Chapter 1: Two-Dimensional Transformation

Representation of a point:
In 2 – dimensional space a point is represented by its coordinates P (x, y).
𝑥
The same point can be represented as a 1 x 2 row matrix [𝑥 𝑦] or 2 x 1 column matrix [𝑦]
It is called as the position vector matrix denoted by [X].
𝑥
i.e. [𝑋] = [𝑥 𝑦] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑦]
𝑎 𝑏
The general 2 x 2 transformation is given by [𝑇] = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑

Transformation of a point:
𝑎 𝑏
Let [𝑇] = [ ] be any 2 x 2 general transformation matrix. Consider a point P with
𝑐 𝑑
position vector matrix [𝑋] = [𝑥 𝑦].
Apply [T] on [X],
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [𝑎 𝑏 ]
𝑐 𝑑
= [𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦]
= [𝑥′ 𝑦′]
= [𝑋′]
∴ [𝑋′] = [𝑋][𝑇]

Special Cases on a 2 x 2 transformation matrix:

Effects in diagonal entries:

Case 1: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

1 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 0] = [𝑥 𝑦] = [𝑋′]
0 1
1 0
Thus, the transformation matrix [𝑇] = [ ] do not make any change in the coordinates of
0 1
the point P.
Hence the transformation is an identity transformation.

Case 2: When 𝑑 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

𝑎 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
𝑎 0
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [ ] = [𝑎𝑥 𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 1
Here the y – coordinate remains same whereas there is a scalar change in the x – coordinate.
This effect is known as scaling in x – coordinate by ‘a’ unit.

Case 3: When 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

1 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 𝑑
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 0 ] = [𝑥 𝑑𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 𝑑
Here the x – coordinate remains same whereas there is a scalar change in the y – coordinate.
This effect is known as scaling in y – coordinate by ‘d’ unit.
Case 4: When 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 𝑑
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [𝑎 0] = [𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 𝑑
Here there is a scalar change in both x – coordinate and y – coordinate. This effect is known as
scaling in x and y – coordinate by ‘a’ and ‘d’ units respectively.

Scaling in 2 – D.

Note:
1. If 𝑎 = 𝑑, then the scaling is uniform.
2. If 𝑎 ≠ 𝑑, then the scaling is not uniform.
3. If 𝑎 = 𝑑 > 1, then equal enlargement occurs in both the direction.
4. If 0 < 𝑎 = 𝑑 < 1, then equal compression occurs in both the direction.

Case 5: When 𝑎 = −1, 𝑑 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

−1 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [−1 0] = [−𝑥 𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 1
Here the y – coordinate remains the same whereas the x – coordinate changes in sign/direction.
This effect is known as Reflection through y – axis.

Case 6: When 𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

1 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 −1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 0 ] = [𝑥 −𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 −1
Here the x – coordinate remains the same whereas the y – coordinate changes in sign/direction.
This effect is known as Reflection through x – axis.

Case 7: When 𝑎 = −1, 𝑑 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0

−1 0
In this case the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 −1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [−1 0 ] = [−𝑥 −𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 −1
Here there is a change in sign in both x as well as y – coordinate. This effect is known as
Reflection through origin.
 Note: Reflection and scaling takes place when there is a change in the diagonal entries of the
standard transformation matrix.

Effects in Off – diagonal entries:

Case 8: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 1
0 1
Here the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
1 0
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃 [𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [0 1] = [𝑦 𝑥 ] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
1 0
Here the coordinates of the transformed point are interchanged. This effect is known as
Reflection through the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.

Case 9: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑐 = −1

0 −1
Here the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
−1 0
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [ 0 −1] = [−𝑦 −𝑥] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
−1 0
Here the coordinates of the transformed point are interchanged along with the direction. This
effect is known as Reflection through the line 𝒚 = −𝒙.

Case 10: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 0

1 𝑏
Here the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
0 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 𝑏 ] = [𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
0 1
Here the x – coordinate remains the same whereas the y – coordinate of the transformed point
is the linear combination of the coordinates of the original point. This effect is known as
Shearing in y coordinate by b units.

Case 11: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0

1 0
Here the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
𝑐 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 0] = [𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
𝑐 1
Here the y – coordinate remains the same whereas the x – coordinate of the transformed point
is the linear combination of the coordinates of the original point. This effect is known as
Shearing in x coordinate by c units.

Case 12: When 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 1

1 𝑏
Here the transformation matrix is [𝑇] = [ ]
𝑐 1
Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦], we get,
[𝑋][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦] [1 𝑏 ] = [𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑦] = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑋′]
𝑐 1
Here the x – coordinate as well as the y – coordinate of the transformed point is the linear
combination of the coordinates of the original point. This effect is known as Shearing in x and
y coordinate by c and b units respectively.
Problems:
1. Consider a triangle ABC with vertices A [2 1], B [3 2.5] and C [4 2]. Find Reflection
of this triangle along:
i. X – axis
ii. Y – axis
iii. The line y = x
iv. The line y = -x

2. Write the transformation matrix for the following:

i. Scaling in x – coordinate by factor 3
ii. Scaling in y – coordinate by factor 2
iii. Shearing in y – direction by 4 units.
iv. Shearing in x and y – direction by 2 and 5 units respectively.

3. What is the effect of the transformation matrix?

1 0
i. [ ] on a two-dimensional object.
−2 1
0 1
ii. [ ] on a two-dimensional object.
1 0
1 3
iii. [ ] on a two-dimensional object.
0 1
4. The points O [0 0], A [1 0], B [1 1] and C [0 1] are transformed by 2 x 2
transformation matrix [T] to the points O’ [0 0], A’ [2 3], B’ [8 4] and C’ [6 1]
respectively. Find the matrix of transformation.

Midpoint Transformation
𝑎 𝑏
Consider a line 𝐴𝐵 with 𝐴[𝑥1 𝑦1 ] and 𝐵[𝑥2 𝑦2 ]. Let [𝑇] = [ ] be the general 2 × 2
𝑐 𝑑
transformation matrix.
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
Midpoint of line 𝐴𝐵 is [𝑀] = [ ]
2 2

𝑥1 𝑦1
The position vector matrix of line 𝐴𝐵 is, [𝑋] = [𝑥 𝑦2 ].
2

Applying [𝑇] on [𝑋] we get,

[𝑋 ′ ] = [𝑋][𝑇]
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎 𝑏
= [𝑥 𝑦2 ] [ 𝑐 ]
2 𝑑
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑦1 𝑏𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑦1
=[ ]
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑦2 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑦2
𝑥1′ 𝑦1′
=[ ′ ]
𝑥2 𝑦2′
 = [𝐴′]
𝐵′
Midpoint of the transformed line 𝐴′𝐵′ is,
𝑥1′ + 𝑥2′ 𝑦1′ + 𝑦2′
[𝑀′] = [ ]
2 2
𝑎𝑥1 +𝑐𝑦1 +𝑎𝑥2 +𝑐𝑦2 𝑏𝑥1 +𝑑𝑦1 +𝑏𝑥2 +𝑑𝑦2
=[ 2 2
]
𝑎(𝑥1 +𝑥2 )+𝑐(𝑦1 +𝑦2 ) 𝑏(𝑥1 +𝑥2 )+𝑑(𝑦1 +𝑦2 )
=[ ]
2 2

𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2

= [𝑎 ( )+𝑐( ) 𝑏( )+𝑑( )]
2 2 2 2

Transformation of Parallel Lines

When a 2 × 2 matrix is used to transform a pair of parallel lines, the result is a second
pair of parallel lines.
Consider a line 𝐴𝐵 with 𝐴[𝑥1 𝑦1 ] and 𝐵[𝑥2 𝑦2 ]. Let 𝐸𝐹 ||𝐴𝐵.
Since 𝐴𝐵 ||𝐸𝐹, slope of 𝐴𝐵 = slope of 𝐸𝐹
𝑦 −𝑦
i.e., 𝑚 = 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 1

𝑎 𝑏
Let [𝑇] = [ ] be any 2 × 2 transformation matrix.
𝑐 𝑑
Applying [𝑇] on the position vectors of line 𝐴𝐵.
𝐴 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎 𝑏
[ ] [𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦2 ] [ 𝑐 ]
𝐵 2 𝑑
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦1 𝑏𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑦1
= [ 1 ]
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑦2 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑦2
𝑥′ 𝑦1′
= [ 1′ ]
𝑥2 𝑥2′
𝐴′
= [ ′]
𝐵
The slope of the transformed line
𝑦 ′ −𝑦 ′
𝑚′ = 𝑥2′ −𝑥1′
2 1

(𝑏𝑥2 +𝑑𝑦2 )−(𝑏𝑥1 +𝑑𝑦1 )

= (𝑎𝑥2 +𝑐𝑦2 )−(𝑎𝑥1 +𝑐𝑦1 )

𝑏(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )+𝑑(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )

= 𝑎(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )+𝑐(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑏+𝑑( 2 1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
= 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑎+𝑐( 2 1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1

𝑏+𝑑𝑚
𝑚′ = 𝑎+𝑐𝑚

Since m, a, b, c, d is same for lines 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐸𝐹 thus 𝑚′ is also same for both the
transformed lines.
Hence, the transformed lines are parallel.
Theorem: If the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + ℎ is transformed onto the line 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′ 𝑥 ′ + ℎ′ under
𝑎 𝑏
the transformation matrix [𝑇] = [ ] then
𝑐 𝑑
𝑏+𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
𝑚′ = and ℎ′ = ℎ ( 𝑎+𝑐𝑚 )
𝑎+𝑐𝑚

Proof: Let 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦] be the point on the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + ℎ.

Apply [𝑇] on the position vector matrix of the point P,

[𝑃][𝑇] = [𝑥 𝑦 ] [𝑎 𝑏
]
𝑐 𝑑
= [𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦]
= [𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′]
= 𝑃′
Here, 𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 and 𝑦 ′ = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
Substituting 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑚′ in 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′ 𝑥 ′ + ℎ′
𝑏 + 𝑑𝑚
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦) ( ) + ℎ′
𝑎 + 𝑐𝑚
The point [0 ℎ] lies on the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + ℎ
𝑏 + 𝑑𝑚
𝑑ℎ = 𝑐ℎ ( ) + ℎ′
𝑎 + 𝑐𝑚
𝑏 + 𝑑𝑚
ℎ′ = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑐ℎ ( )
𝑎 + 𝑐𝑚
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
ℎ′ = ℎ ( )
𝑎 + 𝑐𝑚
Transformation of Intersecting Lines
Consider a pair of straight lines,
𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑏1
𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑏2
Here, 𝑚1 ≠ 𝑚2
Rewriting the above equations as,
−𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑏1
−𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑏2
The matrix representation of the above system is,

𝑦] [−𝑚1 −𝑚2
[𝑥 ] = [𝑏1 𝑏2 ]
1 1
If the solution to this pair of equations exists then the lines intersect, if not, then they are
parallel.
A solution to this system can be obtained by matrix inversion method.
i.e., [𝑋] = [𝐵][𝑀]−1
1 1 𝑚2
[𝑀]−1 = [ ]
𝑚 2 −𝑚1 −1 −𝑚1
 ∴ [𝑋] = [𝐵][𝑀]−1
1⁄ 𝑚2
(𝑚2 − 𝑚1 ) ⁄(𝑚 − 𝑚 )
2 1
= [𝑏1 𝑏2 ] [ −𝑚2 ]
−1⁄ ⁄
(𝑚2 − 𝑚1 ) (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )
𝑏1 − 𝑏2 𝑏1 𝑚2 − 𝑏2 𝑚1
[𝑋] = [ ] … … … … … … … … (∗)
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
Eq. (*) represents the point of intersection of the original lines.
𝑎 𝑏
Let [𝑇] = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑
Applying [𝑇] on the two straight lines, we get,
𝑦 ′ = 𝑚1′ 𝑥 ′ + 𝑏1′
𝑦 ′ = 𝑚2′ 𝑥 ′ + 𝑏2′
The slope of these two lines is,
𝑏+𝑑𝑚1 𝑏+𝑑𝑚2
𝑚1′ = 𝑚2′ =
𝑎+𝑐𝑚1 𝑎+𝑐𝑚2

𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
𝑏1′ = 𝑏1 (𝑎+𝑐𝑚 ) 𝑏2′ = 𝑏2 (𝑎+𝑐𝑚 )
1 2

The point of intersection of the transformed lines is,

𝑏 ′ − 𝑏2′ 𝑏1′ 𝑚2′ − 𝑏2′ 𝑚1′
[𝑋 ′ ] = [ 1′ ]
𝑚2 − 𝑚1′ 𝑚1′ − 𝑚1′

Rotation about the Origin

Derivation:

Consider a point P in the xy – plane with the position vector [𝑋] = [𝑥 𝑦]. Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 and
∠𝑋𝑂𝑃 = ∅. The polar coordinates of the point P are given by,
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos ∅ , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin ∅
Let the point 𝑃′ be rotated about the origin through an angle 𝜃 so that the point P is
transformed to the point 𝑃′ with position vector [𝑋 ′ ] = [𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ].
The polar coordinates of the point 𝑃′ is given by,
𝑥 ′ = 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + ∅) , 𝑦 ′ = 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + ∅)
Now 𝑥 ′ = 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + ∅)
= 𝑟(cos ∅ cos 𝜃 − sin ∅ sin 𝜃)
= (𝑟 cos ∅) cos 𝜃 − (𝑟 sin ∅) sin 𝜃
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃 … … … … … … … . (1)
Also, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + ∅)
= 𝑟(sin ∅ cos 𝜃 + cos ∅ sin 𝜃)
= (𝑟 sin ∅) cos 𝜃 + (𝑟 cos ∅) sin 𝜃
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 cos 𝜃 + 𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃 … … … … … … … . (2)
The equations (1) and (2) can be written in the matrix form as,

[𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ] = [𝑥 𝑦] [ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
]
− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Thus, the matrix [𝑇] = [ ] is the required matrix for rotation about origin.
− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Note:
i. The rotation is considered positive in anti – clockwise direction whereas negative in
clockwise direction.
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
ii. The rotation matrix [𝑇] = [ ] has the property that its inverse is equal to
− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
its transpose,
[𝑇]−1 = [𝑇]𝑡 = [cos 𝜃 −sin 𝜃 ]
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
A matrix having this property is called an orthogonal matrix. Thus, the rotation
matrix is an orthogonal matrix.

Transformation of a Unit Square

Consider a unit square with position vectors 𝑂[0 0], 𝐴[1 0], 𝐵[1 1], 𝐶[1 1]

𝑎 𝑏
Let [𝑇] = [ ] be the transformation matrix.
𝑐 𝑑
Applying [𝑇] on the position vectors of the unit square OABC, we get,
 𝑂 0 0
𝐴 [𝑇] 1 0 𝑎 𝑏
[ ] =[ ][ ]
𝐵 1 1 𝑐 𝑑
𝐶 0 1
0 0 𝑂′
𝑎 𝑏 𝐴′
=[ ] = [ ′]
𝑎+𝑐 𝑏+𝑑 𝐵
𝑐 𝑑 𝐶′

Thus, the transformation of a unit square under [𝑇] is a parallelogram 𝑂′𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′.

The area of the parallelogram 𝑂′𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ is,
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂(𝑶′ 𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑪′ )
= 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂(𝑶𝑸𝑩′ 𝑺) − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂(△ 𝑶𝑨′ 𝑪) − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂(△ 𝑶𝑪′ 𝑹) − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂(𝑨′ 𝑷𝑸𝑩′ )
− 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂(𝑹𝑺𝑩′ 𝑪′ )
= 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑑𝑒𝑡[𝑇]
Thus, area of the transformed figure = (Area of the original figure) x det [T]

Combined / Concatenated Transformation Matrix

Definition: If a finite sequence of transformations says 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , … … . . 𝑇𝑘 are applied on an
object, then it can be accomplished by a single transformation matrix, [𝑇] =
[𝑇1 ][𝑇2 ] … … . . [𝑇𝑘 ] called as the combined or concatenated transformation matrix.
Problems:
1. Find the combined transformation matrix for the following sequence of
transformation: First scaling in x and y direction by 2 and 3 units respectively:
followed by reflection through x – axis: followed by a 180° rotation about the origin,
Apply this sequence on the point 𝑃[−1 1].

2. Find the concatenated transformation matrix for the following: First shearing in x and
y directions by -2.4 and 1.1 units respectively, followed by a rotation about the origin
through an angle 20° . Apply this onto the point 𝑃[−1 3].

3. Find the combined transformation matrix for the following:

i. First a 70° rotation about the origin.
ii. Followed by shearing in y – direction by -1.1 units.
iii. Followed by uniform scaling by a factor 3.
Apply this on the triangle with vertices 𝐴[1 3], 𝐵[2 − 1] & 𝐶[−1 − 1]
 4. Find the combined transformation matrix for the following:
i. Scaling in both x and y coordinates by factor 2 and 1/3 respectively.
ii. Reflection through the line 𝑦 = −𝑥.
iii. Rotation about the origin through an angle 25° .
°
iv. Rotation about the origin through an angle 𝜋⁄5 in clockwise direction.

Apply it on the point 𝑃[1.5 − 3]

Problems:
3 1
1) If we apply transformation matrix [𝑇] = [ ] on a square, then we get a
2 2
parallelogram of area 64 𝑐𝑚2. Find the length of each side of the original square.

Homogeneous Coordinates:
Consider a point in 2 – dimensional plane with position vector [𝑋] =
[𝑥 𝑦]. The homogeneous coordinate of a non – homogeneous point with position vector [𝑥 𝑦]
are [𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ ℎ], where h is any real number 𝑥 ′ = ℎ𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = ℎ𝑦.
i.e. [ℎ𝑥 ℎ𝑦 ℎ].
In particular, if ℎ = 1 then the homogeneous coordinate of a point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦] = [𝑥 𝑦 1]

Translation: Consider the general 3 × 3 transformation matrix

𝑎 𝑏 𝑝
[𝑇] = [ 𝑐 𝑑 𝑞 ]
𝑚 𝑛 1
Where the 2 × 2 submatrix on the upper left have exactly the same effect as that by a general
2 × 2 transformation matrix i.e., scaling, reflection, rotation and shearing. The 1 × 2 submatrix
at the bottom produces the effect of translation in x and y directions by m and n units
respectively.
The standard transformation matrix for translation is
1 0 0
[𝑇] = [ 0 1 0]
𝑚 𝑛 1
Which produces translation in x – direction by m units and in y – direction by n units.

Problems:
1. Find the combined transformation matrix for the following sequence of
transformations: Reflection through the line 𝑦 = −𝑥, followed by shearing in x and y
– direction by 3 and -4 units respectively, followed by translation in x and y – direction
by -1 and -2 units. Apply it on the point 𝑃[3 − 8].
2. Find the combined transformation matrix and apply the sequence on the line segment
between the points 𝐴[2 − 1] and 𝐵[1 − 3]. First translate in y – direction by -3 units
and then rotate about the origin through an angle −65°.
3. Show that the combined two-dimensional transformation first reflection about x – axis
and then about the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 is identical to rotation about the origin by an angle 𝜃 =
270°.

Rotation about an arbitrary point

Consider an arbitrary point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦] in the plane. The rotation about an arbitrary point P is
accomplished by the following sequence of transformations:
1. Translate the point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦] to the origin 𝑂[0 0] i.e., translating in x – direction by -
x units and in y – direction by -y units respectively.
Thus, the transformation matrix is,
1 0 0
[𝑇1 ] = [ 0 1 0]
−𝑥 −𝑦 1
 2. Rotate the point about the origin through an angle 𝜃.
Thus, the transformation matrix is,
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0
[𝑇2 ] = [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0]
0 0 1
3. Apply inverse translation i.e. translate the point back to the original position.
Thus, the transformation matrix is,
1 0 0
[𝑇3 ] = [0 1 0] = [𝑇1 ]−1
𝑥 𝑦 1
Thus, the transformation matrix for rotation about an arbitrary point is,
[𝑇] = [𝑇1 ][𝑇2 ][𝑇1 ]−1

Problems:
1) An object is rotated about the point 𝑃[−1 2] through an angle 𝜋 𝑐 . Find the
transformation matrix.

2) Find the combined transformation matrix for a 30° rotation about the point 𝑃[−1 1].
Apply this rotation onto the ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝐴[2 1], 𝐵[−2 3], 𝐶[−3 1].

3) Rotate the line segment between the points 𝐴[3 5] and 𝐵[4 1] about the point 𝑃[2 1]
through an angle 90° .

Reflection through an Arbitrary line 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

If a line L does not pass through the origin, then reflection of an object is done as follows:
1. Select a point 𝑃[𝑥 𝑦] on line L. Translate the line L and the object in such a way that
the line passes through the origin.
Thus, the transformation matrix is,
1 0 0
[𝑇1 ] = [ 0 1 0]
−𝑥 −𝑦 1
2. Rotate the resulting line about the origin such that the resulting line coincides with x –
axis or y – axis by an angle 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑚)
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0
[𝑇2 ] = [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0]
0 0 1
3. In step (2) if the resulting line coincides with x – axis, then take reflection of the object
in x – axis.
Thus, the transformation matrix
1 0 0
[𝑇3 ] = [0 −1 0]
0 0 1
In step (2) if the resulting line coincides with y – axis, then take reflection of the object
in y – axis.
Thus, the transformation matrix
−1 0 0
[𝑇3 ] = [ 0 1 0]
0 0 1

4. Apply inverse rotation about the origin.

[𝑇4 ] = [𝑇2 ]−1
5. Apply inverse translation.
[𝑇5 ] = [𝑇1 ]−1
Problems:
1. Reflect the ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 through the line 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 where 𝐴[−2 − 3],
𝐵[−10 − 6], 𝐶[−15 − 10].
2. Find the concatenated transformation matrix for reflection through the line 𝑦 = −4.
Apply it to the point 𝑃[−1 2].
3. Reflect the square with vertices 𝑂[0 0], 𝐴[2 0], 𝐵[2 2], 𝐶[0 2] through the line 2𝑥 −
𝑦+4=0
4. By using combined matrix of transformation reflect the triangle 𝑦 = 5 given that
𝐴[1 3], 𝐵[2 4], 𝐶[3 5].