Cattle

Cattle (Bos taurus) are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates. They are prominent modern members of the
subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are referred to as Cattle
cows and mature male cattle are referred to as bulls. Colloquially, young female cattle (heifers), young male
cattle (bullocks), and castrated male cattle (steers) are also referred to as "cows".

Cattle are commonly raised as livestock for meat (beef or veal, see beef cattle), for milk and dairy products (see
dairy cattle), and for hides, which are used to make leather. They are used as riding animals and draft animals
(oxen or bullocks, which pull carts, plows and other implements). Another product of cattle is their dung, which The Taurus Project of the
can be used to create manure or fuel. In some regions, such as parts of India, cattle is considered as a sacred German Arbeitsgemeinschaft
animal. Cattle, mostly small breeds such as the Miniature Zebu, are also kept as pets. Biologischer Umweltschutz
aims to re-create the extinct
Different types of cattle are common to different geographic areas. Taurine cattle are found primarily in Europe A brown Swiss
aurochs, Fleckvieh
the wild cow wearing
ancestor of
and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia. Zebus (also called indicine cattle) are found primarily domestic cattle, by cross-
a cowbell
in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia. Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub-Saharan breeding Heck cattle with
Africa. These types (which are sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies) are further divided into Conservation
aurochs-like cattle, status
mostly
over 1,000 recognized breeds. from Southern Europe. Herds
Domesticated
f h b d
Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 wild aurochs progenitors in Scientific classification
central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran.[1] A separate domestication event occurred in the Indian
subcontinent, which gave rise to zebu. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), there are Domain: Eukaryota
approximately 1.5 billion cattle in the world as of 2018.[2] Cattle are the main source of greenhouse gas Kingdom: Animalia
emissions from livestock, and are responsible for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[3][4] In 2009,
Phylum: Chordata
cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome.[5]
Class: Mammalia
Taxonomy Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle
(including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the Indicine or "zebu"; and the extinct Bos Subfamily: Bovinae
primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle.[6] They were later Genus: Bos
reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B.
t. taurus) cattle as subspecies.[7] However, this taxonomy is contentious and some sources prefer the separate Species: B. taurus
species classification, such as the American Society of Mammalogists' Mammal Diversity Database.[8][9] Binomial name

Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid Bos taurus
individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758
africanus x Bos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos –
yaks (the dzo or yattle[10]), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between
taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as
well.[11] The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu
breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak.[12]
However, cattle cannot be successfully hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or
African buffalo.

The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range
Bovine distribution
became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, in about 1627.[13] Breeders
have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated Synonyms
cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed.
Bos primigenius taurus
A group of taurine-type cattles exist in Africa. It is hotly debated whether they represent an independent
domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but it's Bos longifrons
clear that they are genetically quite distinct;[14] some authors choose to name them as a separate subspecies,
Bos taurus africanus.[15] The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N'Dama, Kuri and some varieties
of the West African Shorthorn.[16]

Etymology
Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from
medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin caput 'head'. Cattle
originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land,
which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the
land).[17][18] The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the
economic sense.[19][20][18] The term replaced earlier Old English feoh 'cattle, property', which survives today as fee Żubroń, a wisent and cattle hybrid
(cf. German: Vieh, Dutch: vee, Gothic: faihu).

The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū (plural cȳ), from Common Indo-European gʷōus (genitive gʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf. Persian: gâv,
Sanskrit: go-, Welsh: buwch.[21] The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and an additional plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien,
but also kies, kuin and others. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine. The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is
kye.
In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, cattle refers to livestock, as opposed to deer which refers to wildlife. Wild cattle
may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of cattle is
usually restricted to domesticated bovines.[18]

Terminology
In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here
contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, Ireland and the United States.[22]

An "intact" (i.e., not castrated) adult male is called a bull.

A father bull is called a sire with reference to his offspring.
An adult female that has had a calf (or two, depending on regional usage) is a cow. Steers and heifers are also colloquially referred to as cows.
A mother cow is called a dam with reference to her offspring. Often, mentions of dams imply cows kept in the herd for repeated breeding (as
opposed to heifers or cows sold off sooner).
A young female before she has had a calf of her own[23] and who is under three years of age is called a heifer (/ˈhɛfər/ HEF-ər).[24] A young female
that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf heifer. Heiferettes are either first-calf heifers or a subset thereof without potential to
become lineage dams, depending on whose definition is operative.
Young cattle (regardless of sex) are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas; in other areas,
particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder calves or feeders. After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks[25] if
between one and two years of age.[26]
Feeder cattle or store cattle are young cattle soon to be either backgrounded or sent to fattening, most especially those intended to be sold to
someone else for finishing. In some regions, a distinction between stockers and feeders (by those names) is the distinction of backgrounding
versus immediate sale to a finisher.
A castrated male is called a steer in the United States; older steers are often called bullocks in other parts of the world,[27] but in North America
this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky bulls (uncastrated young male bulls) that were caught, castrated and then later lost.[28] In
Australia, the term Japanese ox is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade.[29]
In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working steers. Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse
steer known as a stag in Australia, Canada and New Zealand.[30] In some countries, an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig.
A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft or riding purposes is called an ox (plural oxen); ox may also be
used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle, such as ox-hide, ox-blood, oxtail, or ox-liver.[24]
A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving.[31]
In all cattle species, a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is called a freemartin.
A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as a micky in Australia.[28]
An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a maverick in the US and Canada.
Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms,
although poll, pollard and polled cattle are still terms in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas also for those that have been
disbudded or dehorned.
Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the American beef cattle industry, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still
used to refer to an animal of either sex. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British people use the term beast.[32]
Cattle bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle;[22] a cow kept to provide milk for one family may be called a house
cow or milker. A fresh cow is a dairy term for a cow or first-calf heifer who has recently given birth, or "freshened."
The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms bull, cow and calf are also used by extension to denote the sex or age of
other large animals, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk and elephants.
Various other terms for cattle or types thereof are historical; these include nowt, nolt, mart, and others.

Singular terminology issue

"Cattle" can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum.[33] Thus one may refer to
"three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". "One head of cattle" is a valid though periphrastic way to refer
to one animal of indeterminate or unknown age and sex; otherwise no universally used single-word singular form
of cattle exists in modern English, other than the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer.
Historically, "ox" was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for working cattle,
especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as the musk
ox and "grunting ox" (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox-hide and
oxtail.[34]
A Finncattle at Särkänniemi in
Cow is in general use as a singular for the collective cattle. The word cow is easy to use when a singular is needed Tampere, Finland
and the sex is unknown or irrelevant—when "there is a cow in the road", for example. Further, any herd of fully
mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate
even in the restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and are used as oxen
or slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the
cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. Merriam-Webster and Oxford Living Dictionaries recognize the sex-
nonspecific use of cow as an alternate definition,[35][36] whereas Collins and the OED do not.

Colloquially, more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Head of cattle is usually used only after a numeral.
Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term beast or cattle beast. Bovine is also used in Britain. The term critter is common in the
western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle.[37] In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian
region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming archaic.

Other terminology

Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term beef (plural beeves)
is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either sex. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows or
milking cows (formerly milch cows). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves.
The term dogies is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West, as in "Keep them dogies moving".[38] In some
places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow". Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot
oil", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter).

A cow's "moo"
0:03

Problems playing this file? See media help.

An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is moo (also called lowing). There are a number of other sounds made by
cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing. Bawling is most common for cows after weaning of a calf. The bullroarer makes a sound similar
to a bull's territorial call.[39]

Characteristics

Anatomy

Cattle are large quadrupedal ungulate mammals with cloven hooves. Most breeds have horns, which can be as
large as the Texas Longhorn or small like a scur. Careful genetic selection has allowed polled (hornless) cattle to
become widespread.

Digestive system

Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the consumption of difficult to
digest plants as food. Cattle have one stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and
abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known Displayed skeleton of a domestic
as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The cow
omasum is known as the "many plies". The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the
"true stomach".

Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food, known as cud chewing, like most ruminants. While
the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the
animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process. The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time,
back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse
vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms
in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into Anatomical model of a cow
volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize
amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in
the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines,
allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other tough vegetation.

Reproduction

On farms it is very common to use artificial insemination (AI), a medically assisted reproduction
technique consisting of the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract.[40] It is used in
cases where the spermatozoa can not reach the fallopian tubes or by choice of the owner of the animal.
It consists of transferring, to the uterine cavity, spermatozoa previously collected and processed, with
the selection of morphologically more normal and mobile spermatozoa. Synchronization of cattle
ovulation to benefit dairy farming may be accomplished via induced ovulation techniques.

Bulls become fertile at about seven months of age. Their fertility is closely related to the size of their
testicles, and one simple test of fertility is to measure the circumference of the scrotum: a young bull is
likely to be fertile once this reaches 28 centimetres (11 in); that of a fully adult bull may be over 40
centimetres (16 in).[41][42]
Reproductive system Ox testes
A bull has a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after of a bovine female
erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection.
Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and
straightening of the sigmoid flexure.[43][44][45]

The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long. The secondary sex ratio – the ratio of male to female offspring at birth – is approximately
52:48, although it may be influenced by environmental and other factors.[46] A cow's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands, (commonly
referred to as teats) creating four "quarters".[47] The front ones are referred to as fore quarters and the rear ones rear quarters.[48]

Weight and lifespan

The weight of adult cattle varies, depending on the breed. Smaller kinds, such as Dexter and Jersey adults, range between 300 and 500 kg (600 and
1,000 lb). Large Continental breeds, such as Charolais, Marchigiana, Belgian Blue and Chianina adults range from 640 to 1,100 kg (1,400 to 2,500 lb).
British breeds, such as Hereford, Angus, and Shorthorn, mature at 500 to 900 kg (1,000 to 2,000 lb), occasionally higher, particularly with Angus
and Hereford. Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–
1,800 lb); the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb).[49] Chianina bulls can weigh up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb); British bulls, such as Angus and
Hereford, can weigh as little as 900 kg (2,000 lb) and as much as 1,400 kg (3,000 lb).

The world record for the heaviest bull was 1,740 kg (3,840 lb), a Chianina named Donetto, when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955.[50] The
heaviest steer was eight-year-old 'Old Ben', a Shorthorn/​Hereford cross weighing in at 2,140 kg (4,720 lb) in 1910.[51]
In the United States, the average weight of beef cattle has steadily increased, especially since the 1970s, requiring the building of new slaughterhouses
able to handle larger carcasses. New packing plants in the 1980s stimulated a large increase in cattle weights.[52] Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only
160 kg (350 lb) net; and thereafter weights climbed steadily.[53][54]

A newborn calf's size can vary among breeds, but a typical calf weighs 25 to 45 kg (55 to 99 lb). Adult size and weight vary significantly among breeds
and sex. Steers are generally slaughtered before reaching 750 kg (1,650 lb). Breeding stock may be allowed a longer lifespan, occasionally living as
long as 25 years. The oldest recorded cow, Big Bertha, died at the age of 48 in 1993.

Cognition

In laboratory studies, young cattle are able to memorize the locations of several food sources and retain this memory for at least 8 hours, although this
declined after 12 hours.[55] Fifteen-month-old heifers learn more quickly than adult cows which have had either one or two calvings, but their longer-
term memory is less stable.[56] Mature cattle perform well in spatial learning tasks and have a good long-term memory in these tests. Cattle tested in a
radial arm maze are able to remember the locations of high-quality food for at least 30 days. Although they initially learn to avoid low-quality food,
this memory diminishes over the same duration.[57] Under less artificial testing conditions, young cattle showed they were able to remember the
location of feed for at least 48 days.[58] Cattle can make an association between a visual stimulus and food within 1 day—memory of this association
can be retained for 1 year, despite a slight decay.[59]

Calves are capable of discrimination learning[60] and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the closed-field
test.[61]

They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals, and among humans. Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar
animals of the same species (conspecifics). Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new
group.[62] Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience, as shown by approaching those who handled them positively
and avoiding those who handled them aversively.[63] Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone, they also use other cues
such as the color of clothes when these are available.[64]

In audio play-back studies, calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother.[65]

In laboratory studies using images, cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species.[66] They are also able to
distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. Furthermore, they are able to categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.[62]

When mixed with other individuals, cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis
of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive
capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.[67]

Cattle can recognize familiar individuals. Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination. It requires the
recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental
representation.[68] By using two-dimensional images of the heads of one cow (face, profiles, 3⁄4 views), all the tested heifers showed individual
recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed. Furthermore, almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from
different breeds, although this was achieved with greater difficulty. Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed
being tested were quite different from the breed in the image, for example, the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted
breed.[69]

Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli.[70] Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left
eye, i.e. using the right brain hemisphere (similar to horses, Australian magpies, chicks, toads and fish) but use the right eye, i.e. using the left
hemisphere, for viewing familiar stimuli.[71]

Senses

Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities. These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns, for example, in grazing
behaviour. Cattle eat mixed diets, but when given the opportunity, show a partial preference of approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This
preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.[72]

Vision

Vision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50% of their information visually. [73]

Cattle are a prey animal and to assist predator detection, their eyes are located on the sides of their head rather
than the front. This gives them a wide field of view of 330° but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to
30° to 50° compared to 140° in humans.[62][74] This means they have a blind spot directly behind them. Cattle
have good visual acuity,[62] but compared to humans, their visual accommodation is poor.[73]

Cattle have two kinds of color receptors in the cone cells of their retinas. This means that cattle are dichromatic, as
are most other non-primate land mammals.[75][76] There are two to three rods per cone in the fovea centralis but
five to six near the optic papilla.[74] Cattle can distinguish long wavelength colors (yellow, orange and red) much
better than the shorter wavelengths (blue, grey and green). Calves are able to discriminate between long (red) and
short (blue) or medium (green) wavelengths, but have limited ability to discriminate between the short and
medium. They also approach handlers more quickly under red light.[77] Whilst having good color sensitivity, it is
not as good as humans or sheep.[62]

A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something
provocative is often said to be "like a red flag to a bull"). This is a myth. In bullfighting, it is the movement of the
red flag or cape that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.[78] Cattle receive about half of their
information visually.

Taste
Cattle have a well-developed sense of taste and can distinguish the four primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter and sour). They possess around 20,000
taste buds. The strength of taste perception depends on the individual's current food requirements. They avoid bitter-tasting foods (potentially toxic)
and have a marked preference for sweet (high calorific value) and salty foods (electrolyte balance). Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them
to maintain optimal ruminal pH.[73]

Plants have low levels of sodium and cattle have developed the capacity of seeking salt by taste and smell. If cattle become depleted of sodium salts,
they show increased locomotion directed to searching for these. To assist in their search, the olfactory and gustatory receptors able to detect minute
amounts of sodium salts increase their sensitivity as biochemical disruption develops with sodium salt depletion.[79][80]

Hearing

Cattle hearing ranges from 23 Hz to 35 kHz. Their frequency of best sensitivity is 8 kHz and they have a lowest threshold of −21 db (re 20 μN/m−2),
which means their hearing is more acute than horses (lowest threshold of 7 db).[81] Sound localization acuity thresholds are an average of 30°. This
means that cattle are less able to localise sounds compared to goats (18°), dogs (8°) and humans (0.8°).[82] Because cattle have a broad foveal fields of
view covering almost the entire horizon, they may not need very accurate locus information from their auditory systems to direct their gaze to a sound
source.

Vocalizations are an important mode of communication amongst cattle and can provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and
reproductive status of the caller. Calves can recognize their mothers using vocalizations; vocal behaviour may play a role by indicating estrus and
competitive display by bulls.[83]

Olfaction and gustation

Cattle have a range of odoriferous glands over their body including interdigital, infraorbital, inguinal and
sebaceous glands, indicating that olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life. Both the primary
olfactory system using the olfactory bulbs, and the secondary olfactory system using the vomeronasal organ are
used.[84] This latter olfactory system is used in the flehmen response. There is evidence that when cattle are
stressed, this can be recognised by other cattle and this is communicated by alarm substances in the urine.[85] The
odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding, whereas the odours of urine from either
stressed or non-stressed conspecifics and blood have no effect.[86]

In the laboratory, cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.[84] Several senses are used in social
relationships among cattle.
In general, cattle use their sense of smell to "expand" on information detected by other sensory modalities.
However, in the case of social and reproductive behaviours, olfaction is a key source of information.[73]

Touch

Cattle have tactile sensations detected mainly by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors in the skin and muscles. These are used most
frequently when cattle explore their environment.[73]

Magnetoreception

There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the
geomagnetic north–south direction.[87] In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines
trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment.[88] However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their
failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.[89]

Behavior
Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in
the first few months of life.[90] Cattle are considered to be "hider" type animals, utilizing secluded areas more in the hours before calving and
continued to use it more for the hour after calving. Cows that gave birth for the first time show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.[91]

In one study, beef-calves reared on the range were observed to suckle an average of 5.0 times every 24 hours with
an average total time of 46 min spent suckling. There was a diurnal rhythm in suckling activity with peaks between
05:00–07:00, 10:00–13:00 and 17:00–21:00.[92]

Reproductive behavior

Semi-wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with Video of a calf suckling
increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of
life is 5%.[93]

Dominance and leadership

One study showed that over a 4-year period, dominance relationships within a herd of semi-wild highland cattle
were very firm. There were few overt aggressive conflicts and the majority of disputes were settled by agonistic
(non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors that involved no physical contact between opponents (e.g. threatening
and spontaneous withdrawing). Such agonistic behavior reduces the risk of injury. Dominance status depended on
age and sex, with older animals generally being dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young
A cow giving birth
bulls gained superior dominance status over adult cows when they reached about 2 years of age.[93]

As with many animal dominance hierarchies, dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank
position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.[93]
Dominance is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is
primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls
and sometimes by cows in estrus,[94] however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.[93]

The horns of cattle are "honest signals" used in mate selection. Furthermore, horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and
have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle. This leads to more stable social relationships.[95]

In calves, the frequency of agonistic behavior decreases as space allowance increases, but this does not occur for changes in group size. However, in
adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increases as the group size increases.[96]

Grazing behavior

When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite
area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study
observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of
the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal
mass/area.[97] Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate
increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.[98]

Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep,[99] but they do not
avoid pasture contaminated by rabbit faeces.[100]

Temperament and emotions

In cattle, temperament can affect production traits such as carcass and meat quality or milk yield as well as
affecting the animal's overall health and reproduction. Cattle temperament is defined as "the consistent behavioral
and physiological difference observed between individuals in response to a stressor or environmental challenge
and is used to describe the relatively stable difference in the behavioral predisposition of an animal, which can be
related to psychobiological mechanisms".[102] Generally, cattle temperament is assumed to be multidimensional.
Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed:[103]

shyness–boldness
exploration–avoidance
activity
aggressiveness
sociability
Ear postures of cows are studied as
In a study on Holstein–Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward, the indicators of their emotional state
researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food. and overall animal welfare.[101]
When the heifers made clear improvements in learning, they had higher heart rates and tended to move more
vigorously along the race. The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to
their own learning improvement.[104]

Negative emotional states are associated with a bias toward negative responses towards ambiguous cues in judgement tasks. After separation from
their mothers, Holstein calves showed such a cognitive bias indicative of low mood.[105] A similar study showed that after hot-iron disbudding
(dehorning), calves had a similar negative bias indicating that post-operative pain following this routine procedure results in a negative change in
emotional state.[106]

In studies of visual discrimination, the position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state.[62] When cattle are stressed other cattle
can tell by the chemicals released in their urine.[85]

Cattle are very gregarious and even short-term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress. When Aubrac and Friesian heifers are
isolated, they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations. These physiological changes are
greater in Aubracs. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline, regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle, however,
heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual.[107] Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in
isolated cattle.[108]

Sleep

The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day.[109] Cattle do have a stay apparatus,[110] but do not sleep standing up;[111] they lie
down to sleep deeply.[112] In spite of the urban legend, cows cannot be tipped over by people pushing on them.[113]

Genetics
On 24 April 2009, edition of the journal Science, a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture
reported having mapped the bovine genome.[114] The scientists found cattle have about 22,000 genes, and 80% of their genes are shared with
humans, and they share about 1000 genes with dogs and rodents, but are not found in humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track
the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields.[115]

Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related.[116] The heritability of fear varies markedly
in cattle from low (0.1) to high (0.53); such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep, probably due to differences in the methods used.[117] The
heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling.[118] Rangeland
assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.[119]
Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both
dairy and beef cattle.[120]

Domestication and husbandry

Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age.

Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos A herd of cows in Punjab.
primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in the Near East
(specifically central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran), giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area
that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line.[121] Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine
line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of
Çayönü Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey and Dja'de el-Mughara in what is now northern Syria.[1]

Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially
of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their
New World descendants.[121] A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa,
Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe.[122] Some researchers have suggested that African taurine
cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from North African aurochsen.[121] Texas Longhorns are a US breed.

Usage as money

As early as 9000 BC both grain and cattle were used as money or as barter (the first grain remains found, considered to be evidence of pre-
agricultural practice date to 17,000 BC).[123][124][125] Some evidence also exists to suggest that other animals, such as camels and goats, may have
been used as currency in some parts of the world.[126] One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price. It
even created the standard pricing. For example, two chickens were traded for one cow as cows were deemed to be more valuable than chickens.[124]

Modern husbandry

Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this
manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with
cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging,
dehorning, loading, medical operations, artificial insemination, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for
agricultural shows and preparations. Also, some cultural differences occur in working with cattle; the cattle
husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by
physical means, such as fences.[127] Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by
selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.[128] This Hereford is being inspected for
ticks. Cattle are often restrained or
Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, and leather. They are less commonly used for conservation grazing, or to
confined in cattle crushes (squeeze
maintain grassland for wildlife, such as in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild
chutes) when given medical
places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and attention.
semidesert. Modern cattle are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less
versatile. For this reason, many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, such as the Jersey dairy breed. In Portugal,
Spain, southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the activity of bullfighting; In many
other countries bullfighting is illegal. Other activities such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in
North America. Bull-leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture (see Sacred Bull), still exists in
southwestern France. In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions
can involve live cattle or cattle carcases in hoof and hook events.

In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to
land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production when raised on
grains.[129] Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to use plant
resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of agriculture. This young bovine has a nose ring
to prevent it from suckling, which is
usually to assist in weaning.
Feral cattle

Feral cattle are defined as being 'cattle that are not domesticated or cultivated'.[130] Populations of feral cattle are known to come from and exist in:
Australia, United States of America,[131] Colombia, Argentina, Spain, France and many islands, including New Guinea, Hawaii (see Hawaiian wild
cattle), Galapagos, Juan Fernández Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), Tristan da Cunha and Île Amsterdam (see Amsterdam Island
cattle),[7] two islands of Kuchinoshima[132] and Kazura Island next to Naru Island in Japan.[133][134] Chillingham cattle is sometimes regarded as a
feral breed.[135] Aleutian wild cattles can be found on the Aleutian Islands.[136] The "Kinmen cattle" which are predominantly found on Kinmen
Island, Taiwan is mostly domesticated while smaller portion of the population is believed to live in the wild due to accidental releases.[137]

Other notable examples include cattle in the vicinity of Hong Kong (in the Shing Mun Country Park,[138] among Sai Kung District[139] and Lantau
Island[140] and on Grass Island[141]), and semi-feral animals in Yangmingshan, Taiwan.[142]

Economy
The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves is veal. Other animal parts are also used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney,
heart and oxtail. Cattle also produce milk, and dairy cattle are specifically bred to produce the large quantities of milk processed and sold for human
consumption. Cattle today are the basis of a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and
represented only 23% of world beef production.[143] Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy cattle, are slaughtered each year for food.[144]
The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production,
and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to
make shoes, couches and clothing, are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in
many developing countries, such as India. Cattle are also used in some sporting games, including rodeo and
bullfighting.

Meat production

Cattle meat production (kt)

Holstein cattle are the primary dairy
Country 2008 2009 2010 2011 breed, bred for high milk production.
Argentina 3132 3378 2630 2497
Australia 2132 2124 2630 2420

Brazil 9024 9395 9115 9030

China 5841 6060 6244 6182

Germany 1199 1190 1205 1170

Japan 520 517 515 500

US 12163 11891 12046 11988

Source: Helgi Library,[145] World Bank, FAOSTAT

About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.[146]

Dairy

Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein-Friesian, are used to produce milk,[147][148] which can be processed into
dairy products such as milk, cheese or yogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk
production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the
milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product.[149] Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed
cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those
methods.[150][151] For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it
generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal.[152] They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before
birth.[148] Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by
each cow. The Holstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has
been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. Around 22 litres per day is average in the
UK.[147][148]
Dairy farming and the
milking of cattle was once
Hides performed largely by hand,
but is now usually done by
Most cattle are not kept solely for hides, which are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are most commonly
machine.
used for leather, which can be made into a variety of products, including shoes. In 2012 India was the world's largest
producer of cattle hides.[153]

Oxen

Oxen (singular ox) are cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males of larger breeds,
although females and bulls are also used in some areas. Usually, an ox is over four years old due to the need for
training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by
trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly
used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact, select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in
teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting, with additional pairs added when more power is required,
sometimes up to a total of 20 or more. Oxen can be trained to respond to a teamster's signals. These signals are
given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks). Verbal commands vary according to dialect and local
Oxen used in traditional ploughing –
tradition. Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury
Karnataka
because they are more sure-footed.

Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. About 11.3 million draft oxen are used in sub-
Saharan Africa.[154] In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head.[155] About half the world's crop production is
thought to depend on land preparation (such as plowing) made possible by animal traction.[156]

Climate change and economics of cattle rearing

Climate change increases heat stress, and even mild heat stress can reduce the yield of cow milk.[157] Some researchers suggest that the already
recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can attributed to persistent increases in heat stress.[158]: 747 In China, daily
milk production per cow is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline
by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg) due to climate change.[159] In male cattle, severe heat can affect both spermatogenesis and the stored spermatozoa, and it
may take up to eight weeks for sperm to become viable again. In females, heat stress negatively affects conception rates as it impairs corpus luteum
and thus ovarian function and oocyte quality. Even after conception, a pregnancy is less likely to be carried to term due to reduced endometrial
function and uterine blood flow, leading to increased embryonic mortality and early fetal loss.[160] Calves born to heat-stressed cows typically have a
below-average weight, and their weight and height remains below average even by the time they reach their first year, due to permanent changes in
their metabolism.[161] Heat stress can also be outright lethal, which is already seen during some heatwaves: in July 1995, over 4000 cattle perished in
the mid-central United States heatwave, and in 1999, over 5000 cattle died during a heatwave in northeastern Nebraska.[160]

By 2017, it was already reported that farmers in Nepal kept fewer cattle due to the losses imposed by a longer hot season.[158]: 747 As of 2022, it has
been suggested that every additional millimeter of annual precipitation increases beef production by 2.1% in the tropical countries and reduces it by
1.9% in temperate ones, yet the effects of warming are much larger. Under SSP3-7.0, a scenario of significant warming and very low adaptation, every
additional 1 °C (1.8 °F) would decrease global beef production by 9.7%, mainly because of its impact on tropical and poor countries. In the countries
which can afford adaptation measures, production would fall by around 4%, but by 27% in those which can't.[162] Only a few exceptions have been
identified to date: for instance, east and south of Argentina may become more suitable to cattle ranching due to climate-driven shifts in rainfall, but a
shift to Zebu breeds would likely be needed to minimize the impact of warming.[163] Other studies suggest that Brahman cattle and its cross-breeds
are more resistant to heat stress than the regular bos taurus breeds,[164] but on a global scale, it is considered unlikely that even more heat-resistant
cattle can be bred at a sufficient rate to keep up with the expected warming.[165]

Population
The cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud
farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of
what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.[166]

For 2013, the FAO estimated global cattle numbers at 1.47 billion.[167] Regionally, the FAO estimate for 2013 includes: Asia 497 million; South
America 350 million; Africa 307 million; Europe 122 million; North America 102 million; Central America 47 million; Oceania 40 million; and
Caribbean 9 million.

As per FAS/USDA 2021 data, India had the largest cattle population in the world in 2021 followed by Brazil and China[168]

India's cattle's population was reported at 305.5 million head in 2021, accounting for roughly 30% of the world's population. India, Brazil and China
accounted for roughly 65% of the world's cattle population in 2021.

It has been estimated that out of all animal species on Earth, Bos taurus has the largest biomass at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely by
Euphausia superba (Antarctic krill) at 379 million tonnes, and Homo sapiens (humans) at 373 million tonnes.[169]

Cattle population [show]

[2]
Region 2009 2013[2] 2016[2] 2018[2] 2021[2]
Brazil 205,308,000 186,646,205 218,225,177 213,523,056 224,602,112

India 195,815,000 194,655,285 185,987,136 184,464,035 193,165,740

United States 94,721,000 96,956,461 91,918,000 94,298,000 93,789,500

European Union 90,685,000 88,001,000 90,057,000 78,566,328 85,545,000

Ethiopia 50,884,004 55,027,080 59,486,667 62,599,736 65,718,708

China 82,625,000 102,668,900 84,523,418 63,417,928 60,522,044

Argentina 54,464,000 52,509,049 52,636,778 53,928,990 53,416,000

Pakistan 33,029,000 26,007,848 42,800,000 46,084,000 51,495,000

Mexico 32,307,000 31,222,196 33,918,906 34,820,271 35,998,615

Australia 27,907,000 27,249,291 24,971,349 26,395,734 24,431,174

Bangladesh 22,976,000 22,844,190 23,785,000 24,086,000 24,545,000

Russia 21,038,000 28,685,315 18,991,955 18,294,228 18,027,172

South Africa 13,761,000 13,526,296 13,400,272 12,789,515 12,232,115

Canada 13,030,000 13,287,866 12,035,000 11,565,000 11,057,929

Others 523,776,000 554,786,000 624,438,000 643,624,689 NA

Environmental impact
Gut flora in cattle include methanogens that produce methane as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle
belch out. The same volume of atmospheric methane has a 72x higher (over 20 years)[170] global warming
potential than atmospheric carbon dioxide.[171][172] Methane belching from cattle can be reduced with genetic
selection, immunization against the many methanogens, rumen defaunation (killing the bacteria-killing
protozoa),[173] diet modification (e.g. seaweed fortification),[174] decreased antibiotic use,[175] and grazing
management, among others.[176][177][178]

A 2013 report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) based on 2005 data states that the livestock
sector is responsible for 14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions, 65% of which is due to cattle.[3] The IPCC estimates
that cattle and other livestock emit about 80 to 93 Megatonnes of methane per year,[179] accounting for an Meat from cattle has the highest
estimated 37% of anthropogenic methane emissions,[180] and additional methane is produced by anaerobic emissions intensity of any
fermentation of manure in manure lagoons and other manure storage structures.[181] Another estimate is 12% of agricultural commodity.
global GHG.[4] While cattle fed forage actually produce more methane than grain-fed cattle, the increase may be
offset by the increased carbon recapture of pastures, which recapture three times the CO2 of cropland used for
grain.[182]

Mean greenhouse gas emissions for different food types[183]

One of the cited changes suggested to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions is intensification of the Food Types Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per gram protein)
livestock industry, since intensification leads to less Ruminant Meat 62
land for a given level of production. This assertion is Recirculating Aquaculture 30
supported by studies of the US beef production Trawling Fishery 26
system, suggesting practices prevailing in 2007
Non-recirculating Aquaculture 12
involved 8.6% less fossil fuel use, 16.3% less
greenhouse gas emissions, 12.1% less water use, and Pork 10
33.0% less land use, per unit mass of beef produced, Poultry 10
than those used in 1977.[185] The analysis took into Dairy 9.1
account not only practices in feedlots, but also feed
production (with less feed needed in more intensive Non-trawling Fishery 8.6
production systems), forage-based cow-calf Eggs 6.8
operations and back-grounding before cattle enter a
Starchy Roots 1.7
feedlot (with more beef produced per head of cattle
from those sources, in more intensive systems), and Wheat 1.2
beef from animals derived from the dairy industry. A Maize 1.2
more controversial suggestion, advocated by George Legumes 0.25
Monbiot in the documentary "Apocalypse Cow", is to
stop farming cattle completely, however farmers often have political power so
Mean land use of different foods[184]
might be able to resist such a big change.[186]
Food Types Land Use (m2·year per 100 g protein)
Lamb and Mutton 185
Significant numbers of dairy, as well as beef cattle, are confined in concentrated Beef 164
animal feeding operations (CAFOs), defined as "new and existing operations which
Cheese 41
stable or confine and feed or maintain for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-
month period more than the number of animals specified"[188] where "[c]rops, Pork 11
vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal Poultry 7.1
growing season over any portion of the lot or facility."[189] They may be designated Eggs 5.7
as small, medium and large. Such designation of cattle CAFOs is according to 3.7
Farmed Fish
cattle type (mature dairy cows, veal calves or other) and cattle numbers, but
Peanuts 3.5
medium CAFOs are so designated only if they meet certain discharge criteria, and
small CAFOs are designated only on a case-by-case basis.[190] Peas 3.4
Tofu 2.2
A CAFO that discharges pollutants is
required to obtain a permit, which Estimated virtual water requirements for various foods (m³ water/ton)[187]
requires a plan to manage nutrient
Hoekstra & Hung Zimmer & Renault
runoff, manure, chemicals,
contaminants, and other wastewater Chapagain & Hoekstra (2003) Oki et al. (2003) Average
(2003) (2003)
pursuant to the US Clean Water
Act.[191] The regulations involving
Beef 15,977 13,500 20,700 16,730
CAFO permitting have been
extensively litigated.[192] Pork 5,906 4,600 5,900 5,470

Cheese 5,288 5,290

Commonly, CAFO wastewater and
manure nutrients are applied to land Poultry 2,828 4,100 4,500 3,810
at agronomic rates for use by forages Eggs 4,657 2,700 3,200 3,520
or crops, and it is often assumed that
Rice 2,656 1,400 3,600 2,550
various constituents of wastewater
and manure, e.g. organic Soybeans 2,300 2,750 2,500 2,520
contaminants and pathogens, will be Wheat 1,150 1,160 2,000 1,440
retained, inactivated or degraded on
the land with application at such Maize 450 710 1,900 1,020
rates; however, additional evidence Milk 865 790 560 740
is needed to test reliability of such
Potatoes 160 105 130
assumptions .[193] Concerns raised
by opponents of CAFOs have
Mean eutrophying emissions (water pollution) of different foods per 100 g
included risks of contaminated water due to feedlot runoff,[194] soil
of protein[184]
erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals,
development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. Food Types Eutrophying Emissions (g PO43-eq per 100 g protein)
coli contamination.[195] While research suggests some of these Beef 365.3
impacts can be mitigated by developing wastewater treatment Farmed Fish 235.1
systems[194] and planting cover crops in larger setback zones,[196] Farmed Crustaceans 227.2
the Union of Concerned Scientists released a report in 2008
Cheese 98.4
concluding that CAFOs are generally unsustainable and externalize
costs.[182] Lamb and Mutton 97.1
Pork 76.4
Another concern is manure, which if not well-managed, can lead to
Poultry 48.7
adverse environmental consequences. However, manure also is a
valuable source of nutrients and organic matter when used as a Eggs 21.8
fertilizer.[197] Manure was used as a fertilizer on about 6,400,000 Peanuts 14.1
hectares (15.8 million acres) of US cropland in 2006, with manure Peas 7.5
from cattle accounting for nearly 70% of manure applications to 6.2
Tofu
soybeans and about 80% or more of manure applications to corn,
wheat, barley, oats and sorghum. [198] Substitution of manure for Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100 g
synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally
of protein[184]
significant, as between 43 and 88 megajoules of fossil fuel energy would
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100 g protein)
be used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous
fertilizers.[199] Beef 343.6
Cheese 165.5
Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment
Pork 142.7
for native herbs and forbs by mimicking the native grazers who they
displaced; in many world regions, though, cattle are reducing Lamb and Mutton 139.0
biodiversity due to overgrazing.[200] A survey of refuge managers on Farmed Crustaceans 133.1
123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife Poultry 102.4
considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by
Farmed Fish 65.9
refuge cattle grazing or haying.[201] Proper management of pastures,
Eggs 53.7
notably managed intensive rotational grazing and grazing at low
Peanuts 22.6
Peas 8.5
Tofu 6.7