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REPAIR BASIC-2

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REINFORCING FIBERS The use of fibers structure for Ioadbearing purposes has its origin in nature. The structure of a tree consists of long strong cellulose fibers bonded together with a protein-like substance called lignin; the fibers run up the trunk of the tree along the branches which are the directions of the principal stresses. Wood remains one of mans major structural materials and one might expect therefore that structural engineers should be well acquainted with the use of fibers reinforced materials in design. A wide range of materials in fibrous form is used to make plastic stronger, stiffer or tougher. In addition to this reinforcing role, some of these fibers also posses other properties which are of value, such as low density, electrical conductivity or heat resistance. With the right combination of fibers material, fabric construction, resin matrix and processing method, components can be manufactured whose properties are tailored to their application, if, in addition, the fibers are aligned in the direction of the principal stress, the reinforcing fibers can be fully exploited. The first fibers to be used for reinforcement of a plastic for aircraft structures was flax, used with phenolic resin to make Gordon Aerolite in the 1940s. The four reinforcing fibers in current extensive use for aircraft structures are aramid, boron, carbon and glass fibers. In aircraft structures carbon fibers are the most widely used, often in combination with aramid or glass fibers. Boron fibers are being displaced by carbon fibers, which are cheaper. In the USA carbon fibers are frequently called graphite fibers.

FIBERS FORMS All these fibers, except boron which is produced as a single large- diameter filament, are produced as bundles of fine filaments which can be converted into unidirectional tapes, woven or knitted fabrics, papers and mats or chopped into short lengths (staple). TOWS, ROVINGS AND YARNS The bundles of fine filaments are given different names according to the detail of the manufacturing process. For aramid and carbon fibers the material is made as a loose bundle of filaments without twist, consisting of hundreds or thousands of filaments, which is called a tow. Glass fibers is made as strands of 102 or 204 filaments which are assembled together, without twist, into rovings, or twisted together into yarns. The protective twist gives a filament yarn good processing characteristics with good resin takeup. A number of yarns twisted together are called a plied yarn. A plied yarn is more compact and denser, but has slightly lower resin take-up. The individual, thin filaments are manufactured in a continuous spinning process from a melt or a solution. The diameter of the filaments affects the strength and processing characteristics of a yarn. Normal filament diameters are: F-glass 4-17 pm Carbon 5-7 pm Aramid 12pm

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TOWS, ROVINGS AND YARNS (CONTINUATION) For the greater protection the yarns are coated with a size which normally consists of a film-forming medium and a lubricant, this size protects the yarn from mechanical damage during the weaving process of the yarn. There are two basic types of size: textile size and plastic size. The textile size consists of starch and oils which inhibits the adhesion between the yarn and the resin. The composition of textile sizes is normally such that the fabric can be desized thermally or with appropriate liquids. Plastic sizes also contain a coupling agent (finish). This reduces the protective effect of the textile size and the workability of the yarn, it promotes bonding between the yarn and resin formulation. For maximum adhesion and strength fabrics are treated with a coupling agent specially adapted to each type of matrix material.

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TYPES OF YARN Fabrics made from plastic sized yarns can be used immediately after weaving, without desizing or any additional treatment. Finished fabrics (treated with a coupling agent) are softer and smoother. In the laminating process they can be impregnated more thoroughly and more quickly. Also the finished fabrics offer better drapability. The following types of yarn are in current use: SINGLES YARN Singles yarn is manufactured from a single spun yarn. Usually, a single yarn is given a slight twist (protective twist) of about 10 -40 turns per meter. PLIED YARN Plied yarn comprises two or more singles or assembled yarns which are twisted together (about 100-200 turns). ASSEMBLED YARN Assembled yarn comprises two or more threads which are wound together but not twisted. ROVING Roving consists of one or more thrads which are assembled in parallel into a strand without twisting. STAPLE FIBERS YARNS Staple fibers yarns consist of fibers are bound together by twisting. Normal fibers length range from a few centimeters for synthetic materials to several decimeters for glass fibers. TEXTURISED YARNS Texturised yarns are those which have undergone a mechanical operation designed to increase their volume and give them bulk.

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TAPES UNIDIRECTIONAL Woven unidirectional tapes have the tows or rovings in the warp lengthwise) direction held together by widely spaced weft threads, generally of a very fine yarn of polyester or glass fibers. Unidirectional tape gives high strength in one direction, but it is weak in the weft direction. Non woven tapes consist of tows or rovings laid side-byside without gaps. To hold the filament in position they are impregnated with a resin, which is partially cured to make it thick and viscous. To prevent the resin sticking to other layers of tape it is covered with release paper. A tape is normally limited to a maximum width of about 300 mm. WOVEN FABRICS Numerous weaves have been developed by the textile industry for fashion fabrics but only three basic weaves are commonly used for the advanced reinforcing fibers: plain (square) twill satin. PLAIN WEAVE In plain weave each warp and weft thread passes over one end or pick and under the next. (An end is the warp thread; a pick is a weft thread). The plain weave consists of a basic weave pattern. The fabric is easy to handle due to good dimensional stability and minimal fraying when cut. TWILL WEAVE In twill weave each end and pick floats over two, sometimes four, crossing threads. a pattern of diagonal lines is produced on the face of the cloth. The twill weave give greater mechanical strength and stiffness of the laminate due to limited thread deflection. The deflection of the thread is called the crimp. These fabrics are more pliable and thus better suited to shaped parts than plain weaves. SATIN WEAVE In satin weave each pick floats over all but one of the ends. This gives a smooth surface and even higher tensile strength. The satin weave has even less thread deflection than the twill weave. The drapability is very good and thus suited for shaped parts with very small radii.

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CHOPPED STRAND MAT In a chopped strand mat the rovings are chopped into short length, say 5 cm, and bonded together in random directions to form a mat. You may have seen it in car repair kits. These mats are available in a range of weights, for instance one square meter of a mat may weight between 250 g and 600 g depending on the depth of fibers used. The mat gives equal properties in all directions, and it is easy to use. It is not as strong as woven cloths, because the fibers are short. SURFACING MAT When a good surface finish is needed, this mat is used. It is similar to chopped strand mat, but it is very fine, and a typical mat would be 0.3 mm thick. MIXED FABRIC Mixed fabrics consist of two different types of fibers. One type of material will be used for the warp and the other kind of material will be used for the weft. This means, for example, that a less expensive glass yarn can be used in the weft of an unidirectional carbon fibers fabric, if the rigidity of the more expensive carbon fibers is not essential in this direction. HYBRID FABRICS In hybrid fabrics, both the warp and the weft consist of different types of fibers. By combining different fibers it is possible to produce a fabric with the best characteristics of each. For example, the impact strength of aramid fibers can be combined with the rigidity of carbon fibers or the compressive strength of glass fibers.

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GLASS FIBERS A number of different glass compositions are used to provide particular properties: A-glass, the material used for windows, is now obsolete for fibers but was cheap and had good acid resistance. The need for special electrical properties for radome applications led to the development of E-glass which is now the variety produced on the largest scale. C-glass was developed for its chemical resistance; D-glass is an improved electrical grade for modern radomes S- or R-glass, the American and European version, for higher strength and modulus E-glass for reinforcement of plastics. Glass fibers are produced from molten glass by drawing it through bushings having, normally 102 or 204 holes, at high speed thus stretching the filament reducing the diameter. The filaments cool very rapidly by radiation and convection before being treated with a size which prevents the filaments from abrading each other as they come together to form a strand. This is wound into a package which is dried and baked. Depending on the intended use for the glass fibers, a plastic or a textile size may be used. 10

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PROPERTIES OF GLASS FIBERS Mechanical properties Glass fibers have great strength combined with low thermal expansion and low specific gravity. Electrical properties Due to high specific resistance and the high dielectric strength, glass ideal for insulation of electrical conductors. Thermal properties Glass fibers are incombustible. However, if fabrics are finished with organic materials, the fire performance changes. Glass fabrics have a high residual strength after subjection to high temperatures. Chemical properties Glass is resistant to oil, grease and solvents and also to acids and alkaline with pH values of between 3 and 9. Acids remove certain atoms from the glass surface which causes brittleness. Alkalis gradually erode the surface of the glass. Tools Glass fibers fabrics can be cut with standard tools. Storage Glass fibers fabrics should be stored in a cool and dry place to prevent the absorption of humidity. 11

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CARBON FIBERS Carbon fibers are made commercially from two precursors: PAN (polyacrylonitrile) and pitch (from either oil or coal). PAN BASED CARBON FIBERS PAN (polyacrylonitrile) precursor must be spun under clean conditions from acrylonitrile polymerized with a comonomer and dissolved in a solvent to form a dope. This must be free from air and particulate matter. It is pumped through a spinnerette into a coagulating bath which removes the solvent leaving solid PAN filaments. The spinnerette may have up to 320,000 holes in it to produce a tow of continuous filaments. This tow is stretched while hot, washed, dried and either wound on to spools or, for the larger 160,000 and 320,000 filament tows, crimped and laid into boxes. Carbon fibers for technical applications are manufactured by thermal treatment of the PAN precursor, in three temperature stages; oxidation at 200 - 300C carbonization at 800 - 1500C graphitization at 2000 - 3000C The last two processes will be carried out in an inert gas atmosphere. Dependant on the method of treatment (temperature & time), the carbon fibers are produced with varying mechanical properties. 13 Carbon fibers are classified a HT - fibers (High Tenacity): These are very strong due to their high elongation at break. IM - fibers (Intermediate Modulus): These have a higher E - Modulus and a considerable elongation at break. HM - fibers (High Modulus): These have a very high E - Modulus with low elongation at break.

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PITCH BASED CARBON FIBERS Pitch from oil or coal is the second important precursor for carbon fibers. It was originally hoped that the use of a by-product material available cheaply would result in the cost of carbon fibers being reduced considerably. The present position is that The cost of cleaning and converting the pitch into a suitable form for the manufacture of fibers offsets the low raw material cost. However, pitch-based fibers can have different properties; they can achieve higher tensile modulus values and have a higher electrical conductivity, for example. Until recently, pitched-based fibers were weaker than PANbased at the same modulus but this is changing. For aircraft, where weight is critical, the important comparison is between specific strength and specific modulus.

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LIGHTNING PROTECTIVE METHODS FOR CARBON COMPOSITE MATERIAL WIRE MASH Wire mash is used as a lightning strike protective method for conductive carbon composite material, especially on engine fairings/ cowlings. WIRE MASH PROPERTIES Aluminium wire diameter up to 0.008 inch (0:203 mm) located on 0.125 inch (3.175 mm) centers. Aluminum incompatible with carbon composites Fibreglass scrim cloth may be sandwiched between mesh and carbon to prevent corrosion Protects carbon composites from particle erosion Weight penalty Difficult to install on contoured surfaces Increases erosion resistance Must be used on outermost surface layer only Can be painted

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PROPERTIES OF CARBON FIBERS Thermal properties Carbon fibers has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, which gives carbon fibers composite materials a very good dimensional stability. Carbon fibers are not combustible. Without oxygen, they are stable at about 3000C and in the presence of oxygen, oxidation occurs at about 400C with a loss of strength. Electrical properties Non - magnetic, pervious to X - rays, good electrical conductivity. Mechanical properties The strength of carbon fibers exceed those of most metals and other fibers materials. The low density (1.76 g/cm3) produces excellent specific strength characteristics. The elongation is fully elastic. Resistance to fatigue stress is excellent. Carbon fibers are the ideal material for high tech applications. Chemical properties Carbon fibers are chemically very inert (nonreactive). The fibers are high resistance to most acids, alkalis and solvents. Carbon fibers absorb virtually no water. Tools Carbon fibers fabrics can be cut with standard tools. For working on cured parts, laminates hard steel and diamond tipped tools are required. 17 Storage Carbon fibers fabrics should be stored in a cool and dry place. Carbon fibers are coated with a plastic size which is ideal for epoxy resins and which permits textile processing. They are processed both with and without a protective twist, depending on the application and processing method. Carbon fibers are chemically inert and therefore present no danger to health. However, the size applied to the yarns may lead to skin irritation. Protective clothing should therefore be worn as a precaution. Unlike asbestos, the size and structure of fibrous fine dust is not critical. Due to the good electrical conductivity of the carbon fibers, the carbon fibers and carbon fibers dust should not come in contact with electrical equipment.

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ARAMID FIBERS The term ARAMID is the abbreviation of an ARomatic polyAMiDe. Aramid is manufactured by spinning from a polymer solution and subsequent surface treatment. In addition to that, high modulus fibers are mechanically stretched. The use of Aramid fibers makes sense where weight saving is at the premium. In addition, aramid fibers are used in plastics subject to impact and abrasion (e.g. for protecting leading edges of aircraft control surfaces against hail impact, etc.) There are two varieties of aramid material: META-ARAMID Meta aramid paper, best known by its trade name Nomex (Dupont), is widely converted into a honeycomb core material for sandwich structures for aircraft flooring panels, galleys and pallets. Also, Meta aramid, due to its more textile character, is used in fire resistant fabrics. PARA-ARAMID Para aramid fibers are available from several manufacturers, the best known being Duponts Keviar range. Dupont were the inventors of the para-aramid materials. The grade of para-aramid fibers of interest for composites is that with the highest modulus. The low modulus grade is used for ropes, protective clothing and as an alternative to asbestos. A third grade is used for reinforcing tyres and conveyor belts. It is often advantageous to use a mixture of carbon and aramid fibers in a composite; the carbon provides a high modulus and compressive strength while the aramid provides toughness and reduced density. The toughness of aramid fibers makes the material very difficult to cut or break. Special tools have been developed for cutting aramid composites and fibers cleanly.

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PROPERTIES OF ARAMID FIBERS Mechanical Properties The high tensile strength, the high E modulus and the low density of Aramid, produce excellent specific characteristics. Good vibration damping properties, high energy absorption, toughness and low material fatigue. Electrical properties Aramids are good insulators and have good dielectric constants, so that they can be used in both in printed circuit boards and for cable insulation. Thermal properties Aramid will burn, but extinguish themselves once the flame is removed. The fibers do not melt and exhibit good flame retarding behaviour. Aramid fibers have a low coefficient of thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity. Chemical properties Aramids are resistant to solvents, fuels, lubricants, salt water etc., but they are attacked by some strong acids and akalis. They are also resistant to attack from fungi and bacteria. Tools Aramid fibers fabrics must be cut with special tools (e.g. fine toothed scissors), as normal tools will soon become blunt and cause serious fraying of the cut edges Aramid fibers laminates require special tools which have special cutting geometries as compared with metal processing tools. Storage Aramid fabrics should be stored in a cool and dry place, especially aramid fabrics due to their high moisture absorption of up to 7%. Only aramid fibers fabrics with a moisture content of less than 4% should be used in laminates. Aramid fibers fabrics with a higher moisture content can be dried at 120C. The mechanical properties of aramid are impaired by exposure to ultraviolet light, which also can cause colour changes. Aramid fibers fabrics therefore should be protected from light during storage. Once in the laminate, the fibers are protected by the resin.

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PREPREG A major group of laminates is formed using a dry resin process known as preimpregnation. Pre-impregnation (prepreg) is a process whereby fibers cloth is wet with a resinous formulation. The resin is partially cured to a Bstage, forming the dry prepreg. PREPREG PRODUCTION Glass cloth is dipped in a solution of formulated resin. The wet cloth is past through an oven where solvents are evaporated and the resin is partially cured. The B-staged product, or the prepreg, is wound on to a take-up roll and stored. AEROSPACE PREPREG Prepreg from woven or unidirectional reinforcement is commonly used to manufacture structural composites in the airframe industry. Application in which prepreg is used, as opposed to hand lay-up or other machine-type operations, are usually high value, high performance end uses. The manufacturing cost and quality control necessary to make a consistent product restricts the number of applications where prepreg is the chosen method to produce a laminate. The structural prepregs are made with a one-component epoxy! hardener formulation. Usually, the resins chosen are of the high performance, multi- functional type. 20 Prepreg formulation must take into consideration viscosity, cure rate and stability of the one-component resin system. For aircraft applications, the finished prepreg must have the proper tack and drape properties. Prepreg with proper tack will stick to it- self or a vertical surface after applying a small amount of pressure. Proper drape implies the capability of the prepreg to conform to a multiple contoured mold without bridging. Prepregs are formulated with latent epoxy hardiness, they are usually shipped under refrigeration since only a small advancement of the cure reaction can alter tack and drape qualities. The prepreg is typically supplied on rolls. Structural parts, such as ailerons or stabilizers on aircraft, are made by unrolling and cutting a predetermined length of prepreg and laying up the part layer by layer until the required laminate thickness is reached. Often, successive plies have different orientations to insure strength in the proper directions.

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AEROSPACE PREPREG (CONTINUATION) Prepregs have to be cured in an enclosed vacuum bag. This removes a large amount of entrapped air between layers of the prepreg. Next, the part is placed in an autoclave where heat and pressure are applied to further reduce voids and complete the cure of the formulated epoxy system. An alternative to an autoclave is a hot-bonder. A hotbonder is only sufficient for small repairs.

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CORE MATERIALS Where weight is critical as in aircraft parts, it is preferable to use a sandwich construction where the outside surface, in which the highest tensile and compressive stresses occur, are held apart by a core of much lighter material. This material could be for example: Honeycomb plastic foam balsa wood thixotropic filled resin Bonded honeycomb sandwich construction has been a basic structure concept in the aerospace industry for the last thirty years. Virtually every aircraft flying today depends upon the integrity and reliability offered by this structural approach. The capability of the concept has been proven and is now widely accepted. As a result of this history of success, a growing interest has developed in the use of honeycomb sandwich for a broad range of commercial applications. For the designer, honeycomb is a structural material whose unique characteristics can be used to create new products, and solve design problems. Honeycomb is a series of hexagonal cells, nested together to form panels similar in appearance to a cross-sectional slice of a beehive. Because honeycomb can be produced from almost any material available in continuous web or roll form, the extent to which honeycombs characteristics can be used to advantage is unlimited. Honeycomb, in its expanded form, is 90 to 99 percent open space. The basic geometry of honeycomb provides six primary characteristics. Each characteristic can be combined with the qualities inherent in the material selected to form the honeycomb.

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SIX BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HONEYCOMB: Highest strength-to-weight ratio as a sandwich core Highest stiffness-to-weight ratio as a sandwich core. Predictable and uni-form crushing strength under compression. Thermal, acoustical, and fluid directionalizing versatility. Excellent sandwich fatique resistance. Extremely high ratio of exposed surface area to total volume

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PROPERTIES OF HONEYCOMB Honeycomb is best known for its structural applications. Many of its properties also can be used to great advantage in non-structural applications. Structural applications When a honeycomb core is rigidly attached between two faces of a sandwich panel, the resulting structure is capable of the highest strength-to- weight and rigidity-toweight ratios presently obtainable by ordinary design methods. Missiles, spacecraft and aircraft rely heavily upon the unique structural properties of honeycomb in airframes as well as ground support equipment. These structural properties also are used in a great variety of commercial applications ranging from production master tools and subway and railway car components to exterior curtain walls for high-rise buildings. Product designer find sandwich structures to be a new design approach, rather than just a new structural material. The flexibility and versatility of sandwich structures can solve many design problems.

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PROPERTIES OF HONEYCOMB IN STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS Thermal Honeycomb is available for a wide range of temperature exposures. Aluminium honeycomb, made from alloy 2024, has been used for service temperatures up to 420F. Stainless steel and nickel alloy honeycombs are useful in even higher temperature environments. Fibersglass reinforced phenolic honeycomb has excellent thermal stability and has been used from sub zero temperatures up to 400F service. Polyimides resins extend the upper limit to about 500F with short time exposures up to 600F. Good mechanical properties result in extensive use of non-metallic honeycomb in aircraft and missile structures operating within such temperature ranges. New products under development, such as ceramics, can extend this upper range. Fatigue resistance Bonded honeycomb sandwich has replaced riveted structures which were subject to high-energy, sonic vibration in jet aircraft. Stress concentration is minimized when loads are distributed evenly in this type of bonded structure, and, as a result, operating life is increased by several orders of magnitude. While Fatigue resistance is relative to operating conditions and design, all studies show honeycomb structures resist Fatigue loading to extents which are far superior to alternative design methods. Rigidity As with Fatigue resistance, rigidity is a design sensitive characteristic. However, the nature of a honeycomb sandwich allows design of low deflection structures at minimum weight. Where smooth reflective surfaces of extremely low deflection and high accuracy are required, honeycomb sandwich is a widely used design approach. Applications range from mammoth ground support radar equipment through solar energy concentrators to small, specialized reflectors for spacecraft.

Electrical Electrical and mechanical properties of glassfibers reinforced plastic honeycomb have led to standard use of the material in both airborne and ground radomes. These structures must withstand high loads which require considerable core strength and they must serve as efficient radar windows without attenuating or distorting transmissions

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PROPERTIES OF HONEYCOMB IN STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS (CONTINUATION) Environmental Stability Because honeycomb core exhibits all of the physical properties of the material from which it made, the choice of material dictates its performance in structural and nonstructural exposure. A protective coating is applied to aluminium honeycomb to give excellent corrosion resistance. The effectiveness of the coating has been documented by extensive testing under condition of high humidity and salt spray. Several types of paper, films and fibrous sheet materials are available in honeycomb form which are resistant to a wide range of chemicals including mild acid and caustic solutions. In addition, graphite and some aramid cores exhibit excellent coefficients of thermal expansion.

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NON-STRUCTURAL APPLICATION Energy absorption An extremely effective mechanical-energy absorber, honeycomb may be used to control forces exerted on decelerating objects. Materials such as sponge, solid rubber, foams, cork and paper wadding generally exhibit spring characteristics with the attendant rebound problem. Aluminium, aramid and stainless steel honeycomb, however, have the unique property of failing at a constant load while completely dissipating energy otherwise released in rebound. The threshold at which compressive failure begins can be eliminated by prestressing honeycomb core to produce slight initial compressive failure. Exposed to further loading, the pre-stressed core carries the crushing load at a near-linear rate. Directionalizing The parallel cell orientation of expanded honeycomb allows it to directionalize air and fluid flow. Honeycombs slight cell edge exposure minimizes pressure loss when liquids or gasses pass through it. Typical directionalizing applications include grilles, registers and wind-tunnel straightening vanes where honeycomb, properly placed, encourages higher velocities while reducing turbulence. 30 Heat exchange The extremely high ratio of surface area to unit volume provided by honeycomb offers many possibilities in heat exchange applications ranging from air conditioners to large industrial cooling towers. Materials available for heat exchangers include aluminium and stainless steel alloys. .

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HONEYCOMB FABRICATION Honeycomb is produced from various aluminium alloys: glass fabric/resin composite: aramid paper (Nomex) /phenolic resin and cellulose papers with resin impregnation. Two manufacturing processes are used. One is the expansion process and the other is the corrugation process. Expansion process The expansion process is the most commonly used for light-weight honeycomb. It involves stacking sheets of aluminium foil on top of each other, with lines of adhesive which have been printed onto it and curing the adhesive. This block is then expanded so that the aluminium foil between the bonded strips will form cells, which, depending on the amount of expansion, can be hexagonal or rectangular. Corrugation process The corrugation process is used for thick materials for high density cores. Sheets of aluminium foil are corrugated between rolls, adhesive is applied to the tops of the corrugation and the sheets are stacked, cured and expanded.

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HEXAGONAL CORE The standard hexagonal honeycomb core is the basic and most common cellular honeycomb configuration. Currently available in all metallic and nonmetallic combinations. OX-CORE The OX configuration is a hexagonal honeycomb core that has been over- expanded in the W direction, providing a rectangular cell configuration which facilitates curving or forming in the L direction. The OX process increases W shear properties and decreases L shear properties when compared to hexagonal honeycomb. FLEX CORE Flex core is an extremely flexible configuration that allows the core to be formed to complex curvatures. Curvatures of very tight radii are easily formed. Flex core seems to provide higher shear strength than comparable hexagonal core of equivalent density. Flex core can be manufactured in most of the materials from which hexagonal honeycomb is made. TUBE CORE The tube core configuration provides a uniquely designed energy absorption system when the space envelope requires a thin wall column or small diameter cylinder. The design eliminates the loss of crush strength that occurs at the unsupported edges of conventional honeycomb. Tube core is constructed of alternate sheets of flat aluminium foil and corrugated aluminium foil wrapped around a mandrel and adhesively bonded.

CORROSION-RESISTANT HONEYCOMB Corrosion resistant honeycomb is available in a lowcost commercial grade and highly developed family of military specification grades. Commercial grade honeycomb, offers product designers the advantages of an all-metal honeycomb with long service life and excellent resistant to moisture. Military grade aluminium honeycomb - 5052,5056 and 2024 alloys- is available in a wide range of cell sizes and foil gauges. These can be combined to assure the specific mechanical properties required to fabricate precision-engineered structural components.

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FIBERSGLASS REINFORCED CORE Fibersglass reinforced core is produced from impregnated woven glass cloth post-dipped in a resin. It combines low dielectric constant and loss tangent properties with high strength, properties that account for it use in aircraft radomes. These honeycomb materials have found wide use as structural cores because of their excellent mechanical properties When subjected to elevated temperatures or cyclic heat exposure. The versatility of glass- reinforced honeycomb is enhanced by its availability with either conventional and elevated temperatures-resistant resins, such as phenolics and polyimides. Reinforced plastic honeycomb is also furnished in overexpanded and Flex-core form, which allows greater flexibility in forming curved parts. ARAMID FIBERS CORE Aramid fibers core produced from an aramid fibers sheet, exhibits excellent toughness and chemical and temperature resistance. A variety of resin treatments for this honeycomb is available. Aramid-type honeycomb is strong, resilient, resists impact and will not burn. It is quite flexible and can be easily handled, formed and machined. Because of this characteristics, it has found wide acceptance in sandwich panels for aircraft interiors and flooring, radomes helicopter blades, wing to body fairings, antennae and ship partition. For optimum flexibility, this core type also is available in over- expanded and flex core configurations.

WR II SHELTER CORE ( Hexcel trademark) It is a highly water-resistant core, produced from special chemicals and polymers to impart anti-water migration characteristics and excellent mechanical properties. Shelter core can be bonded with basic adhesive systems to any facing material to create low cost I highstrength panels. Originally developed for constructing air-transportable military shelters, WR II has also been used in fabricating electronic equipment enclosures, light utility buildings and cargo containers. SPECIALIZED CORES They have been developed to bring the outstanding properties of Keviar to honeycomb cores, especially its thermal stability. When used in conjunction with graphite facing, the resulting sandwich structure remains extremely stable under cyclic heat and cold exposure. The core material has been used successfully in radome and antennae fabrication for space satellites. Graphite honeycomb has been manufactured from advanced composite fabrics and tapes.

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FABRICATION PROCESSES The fabrication of laminated fibrous composites involves many distinct operations. Some fabrication methods like braiding and pultrusion are only suitable for limited applications. Cost is an important factor to consider whenever various types of technology are relatively evaluated. A few of the many questions that should be asked when selecting a fabrication method are: Does the method require a large part count to be profitable (e.g., compression molding) ? Does the method require large investments in equipment or tools (e.g., compression molding)? Are there extreme limitations to the part configurations that can be fabricated by the method (e.g., pultrusion, filament winding) ? Is the method labor intensive (e.g., autoclave, vacuum bag molding)? Is the selection of materials limited by the process (e.g., injection molding)? Does the method require highly trained technicians to operate the equipment (e.g., autoclave molding)? Are the finished parts consistent in dimension and quality (e.g., compression molding) ? The described fabrication methods are: Vacuum Bag Processing Autoclave Processing Honeycomb Sandwich Fabrication Expansion Tool Molding Compression Molding Filament Winding Pultrusion Braiding Vacuum Bag Processing

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HEXAGONAL CORE The standard hexagonal honeycomb core is the basic and most common cellular honeycomb configuration. Currently available in all metallic and nonmetallic combinations. OX-CORE The OX configuration is a hexagonal honeycomb core that has been over- expanded in the W direction, providing a rectangular cell configuration which facilitates curving or forming in the L direction. The OX process increases W shear properties and decreases L shear properties when compared to hexagonal honeycomb. FLEX CORE Flex core is an extremely flexible configuration that allows the core to be formed to complex curvatures. Curvatures of very tight radii are easily formed. Flex core seems to provide higher shear strength than comparable hexagonal core of equivalent density. Flex core can be manufactured in most of the materials from which hexagonal honeycomb is made. TUBE CORE The tube core configuration provides a uniquely designed energy absorption system when the space envelope requires a thin wall column or small diameter cylinder. The design eliminates the loss of crush strength that occurs at the unsupported edges of conventional honeycomb. Tube core is constructed of alternate sheets of flat aluminium foil and corrugated aluminium foil wrapped around a mandrel and adhesively bonded.

CORROSION-RESISTANT HONEYCOMB Corrosion resistant honeycomb is available in a lowcost commercial grade and highly developed family of military specification grades. Commercial grade honeycomb, offers product designers the advantages of an all-metal honeycomb with long service life and excellent resistant to moisture. Military grade aluminium honeycomb - 5052,5056 and 2024 alloys- is available in a wide range of cell sizes and foil gauges. These can be combined to assure the specific mechanical properties required to fabricate precision-engineered structural components.

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VACUUM BAG PROCESSING Vacuum bag processing utilizes a flexible film or rubber bag that covers the part lay-up. The bag permits the evacuation of air to apply atmospheric pressure. The use of vacuum bag pressure alone as a consolidation technique is widespread, being second only to autoclave processing. The primary limitation of vacuum bag processing is the limited pressure that can be applied. Autoclave processing has the flexibility of applying much higher pressures that are required to consolidate many sophisticated engineering materials. The bag that is used in vacuum bag processing achieves two objectives: It provides a means for removing volatiles during cure in a convection heated oven; It provides a means for the application of a pressure of one atmosphere, which is adequate for some materials. When individual plies of prepreg material are hand-formed to the lay-up tool, a certain amount of voids exist between layers. By applying a flexible membrane over the tool, and sealing this material to the tool, a vacuum can be drawn on the plies, resulting in a pressure of up to 15 psi on the layup. The requirements for proper bagging are: The bag must be impervious to air passage The bag must uniformly apply the cure pressure 38 The bag (and the tooling surface) must not leak under oven conditions. A good, high capacity vacuum path must be provided to evacuate air from between the bag and the tool. Two types of bagging methods are presently in use. The most common method uses a disposable bag made of nylon or Kapton polyimide - film The other method involves the use of silicone rubber bags that are reusable. The advantages and disadvantages of the two bagging systems are presented below: A reusable bag is usually molded to the particular part configuration resulting in less labor time required to bag the part. A disposable bag requires extensive hand labor to remove wrinkles and prevent the bridging effects that can cause areas of the lay-up to contain voids. A reusable bag requires an exterior framework to clamp the bag in place. This requires a more complex tool than is required for the disposal bag method. Disposable bags are more susceptible to pin hole leaks and edge sealing problems than the reinforced reusable bags.

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VACUUM BAG PROCESSING (CONTINUATION) The use of the vacuum bag is unchanged irrespective of whether autoclave or vacuum bag processing is used. The only major difference between the two processes is the amount of pressure applied. The vacuum bag process achieves a maximum pressure of only 15 psi. The autoclave process can achieve pressures in excess of 100 psi. The achievable temperatures are dependent on the capabilities of the curing oven.

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AUTOCLAVE PROCESSING Autoclave processing utilizes a pressure chamber to apply heat and pressure to the composite lay-up during the consolidation/cure cycle Autoclave curing is the most common method of fabrication utilized in the aerospace industry, to produce composite structural parts. The autoclave process is an economical method for the fabrication of extremely high quality parts, and accommodates a large variety of part configurations. The primary disadvantage of autoclave processing is the high initial acquisition cost of an autoclave and the high recurring operating costs. The advantage is the use of simple, one surface tooling to produce parts with complex configuration and very large sizes. The type of prepreg material and the part configuration govern the pressure and temperature reqiurements. Epoxy matrix composites typically use autoclave cure cycles that involve 85-1 00 psi pressures and 350 F temperatures. The autoclave is generally provided with automatic programmable controllers which monitor and maintain the required heat-up and cool-down cycles. The temperature increases in a stair-step fashion. The temperature dwell points allow volatiles to be removed from the matrix prior to gelation, and flow condition the prepreg material for the final cure. The vacuum applied to the bay surrounding the part lay-up is also controlled. The vacuum is discontinued after the initial temperature increase to prevent excess resin flow. 41 The autoclaves used in aircraft part fabrication are generally heated by convection. Natural gas or propane is burned, and a heat exchanger is used to provide heat internally in the autoclave. Temperatures up to 600 F are possible using this technique. The size of the autoclave is highly variable. Many manufacturers have autoclaves in the range of 12 to 15 feet in diameter and 45 to 50 feet in length. The pressure capacity of these autoclaves is generally limited to 200 psi.

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AUTOCLAVE PROCESSING Autoclave processing utilizes a pressure chamber to apply heat and pressure to the composite lay-up during the consolidation/cure cycle Autoclave curing is the most common method of fabrication utilized in the aerospace industry, to produce composite structural parts. The autoclave process is an economical method for the fabrication of extremely high quality parts, and accommodates a large variety of part configurations. The primary disadvantage of autoclave processing is the high initial acquisition cost of an autoclave and the high recurring operating costs. The advantage is the use of simple, one surface tooling to produce parts with complex configuration and very large sizes. The type of prepreg material and the part configuration govern the pressure and temperature reqiurements. Epoxy matrix composites typically use autoclave cure cycles that involve 85-1 00 psi pressures and 350 F temperatures. The autoclave is generally provided with automatic programmable controllers which monitor and maintain the required heat-up and cool-down cycles. The temperature increases in a stair-step fashion. The temperature dwell points allow volatiles to be removed from the matrix prior to gelation, and flow condition the prepreg material for the final cure. The vacuum applied to the bay surrounding the part lay-up is also controlled. The vacuum is discontinued after the initial temperature increase to prevent excess resin flow. 43 The autoclaves used in aircraft part fabrication are generally heated by convection. Natural gas or propane is burned, and a heat exchanger is used to provide heat internally in the autoclave. Temperatures up to 600 F are possible using this technique. The size of the autoclave is highly variable. Many manufacturers have autoclaves in the range of 12 to 15 feet in diameter and 45 to 50 feet in length. The pressure capacity of these autoclaves is generally limited to 200 psi.

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FABRICATION PROCEDURES HONEYCOMB SANDWICH FABRICATION The use of honeycomb core materials is quite common in composite aircraft structures and will continue to be used in new and varied applications. The primary advantage that a honeycomb core offers is an increase in the stiffness of a structure without appreciably increasing its weight. The primary disadvantage in the use of honeycomb constructions is the added control that is required in the fabrication process. Special techniques are required to machine, form, handle, bond and cure honeycomb sandwich panels. An initial step in manufacturing honeycomb sandwich aircraft parts requires cutting the core material to the required shape. Because honeycomb core cells can be easily collapsed by side pressure loads (normal to cell walls), the core must be stabilized in some way to prevent distortion while machining. Polyethylene glycol is a commonly used material for stabilizing metallic cores to prevent movement during machining. Polyethylene glycol is a wax like substance under normal ambient conditions with a low melting temperature. During the preparation of polyethylene glycol, a fluorescein dye is added to facilitate inspection of the core. Molten polyethylene glycol is poured into the core and allowed to solidify, prior to the machining operation. After machining is completed, a hot water rinse melts out the polyethylene glycol. If any of the polyethylene glycol remains in the core, the dye will be detected by a black light. After all traces of polyethylene glycol are removed, the core is placed in an oven to dry. A fiberglass core is generally stabilized for machining by using double- backed tape to attach the core to the mill fixture. Foam can also be used to stabilize a fiberglass core for machining. Precautions must be exercised when handling the core after machining. The core material can easily be stretched out of shape by rough handling or when carried with support on only one side. The cutting tools used to cut the honeycomb core are highly specialized and individual manufacturers will often develop their own blades. The aluminum core cutting process is more of a slicing action than the grinding action in conventional machining, preventing distortion of the core. The fabrication of honeycomb sandwich composite panels is accomplished in three different ways: one-step cure, two-step cure, three-step cure.

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HONEYCOMB SANDWICH FABRICATION (CONT) The one-step cure process employs adhesive type prepregs with controlled flow characteristics, and permits curing the inner skin, core and outer skin, all at once, to form the sandwich. Prepregs with controlled flow properties prevent the loss of matrix into the open cells. The use of a matrix that has a low viscosity during cure would result in a resin starved condition on the skin that is on the top of the assembly during cure. The controlled flow matrix systems stay in a gelatinous or thixotropic state during cure and are not pulled down by gravity into the core. The two-step cure process cures one skin (either outer or inner) to the core in one operation, and then cures the opposite skin to the core in a subsequent operation. This technique enables the manufacturer to use matrix systems that are not of the controlled flow type. However, a film adhesive is required between the skin and the core to assure proper load transfer in the finished structure. The three-step cure process precures one skin, say the outer skin, at pressures as high as 100 psi, cocures the inner skin with the core separately, and finally bonds the precured outer skin with the cocured core/inner skin. A variation on the two- and three-step methods involves machining the core after bonding. The skin is cured with the core and the core is then machined using the skin as the holding fixture.

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PRECURED MATERIAL A precured skin has good properties because it is cured at pressures as high as 100 psi. However, if a skin is cocured with the core, the cure pressure is generally limited to below 50 psi to prevent core crushing, and consequently the skin properties are inferior to those of a precured skin. The one-step cure process is generally a 270 F cure process and is widely used for secondary structures such as commercial aircraft fairings, interiors, radomes, and other applications that do not exceed 180 F service environments. Multiple-step cure processes are associated with structural applications requiring 350 F cure and service temperatures up to 250 F. A precured detail process cures the outer and inner skins separately, at pressures as high as 100 psi, and then bonds the precured skins to the core using an adhesive. It may be viewed as a two-step cure process. The precured skins, however demand an accurate core fit. The one-, two- and three-step processes are more forgiving of the core dimensions since the skins are cured with the core and take on the core shape during cure. If the sandwich construction will have fasteners passing through it, additional steps are taken during fabrication. The core material at the fastener location is replaced by a hard member to prevent crushing of the core at fastener locations. The hard member is generally a solid laminate, an epoxy potting compound, an aluminum bar or a titanium bar. Figure 2-9 shows the mismatch tolerances for hard members in core-containing assemblies. A foam type adhesive is used: in an area where a core butts against a hard member; in panels where a honeycomb core butts against another honeycomb core, as in panels that utilize several pieces of core material; in applications where the core material ends in a narrow wedge, to help stabilize the core during fabrication

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EXPANSION TOOL MOLDING Expansion tool molding utilizes rubber inserts in a metal or epoxy tool that expands when heated to provide the molding pressure. The application of expansion tooling is limited to part configurations with deep channels where the rubber tooling can be utilized. The primary advantage of expansion tooling is its ability to fabricate parts without an autoclave.

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COMPRESSION MOLDING (MATCHED DIE MOLDING) The compression (matched die) molding process utilizes large tonnage presses to compress the prepreg material between two matched steel dies. The present use of compression molding on continuous length fiber composites for aircraft structural parts is limited. However, there are selective applications in the aircraft industry for compression molding. The largest current use of this process is in the fabrication of secondary structural parts that are made of discontinuous length fiber sheet molding compounds (SMC). And, as new controlled flow resin systems, specifically designed for compression molding, are developed, the use of the process will increase. The primary advantage in using the compression molding fabrication process is the ability of producing large numbers of parts rapidly with little, if any, dimensional variations from part to part. An important factor to be considered before deciding to use compression molding, is the high tooling cost and the need for large heated presses.

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FILAMENT WINDING Filament winding is a mechanically automated process for creating parts of relatively simple geometry by wrapping a male tool with filaments impregnated with matrix. The primary aircraft applications for filament winding consist of waste storage tanks and other fluid gas containment vessels. Wide use is made of filament winding in the helicopter industry to produce drive shafts, tail booms and rotor blades. The filament winding process is labeled dry if it utilizes prepreg material and wet if it uses fibers passed through a resin bath. The process is very similar regardless of whether it is wet or dry. The fiber material can be of any continuous length material such as aramid, glass or graphite. The picture shows a typical dry filament winding process where a continuous fiber roving passes through a shuttle which rotates, and the roving is wrapped around a revolving or stationary mandrel. Two basic types of filament winding are in use: the polar or planar method, the high helical pattern winding. The polar or planar method of winding utilizes a fixed mandrel and a shuttle that revolves around the longitudinal axis of the part to deposit longitudinal winding patterns. The mandrel advances one reinforcement band width for each wrap of the mandrel. In the high helical pattern winding, the mandrel rotates while the shuttle traverses back and forth. As the shuttle approaches the ends of the longitudinal axis of the mandrel, the shuttle head rotates to ensure that the reinforcement is laying flat on the highly contoured ends of the mandrel and reverses direction at the same time. Hoop or circumferential winding is accomplished by rotating the mandrel while advancing the shuttle one fiber band width per cylinder revolution. The result is a fiber pattern deposited at 90 to the longitudinal axis of the mandrel. Depending on the design of the part, and the stress requirements, there may be any combination of hoop, longitudinal and helical wraps. Quite often, when external attachments (flanges) are to be attached to the filament wound part, hoop wraps are used to wrap the flanges directly onto the structure.

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PULTRUSION Pultrusion is a mechanically automated process used to create shapes by pulling rovings through a shaped and heated die. The use of pultruded parts in aircraft is limited to specialized applications. The advantage in using the pultrusion method is the ability to manufacture the finished parts at an extremely rapid rate. Practical applications are limited to constant cross section profiles. Pultrusion is used to manufacture constant cross section shapes, generally of the I-beam, box or tube variety. The process utilizes preimpregnated rovings or rovings that are pulled through a resin bath to impregnate the fibers. The use of preimpregnated fibers eliminates the resin bath. The rovings go through a heated die that represents the cross section of the finished part. Curing is accomplished by heating the die and/or microwave curing. The process is continuous and can be used to manufacture extremely long sections. The major limitation of pultrusion for aircraft use the constant cross section requirement. A variation on pultrusion is a process called pulmolding or pulforming. In this process preimpregnated fibers are heated by radio an are drawn into a curved heated die. The curved die rotates on a table causing final forming to take place by closing a corotating male die. The limitation of this pocess for aircraft use is the size capacity of the equipment. The greatest advantage of pultrusion and pulforming is the ability to produce consistent parts at very low cost, and in a short period of time.

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BRAIDING The braiding process involves the weaving of fibers (graphite, steel, glass, etc) into shape by repeatedly crossing them back and forth over a mandrel. The use of braiding in the aircraft industry is generally restricted to nonstructural applications. Traditionally, the braiding process has been utilized extensively for the covering of electrical wires and fuel lines. Recently, actual structures have been fabricted by braiding. The primary advantage that braiding offers is a rapid, automated method for forming an interwoven structure or an overlap of an existing part. The method is a product of textile technology, and usually utilizes equipment adapted from the textile industry

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