascial trigger points due to the
more robust evidence base. However,
earlier practitioners targeted a broader
range of tissues including ligaments,
tendons, scar tissue, and periosteal
insertions. There is increasing interest
in dry needling for tendon disorders but
debate around whether this represents
a primary or secondary treatment
target. Ultimately, while some

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Volume: 6, Issue: 1, Year: 2022

Scientific Research Journal of India

Dear Researcher/ Readers

INTRODUCTION (NW) India and Pakistan and is severely

city of Multan, Pakistan, and rapidly protein in the virion-sense orientation

During the cropping season of 2009, Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher

corrected highest acceptable P-value cut recombination analysis, in addition to

Pathogenicity of CLCuD isolates and RST-9, all induced typical CLCuD

the month of September. Transmission CLCuD-begomovirses. Total 18 NW

begomovirus species demarcation with CLCuD-Raj showing 97-100% nt

Luc (GU385879), -Kokh (AJ496286) and grouped together with CLCuKoV-Bur.

indicated that IR regions are CLCuD symptoms (Godara et al., 2015).

present betasatellite is a species of and for C1 (Rep gene) grouped with

E. Marimuthu and K. Muthuchelian

have been a primary source of

Similarly,Auduet al (2000) reported that inhibition zone was found to be 14 and

Tribulus terrestris, Ocimum americanum,

Control Zone of inhibition (mm)

Table2. Antifungal activitiy of various concentration of Humboldtia bourdillonii plant extract

Zone of growth development

Submission: April, 2022; Published: June, 2022

INTRODUCTION Terminal heat tolerance and low

and spot blotch have to be considered uniparental chromosomal elimination

Yustiana Arianti1, Munajat1, Rini Efriyanti1, Ni Luh Suriani2*

to collect data from natural (rather than Meaning Correlation Value

carried out using multi-stage sampling.

obtained from 3 villages, Semidang Aji The Role of

farmers to increase their knowledge, marketing units. Planning units carried

function of the farmer group cannot be REFERANCES

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Iskandar Muda and PT Petrokimia the accuracy of price, timeliness,

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Table 4.1 shows that the average

Table 4.2. Percentage of Right Place

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Table 4.3. Percentage of Effectiveness of

No. Indicator Appropriate Not Total

Y = -61.182 + 71.886 X1 + 5.353 X2 + much as 1 kg, it will increase production

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Table 1. Demographic study of above jhum cycle by leaving enough

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Sole cropping Relay cropping

Cochran, W. G. and Cox, G. M. (1957). series: V.10), The Parthenon Publishing

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