Essential Skills for Reading Comprehension

1. Decoding
 a vital step in the reading process.
 relies on an early language skill called phonemic awareness.
 also relies on connecting individual sounds to letters
2. Fluency
 instantly recognize words, including ones you can’t sound out.
 Speeds up the rate at which you can read and understand text.
 also important when you encounter irregular words,
 Word recognition
i. Is the ability to recognize whole words instantly by sight, without sounding them out.
 Fluent readers
i. read smoothly at a good pace.
ii. group words together to help with meaning, and they or you may use the proper tone of voice when reading
 is essential for good reading comprehension.
 main way to help build this skill is through practice reading books.
3. Vocabulary
 The ability to understand what you are reading depends on the list of vocabulary words that you are familiar with.
 Can learn through instruction , through everyday experience and also by reading.
4. Sentence Construction and Cohesion
 the ideas are tied together smoothly and clearly.
 Coherent Devices
i. A. Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase
ii. B. Synonyms
iii. C. Pronouns
iv. D. Transitional Words
v. E. Sentence Patterns
5. Reasoning and Background Knowledge
 helps readers draw inferences, which develops critical thinking skills and makes reading more enjoyable.
 Inference in reading is the ability to understand the meaning of a passage of text without all the information being spelled
out.
6. Working Memory and Attention
 Working memory and attention are both key to learning new information.
 Attention allows information to be taken in.
 Working memory helps the brain make sense of it.

Textual aids

 like advance organizers, diagrams and illustrations

 effective tools that you can use to retain information, organize and represent complex ideas in a visual manner.
 main function is to help present information in concise ways that highlight the organization and relationships of concepts.
 THE USE OF TEXTUAL AIDS(Graphic Organizers)
o Comprehend texts
o Improves memory
o Recognize and assimilate different points of view
o Understand the concept of a part to the whole
o Record relationships
o Clarify and organize ideas

Examples of Textual Aids, Advance Organizers and Non-linear Illustrations

 CONCEPT MAP
o general organizer
o shows a central idea with its corresponding characteristics.
 FLOW CHART OR SEQUENCE CHART
o shows a series of steps or events in the order in which they take place.
o excellent tool for showing the steps necessary to reach a final point.
 COMPARE/CONTRAST OR VENN DIAGRAM
o It is used to identify the similarities and differences between two or more concepts.
o one of the most straightforward ways to present concepts.
o are excellent tools for breaking down complex ideas
 CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM
o highlights the direct relationship between different events or concepts.
o popular type is also referred to as a fishbone or Ishikawa diagram.
 GRAPHS (Pie, Line, Bar)
o a pictorial representation of data in an organized manner.
o usually formed from various data points, which represent the relationship between two or more things.
 opie chart
 a circular graph used to illustrate numerical proportions in a dataset.
 is usually divided into various sectors,
 each sector represents the proportion of a particular numerical element in the set.
o Line graphs
 represented by a group of data points joined together by a straight line.
 Each data points describes the relationship between the horizontal and the vertical axis on the graph.
o bar chart
 a graph represented by spaced rectangular bars
 describe the data points in a set of data.
 usually used to plot discrete and categorical data.
o MAIN IDEA AND DETAILS CHART
 This chart shows the hierarchical relationship between major concepts and their subordinate elements.
 The main idea graphic organizer is a helping tool that assists students in organizing their writing and improving
their reading skills
 TIMELINE
o display of a list of events in chronological order.

1. Plot – the sequence of events that make up a story, how the story develops, unfolds and moves in time. Defined by the
conflict of the story either internal (emotions, such as which love interest to pick, for example) or external, (a shadowy man is
following your detective down a dark alley,) and the best conflicts (or plots) are both original and interesting.
five main elements:
1)Exposition: the beginning of the story,
2)Rising Action: events leading up to the conflict begin to unfold.
3)Climax: peak of the story, a major event occurs
4)Falling Action: The story begins to slow down and work towards its end, tying up loose ends.
5)Resolution/denouement, resolves any remaining issues and ends the story

2. Setting - the time and place of the story and usually introduced during the exposition of the story, along with the characters.
Time can cover many areas, such as the character’s time of life, the time of the day, time of the year, time period such as
the past, present, or future, etc.
Place also covers a lot of areas such as certain building, country, city, beach, in a mode of transport such as car, bus,
boat, indoors or out, etc. The setting of a story can change throughout the plot.
The environment includes geographical location such as beach or mountains, the climate and weather, and the social or
cultural aspects such as a school, theatre, meeting, club, etc.
3. Characterization - the process authors use to develop characters and create images of the characters for the audience.
Two approaches to characterization:
1) Direct characterization- the author tells us what he or she wants us to know about the character.
2) Indirect characterization - the author shows us things about the character to help us have an understanding of the
character's personality and effect on other characters.
Five Methods of Characterization - PAIRS
1) Physical description
2) Action/attitude/behavior
3) Inner thoughts
4) Reactions
5) Speech

How to Write a Compare-and-Contrast Essay

Compare-and-Contrast essay
a style of essay that points out the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
Ideal for showing what separates and unites related things or concepts, particularly if the subjects are often confused for each
other or unjustly lumped together.
Purpose of a compare-and-contrast essay
If two topics relate to each other or define each other, you can better explain them both by showcasing their similarities and
differences. That goes double for topics that are often conflated or confused for each other; it helps readers when someone points
out exactly what’s the same about them and what’s different.
How to write a compare-and-contrast essay
When writing a compare-and-contrast essay, it helps to figure out two things: what your thesis is (the subject matter) and how you
plan to structure it.
Thesis

Choose which subjects you’re comparing.

Generating ideas.
list all the similarities and differences between your subjects. formulating connections and decide what structure to use
for your compare-and-contrast essay. If you’re stuck, try making a Venn Diagram.
Decide on the thesis by asking yourself a few questions:
What are you trying to show in your compare-and-contrast essay? What do you want your reader to take away?
Organization
Introduction: where you explain your thesis or what your essay will discuss should include a thesis statement to show the reader
what to expect for the rest of your essay. be sure to mention all your subjects.

Body: where you actually list the similarities and differences of your subjects; the largest section The hardest part of structuring a
compare-and-contrast essay is knowing when to talk about which subject. Essentially, you have three options:
block method (subject by subject):
You discuss one subject in full and then move on to the next subject.
a paragraph about one subject and then a new paragraph about another subject.
Each subject gets its own paragraph.
covering as many topics as you need.
best for giving each subject its own attention
but tends to slightly weaken the connection between the two.
alternating method (point by point):
You discuss one subject’s take on a certain aspect and then another subject’s take immediately afterward, followed by a
new aspect.
break paragraphs up by a specific topic and issue,
and in each paragraph discuss both or all subjects.
works best when you want to emphasize the connection between your subjects, or lack thereof
similarities and differences:
You discuss all the similarities between your subjects and then all the differences, or vice versa (differences first and
then similarities).
Similar to the alternating approach, with each subject being discussed side by side in the same paragraph.
However, the paragraphs aren’t divided by different topics, but instead by what the subjects have in common and what
they don’t.
The first paragraph after the introduction discusses what the two subjects have in common, but the next paragraph
explains how they differ.
works best if you want to focus on a particular similarity or difference between your subjects, or if you want to build up
to a powerful conclusion or reveal at the end.

Conclusion: where you wrap up and summarize your points

The writing process for compare-and-contrast essays
Brainstorming — As mentioned above, brainstorming should involve listing all the similarities and difficulties; creating a Venn
diagram is a useful method.
Preparation — Looking at your brainstorming lists, decide which structuring method would best get your point across: block,
alternating, or similarities/differences.
Drafting — Here you write your rough draft; this is the longest and toughest phase.
Revising — Does the structure you’ve chosen work? With the first draft finished, you can more easily identify any areas that need
to be fixed, revised, or rewritten from scratch.
Proofreading — Finally, you want to make sure you corrected all the spelling and grammatical mistakes in your draft.

Tips for writing compare-and-contrast essays

Choose topics that are related
choose topics that have plenty in common, otherwise, your essay will be all contrasting and no comparing.
subjects that share a strong connection, such as two people in the same profession or two products in the same category.
Without this unifying thread, you will confuse your audience,
 you’ll also struggle more to come up with points when writing.
Write for clarity communicating clearly so your reader knows which points relate to which subject, and what conclusion the entire
essay is building toward
Analytical Listening

 the ability and the capacity to properly analyze what is being said
 not only means understanding what the other person is saying
 you can also analyze through texts, symbols, situations, or conversations.

Adverbs

 Its use of in a sentence helps describe how things appear and how things happen.
 With them, you can add further description, describe an action, or intensify the meaning of another word.

Let us discuss two of its types that could also be applied in analytical listening in the context of different conversations.

Adverb of Affirmation or Negation is a word which declares that something is true or some equivalent expression or negative
statement, judgment or a logical proposition.

Adverb of Affirmation

 An adverb used in a sentence to affirm it as true.

 Generally, are used to answer the questions raised by others.
 They can also be used in agreeing to arguments or in expressing a sure or positive answer.

List of Frequently Used Words of Affirmation

absolutely certainly entirely sure/surely affirmatively clearly exactly totally

all right completely indeed truly

assertedly decisively obviously undoubtedly avowedly definitely positively verily

by all means doubtlessly really yes

Examples:

1. The sun was positively bright and yet, only few people were there to witness it.

2. I do things not only for myself anymore, but definitely for others as well.

3. Their service is indeed beyond description and I am sure that the world is grateful.

4. I exactly know the right thing to do.

Adverb of Negation

 It is an adverb used in a sentence to deny it as true.

 They can also be used in disagreeing to arguments or in expressing a disbelief or negative answer.
 Words ending in ‘not’ (including contraction) and words starting with no- are also examples of negation.
 Some of their examples are have not, do not, cannot, nowhere, etc.

List of Frequently Used Words of Negation

almost barely hardly never rarely

any contradictorily invalidly no/not scarcely

Examples:

1. I am blessed that I am with my family, and we are all safe and not ill.

2. I barely get to see the people close to me in person these days.

3. We did not even shake hands or get closer at all.

4. I almost ran out of words.

5. I would not understand the situation unless I see it for myself.

Active Listening
Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to provide feedback on what he or she hears to the speaker, by
restating or paraphrasing what they have heard in their own words.

To confirm what the listener has heard and to confirm the understanding of both parties.

Active listening is most often used to improve personal relationships, reduce misunderstanding and conflicts, strengthen cooperation,
and foster understanding.

Active listening can also involve paying attention to the speaker’s behavior and body language. Having the ability to interpret a
person’s body language lets the listener develop a more accurate understanding of the speaker’s message.

Stages of the Listening Process

Listening is an active process by which we make sense of, assess, and respond to what we hear.

The listening process involves five stages: receiving, understanding, evaluating, remembering, and responding. These stages will be
discussed in more detail in later sections.

An effective listener must hear and identify the speech sounds directed toward them, understand the message of those sounds,
critically evaluate or assess that message, remember what’s been said, and respond (either verbally or nonverbally) to information
they’ve received.

1. The Receiving Stage

 involves hearing and attending.
2. The Understanding Stage
 or comprehension occurs when both the speaker and audience share an experience of meaning, and constitutes the first step in the
listening process.
 the audience determines the context and meanings of the words they hear.
3. The Evaluating Stage
 The listener assesses the information they received, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
 allows the listener to form an opinion of what they heard and, if necessary, to begin developing a response.
 the listener determines whether or not the information they heard and understood from the speaker is well constructed or
disorganized, biased or unbiased, true or false, significant or insignificant.
4. The Remembering Stage
 occurs as the audience categorizes and retains the information they’ve gathered from the speaker for future access.
 This allows the person to record information about people, objects, and events for later recall.
5. The Responding Stage
 the listener provides verbal and/or nonverbal reactions based on short- or long-term memory.
 Nonverbal signals can include gestures such as nodding, making eye contact, tapping a pen, fidgeting, scratching or cocking their
head, smiling, rolling their eyes, grimacing, or any other body language.
i. can be displayed purposefully or involuntarily.
ii. responses like nodding or eye contact allow the listener to communicate their level of interest without
interrupting the speaker
 Responding verbally might involve asking a question, requesting additional information, redirecting or changing the focus of a
conversation, cutting off a speaker, or repeating what a speaker has said back to her in order to verify that the received message
matches the intended message.
 Responding adds action to the listening process,

4 Steps to Use Analytical Listening in Problem Solving

Now that we understand what analytical listening is and why it’s important, let’s look at four steps you can use to use analytical
listening during problem-solving effectively.

Understand the problem

Identify the root cause of the problem

Come up with potential solutions

Evaluate and implement

Step One: Understand the problem

When we listen carefully, we can understand the full extent of the problem. We may hear things we overlooked before. This is
especially important when trying to solve a complex issue. By understanding all the details, we can develop a better plan for solving it.

Step Two: Identify the root cause of the problem

Once we understand the problem, we need to identify the root cause. This can be challenging, especially if there are multiple causes.
However, analytical listening helps us to focus on the most important issues.

The root cause is the underlying reason for a problem. It’s often not obvious, and it can take some time to find it. But, once we identify
the root cause, we can develop a better solution.

Step Three: Generate potential solutions

Once we have a complete understanding of the problem, it’s time to come up with some solutions.

Step Four: Evaluate and implement

We’ve gathered information from analytical listening and asked questions that help us understand the root causes of problems to
identify potential solutions. Finally, it’s time to decide on one solution that will solve our problem effectively.

Guidelines in Writing a Short Story Critique

An analytic or critical review of a book or short story is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in
light of the specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course.

THE INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

The introductory paragraph for the short story critique has 3 major elements: the background, your opinion on the work as a whole,
and the thesis. The background includes all of the relevant information (especially who, what, when, where, and why) leading up to
the thesis. The thesis includes the subject and opinion of the paper followed by the main points.

The most important element in writing a critique is a workable thesis statement, which appears near the end of the introductory
paragraph. Below is a sample thesis statements:

SUBJECT: The Blind Assassin

OPINION: show’s Atwood’s skills as a writer

MAIN POINTS: because of the visual imagery, the strong characters and the

memorable message.

THE DEVELOPMENT PARAGRAPHS

Remember that these can vary in length and in number. If you state 3 main points in your thesis, you should have 3 development
paragraphs. You may get idea from the following:

1. Opening

Hooks tell if the story is grabbing from the first line or if it makes you want to read on.

Introduction of Central Character tells if the central character is introduced early in the story.

Scene Setting tells if you can picture the scene early enough in the story.

Problem Description tells if you can identify what problem confronts the central character soon enough or if you are left wondering
what the story is all about.

2. Characterization

Central Character tells if the central character is clearly defined and appears in the first few lines of the story, or if he/she has likable
traits.

Other characters tell if they are they easily definable or if they get confused with others.

3. Dialogue tells if the dialogue sounds authentic, meaningful or if it reads well when you read them aloud.

4. Setting tells if it seems to be the right place for the story. If it is a real place, has the author researched it enough? If it is a fictitious
place, has the author planned the setting(s) carefully, making it seem alive and real?

5. Conflicts tell if the conflicts in the story are authentic, artificial or original.

6. Suspense Value tells if as you go reading it you are able to guess what’s going to happen in the succeeding parts or if makes you
hunger for the next things to happen. Does the story go well from action to action?

7. Ending tells something about the ending. Does it need a lot of explanation? Is the ending concise or does it ramble on?

8. Structure tells something about how the plot is developed.

Are the characters described in time or after you've imagined them for yourself?

Are the actions well planned and run well in sequence?

Do flashbacks seem well placed and relevant or very confusing?

Is the time span feasible? (Could the events have taken place in the given time span?)

9. Plot tells if the story plot is original, or if it sounds authentic or contrived.

THE CLOSING PARAGRAPH

Here you give your general impression of the story. In general, are the descriptions clear, overemphasized or not clear enough? You
should also briefly summarize all the issues under discussions. You may also put here what you appreciate the most about the text you
read like values and lessons highlighted. Any additional opinions on the subject would be appropriate at this time as well as any final
conclusions