1.

Overview
In this tutorial, we’ll discuss multiplexing and demultiplexing
techniques. Furthermore, we’ll present the basic idea behind these
techniques and highlight some popular variants.
Finally, we’ll list some important advantages and disadvantages of both
techniques.

2. Introduction to the Transport Layer

The transport layer is part of the OSI model and provides crucial services.
Furthermore, it provides end-to-end communication services for
applications running on different hosts. Additionally, its principal function
is to guarantee the integrity of information sent between programs
hosted on various machines, with features such as error detection, flow
control, and congestion control.
Moreover, one of the crucial responsibilities of this layer is multiplexing
and demultiplexing. Multiplexing involves combining multiple data streams
into a single transmission channel. On the other hand, demultiplexing
involves separating a single transmission channel into multiple data
streams at the receiving end.
Furthermore, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) are two of the most popular examples of transport layer
protocols. TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication. In
contrast to TCP, UDP is connectionless and provides unreliable, best-effort
delivery of data. Generally, applications such as email, file transfer, and
web browsing typically use TCP for reliable data transfer. Additionally,
applications prioritizing speed and low latency, such as video streaming,
utilize UDP.

3. Multiplexing

3.1. Introduction
What Is multiplexing?
Multiplexing (Muxing) is a term used in the field of communications and
computer networking. It generally refers to the process and technique of
transmitting multiple analog or digital input signals or data streams over a single
channel. Since multiplexing can integrate multiple low-speed channels into one
high-speed channel for transmission, the high-speed channel is effectively
utilized. By using multiplexing, communication carriers can avoid maintaining
multiple lines, therefore, operating costs are effectively saved.
Multiplexer (Mux) is a device which performs the multiplexing process. It is a
hardware component that combines multiple analog or digital input signals into
a single line of transmission.

We use the multiplexing technique in telecommunications and

networking. Additionally, it combines multiple data streams into a single
channel. Furthermore, it allows multiple signals to share a single
transmission medium:

Specifically, the primary purpose of multiplexing is to increase the capacity

of the transmission medium, which could be a physical wire, a fiber optic
cable, or even a wireless channel. Instead of dedicating separate channels
to each signal, multiplexing allows several signals to share a single
channel. In this way, it makes more efficient use of the available
bandwidth.
Furthermore, we can use multiplexing in various communication systems,
including telephone networks, cable TV, and satellite communications.
Moreover, it’s an essential technique for improving the efficiency of
communication channels.
Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple data streams into a
single transmission channel, which can increase the efficiency of the
communication system 1. Here are some of the advantages of multiplexing:
 1. Increased Efficiency: Multiplexing allows multiple signals to be
transmitted simultaneously over a single channel, which increases
the efficiency of the communication system. This means that more
information can be transmitted in a shorter period of time 123.
2. Reduced Costs: Multiplexing reduces the number of communication
channels required, which can reduce costs associated with wiring,
equipment, and maintenance 13.
3. Flexibility: Multiplexing allows different types of signals, such as
audio, video, and data, to be transmitted over the same channel. This
makes communication systems more flexible and adaptable to
changing needs 13.
4. Improved Quality: Multiplexing can improve the quality of the
signals being transmitted by reducing interference and noise. This
means that the signals are less likely to be corrupted or lost during
transmission 13.
5. Scalability: Multiplexing allows communication systems to be scaled
up or down easily, depending on the number of signals that need to
be transmitted. This makes it easier to expand or upgrade
communication systems as needed 13.
However, multiplexing also has some disadvantages, such as complex
design, potential for interference, limited capacity, synchronization issues,
and increased complexity 13.

3.2. Types
There’re several types of multiplexing used in communication systems.
Let’s discuss some of them.

Analog Multiplexing
The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in nature.
The analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or
wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division
Multiplexing FDM. This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of
data, for sending them on a communication medium, as a single signal.

frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). In FDM, we divide the available

bandwidth of the communication channel into multiple frequency bands.
Additionally, we assign each input signal to a specific frequency band.
Moreover, the input signals are then transmitted simultaneously, each in
their assigned frequency band:

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.

Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels

through a single cable, uses FDM.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in
this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In
order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must
be placed between each channel. These unused strips between each channel
are known as guard bands.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which many data

streams of different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the
wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal decreases.
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is another technique that is
similar to FDM but used in optical communication systems. In WDM, in
order to allocate each input signal to a wavelength band, we split the
possible bandwidth of an optical fiber into a number of wavelength bands:

Wavelength Division Multiplexing :

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to
increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength.
Each signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting
signals are combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the
receiving end, the signals are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed
and routed to their respective destinations.
WDM can be divided into two categories: Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM) and Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
DWDM is used to multiplex a large number of optical signals onto a single
fiber, typically up to 80 channels with a spacing of 0.8 nm or less between the
channels.
CWDM is used for lower-capacity applications, typically up to 18 channels
with a spacing of 20 nm between the channels.
WDM has several advantages over other multiplexing technologies such as
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). WDM allows for higher data rates and
capacity, lower power consumption, and reduced equipment complexity. WDM
is also flexible, allowing for easy upgrades and expansions to existing
networks.
WDM is used in a wide range of applications, including telecommunications,
cable TV, internet service providers, and data centers. It enables the
transmission of large amounts of data over long distances with high speed and
efficiency.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the
capacity of a single fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals
from the different sources are combined to form a wider band of light with the
help of multiplexers. At the receiving end, the De-multiplexer separates the
signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
Space-division multiplexing (SDM) :
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a technique used in wireless
communication systems to increase the capacity of the system by exploiting
the physical separation of users.
In SDM, multiple antennas are used at both the transmitter and receiver ends
to create parallel communication channels. These channels are independent of
each other, which allows for multiple users to transmit data simultaneously in
the same frequency band without interference. The capacity of the system can
be increased by adding more antennas, which creates more independent
channels.
SDM is commonly used in wireless communication systems such as cellular
networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication systems. In cellular networks,
SDM is used in the form of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology,
which uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver ends to
improve the quality and capacity of the communication link.
Code-division multiplexing (CDM) :
Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique used in telecommunications to
allow multiple users to transmit data simultaneously over a single
communication channel. In CDM, each user is assigned a unique code that is
used to modulate their signal. The modulated signals are then combined and
transmitted over the same channel. At the receiving end, each user’s signal is
demodulated using their unique code to retrieve their original data.
In CDM, each user is assigned a unique spreading code that is used to spread
the data signal. This spreading code is typically a binary sequence that is much
longer than the original data signal. The spreading code is multiplied with the
data signal to generate a spread spectrum signal that has a much wider
bandwidth than the original data signal. The spread spectrum signals of all
users are then combined and transmitted over the same channel.
At the receiving end, the received signal is multiplied with the same spreading
code used at the transmitting end to dispread the signal. The resulting
dispread signal is then demodulated to retrieve the original data signal.
Because each user’s data signal is spread using a unique code, it is possible to
separate the signals of different users even though they are transmitted over
the same channel.
CDM is commonly used in wireless communication systems such as cellular
networks and satellite communication systems. It allows multiple users to
share the same frequency band and increases the capacity of the
communication channel. CDM also provides some level of security as the
signals of different users are difficult to intercept or jam.

Example: Optical fibre Communications use the WDM technique, to merge

different wavelengths into a single light for the communication.

Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the available
data is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a
signal over a single communication channel, with allotting one slot for each
message. Of all the types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and
Asynchronous TDM.

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM,

instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM,
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a popular variant of multiplexing. In

TDM, we first divide the available bandwidth of the communication
channel into time slots. Furthermore, we assign each input signal to a
specific time slot. Therefore, the input signals are then transmitted
sequentially, one after the other, in their assigned time slots:

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM :

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number
of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated
for each input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is common to all signals
and hence same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same slot to each
device at all times.

Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input

frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into
frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots.
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to
send, a slot remains empty in the output frame.
In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning
of each frame.
Statistical TDM :

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and
the clock signal is also not in common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot,
transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is allotted to another device,
unlike synchronous.
Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame
collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in
Synchronous TDM.
In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the
slot that is being sent to the output frame.

Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the

channel capacity is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.

A1 is a signaling bit that is used in T1 and E1 digital transmission systems 1. It is a 1-bit signal
that is transmitted in the framing bit of every other frame of a DS1 signal 1. The A1 signal is
used to monitor the quality of the transmission line and detect any errors that may have
occurred during transmission 1. If the A1 signal indicates that there are too many errors on the
line, the system can take corrective action, such as reducing the data rate or switching to a
different transmission line 1.
B1 is a bit error rate (BER) monitoring signal that is used in T1 and E1 digital transmission
systems 1. It is a 1-bit signal that is transmitted in the framing bit of every other frame of a DS1
signal 1. The B1 signal is used to monitor the quality of the transmission line and detect any
errors that may have occurred during transmission 1. If the B1 signal indicates that there are too
many errors on the line, the system can take corrective action, such as reducing the data rate or
switching to a different transmission line 1.

Overall, we use these techniques to improve the effectiveness and

scalability of communication networks by enabling the transmission of
numerous signals over a single channel.
3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages
Let’s see some advantages and disadvantages of multiplexing:

4. Demultiplexing

4.1. Introduction

What Is demultiplexing?
Demultiplexing (Demuxing) is a term relative to multiplexing. It is the reverse of
the multiplexing process. Demultiplex is a process reconverting a signal
containing multiple analog or digital signal streams back into the original
separate and unrelated signals.
Although demultiplexing is the reverse of the multiplexing process, it is not the
opposite of multiplexing. The opposite of multiplexing is inverse multiplexing
(iMuxing), which breaks one data stream into several related data streams.
Thus, the difference between demultiplexing and inverse multiplexing is that the
output streams of demultiplexing are unrelated, while the output streams of
inverse multiplexing are related.
Demultiplexer (Demux) is a device that performs the reverse process of
multiplexer.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating and directing individual
data streams combined for transmission over a shared communication
channel or medium. In other words, demultiplexing is the reverse process
of multiplexing:

In communication, we use multiplexing to increase data transmission

efficiency over a shared medium by combining multiple signals or data
streams into a single stream. Conversely, we use demultiplexing to
separate the combined signals into their individual data streams at the
receiving end.
Additionally, several methods exist for carrying out demultiplexing, each
suited to a certain set of circumstances involving the data and its transport
medium. Specifically, we can use specialized hardware, such as
a demultiplexer IC, to separate the input stream into multiple output
streams. Additionally, we can utilize software devices to analyze the input
data and determine which output channel it should be routed to.
In summary, demultiplexing is an essential process in communication that
allows for the efficient transmission of multiple data streams over a shared
medium by separating and directing them to their intended destinations.

4.2. Types

There’re several types of demultiplexing, including 1-to-2 demultiplexing,

1-to-4 demultiplexing, 1-to-8 demultiplexing and 1-to-16 demultiplexing:
Generally, we use 1-to-2 demultiplexing and 1-to-4 demultiplexing when
the number of destinations is limited and the signal routing is
straightforward. However, for applications that require complex signal
routing, we can utilize 1-to-8 demultiplexing and 1-to-16 demultiplexing
techniques.
Furthermore, we can classify demultiplexers based on their
construction, such as transistor-transistor logic
(TTL) and complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
(CMOS) demultiplexers. Additionally, the choice of type depends on the
application requirements, such as speed, power consumption, and the
number of inputs and outputs needed.

4.3. Advantages and Disadvantages

Let’s see some advantages and disadvantages of demultiplexing:

5. Conclusion
Difference Between Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Actually, you can see the difference between multiplexing and demultiplexing
in essence from their definitions. Multiplexing is method or technique in which
more than one signals are combined into one signal that travels on a medium.
demultiplexing is the reverse of multiplexing, in which a multiplexed signal is
decomposed in individual signals.
In additional, you can have more understandings on the difference between
multiplexing and demultiplexing by devices of multiplexer and demultiplexer that
perform the corresponding process. Applications of multiplexer and
demultiplexer are listed blow:

Multiplexer (Mux):
• In Communication System: increase the efficiency of the communication
system by allowing the transmission of data, such as audio and video
data transmission.
• In Computer Memory: keep up a vast amount of memory in the computers
and decrease the number of copper lines necessary to connect the
memory to other parts of the computer as well.
• In Telephone Network: integrate the multiple audio signals on a single
line of transmission.

Demultiplexer (Demux):
• In Communication System: receives the output signals from the
multiplexer and converts them back to the original form at the receiver
end.
• In Arithmetic Logic Unit: The output of the arithmetic logic unit is fed as
an input to the Demux, and the o/p of the Demux is connected to a
multiple registers.
• In Serial to Parallel Converter: The serial to parallel converter is used to
reform parallel data. In this method, serial data are given as an input to
the Demux and a counter is attached to the Demux to sense the data
signal at the Demux’s o/p. When all data signals are stored, the output of
the Demux can be read out in parallel.

From all the above, it is easier for you to tell the difference between multiplexing
and demultiplexing. They are the reverse process of each other and can be
applied to many occasions.
How does a multiplexing work?

Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals or data streams to be transmitted

over a single communication channel without interfering with one another, thus ensuring
efficient transmission 1. Multiplexing can divide available resources according to frequency,
time, or codes for more efficient transmission 1.
In digital systems, multiplexing is achieved using a combinational circuit called
a multiplexer (MUX) 2. A multiplexer selects one of several data inputs and forwards it to
the output 2. The inputs to a multiplexer can be analog or digital 2. Multiplexers are also
known as data selectors 2.
A multiplexer is useful for transmitting a large amount of data over the network within a
certain amount of time and bandwidth 2. Multiplexers that are built from transistors and
relays are termed as analog multiplexers which are used in analog applications and
Multiplexers that are built from logic gate termed as digital multiplexers which are used in
digital applications 2. The inverse of a multiplexer is known as a demultiplexer 2.
The block diagram of an n-to-1 multiplexer and its equivalent circuit is shown in the figure
below 2:
!Multiplexer Circuit
The multiplexer works like a multiple-input and single-output switch 2. The output gets
connected to only one of the n data inputs at a given instant of time 2. Therefore, the
multiplexer is ‘many into one’ and it works as the digital equivalent of an analog selector
switch 2.
There are many types of multiplexers – like 2-to-1, 4-to-1, and 8-to-1 multiplexers 2. Each
one has a different circuit, truth table, boolean expression, and working principle 2.

What Does T1 Line Mean?

A T1 line is a dedicated transmission connection between a service provider and client.
It uses an advanced telephone line to carry more data than a traditional standard analog
line that carries a single channel of data at 64 Kbps.
T1 line speed is consistent and constant. A T1 line can carry 24 voice channels for
telephone calls or digital data at a rate of 1.544 Mbps, and with usage of compression,
carried channels double to 48.

Clients lease full or fractional T1 lines. Fractional T1 lines do not experience

performance degradation, even though only a few channels are used. T1 lines are
proprietary, which reduces congestion and ensures usage by only one client, versus
cable, digital subscriber line (DSL) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).

• Each voice band channel has BW around 300Hz to 3000KHz.

Background

T1 is a high speed digital network (1.544 mbps) developed by AT&T in 1957 and
implemented in the early 1960's to support long-haul pulse-code modulation (PCM)
voice transmission. The primary innovation of T1 was to introduce "digitized" voice
and to create a network fully capable of digitally representing what was up until then,
a fully analog telephone system.

Perhaps the way to really begin this discussion is to discuss the AT&T Digital Carrier
System referred to as "ACCUNET T1.5". It is described as a "two-point, dedicated,
high capacity, digital service provided on terrestrial digital facilities capable of
transmitting 1.544 Mb/s. The interface to the customer can be either a T1 carrier or a
higher order multiplexed facility such as those used to provide access from (fiber
optic) and radio systems."

T1 DIGITAL CARRIER
 • T1 digital carrier system is a North American digital multiplexing standard since 1963.
• T1 stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier system using PCM
encoded analog signal.
• A T1 carrier system is time division multiplexes PCM encoded samples from 24 voice
band channels for transmission over a single metallic wire pair or optical fiber
transmission line.

.Compared to standard telephone lines that used a modem to transfer voice and data at a
mere 56 kbps, the T1 was an important step forward in delivering higher speed
connections 1.
T1 service for small business is still utilized today for high-speed data transmission,
internet access and voice, depending on the type of T1 and the configuration 1.
T1s can be provisioned as channelized or unchannelized service. In channelized T1s,
bandwidth is segmented into 24 channels. Each channel has a capacity of 64 Kbps. 23 of
these channels can support 23 simultaneous voice calls. The 24th channel is reserved for
signaling information such as caller ID 1.

Framing bit A common practice in telecommunications, for example in

T-carrier, is to insert, in a dedicated time slot within the frame, a
noninformation bit or framing bit that is used for synchronization of
the incoming data with the receiver. In a bit stream, framing bits
indicate the beginning or end of a frame.

For mathematical reasons, a voice channel was selected to be at 64 Kbps. 24 of these

channels is a composite of 1.536 Mbps, not 1.544 Mbps! Why is there a difference?
The reason is that after a byte (8 bits) of data is sent from each channel (24 * 8 = 192
bits) there is an extra bit used for synchronizing called a Frame bit - hence 193 bits are
sent and this increase of 1 bit per 192 causes the speed to increase to 1.544 Mbps.

Well, you might ask, 1.544*2 = 3.088 Mbps and not 3.152 Mbps for T1C, how come?
Well, the answer is that the T1C frame is made up of 1272 bits and is quite different
from the 193 bit frame of the T1 data stream. It should be pointed out that the frame
length of T1C and higher signals are not related in any technical way to the T1 stream
which is treated simply as a string of bits. The simplistic diagram in Figure 1 is
correct from an organizational point of view and does not show the relationship of the
formatted data.

Now I have been using the term "T1 data stream". To be consistent with AT&T
parlance, a "T1 data stream" is called a "DS1". Equally, a T1C stream is referred to as
"DS1C", etc. Another summary chart to show the relationship is in Figure 3:

Sig. Lvl Carrier # of T1's # Voice Ckts Speed Mbps

DS-0 -- 1/24 1 .064
DS-1 T1 1 24 1.544
DS-1C T1C 2 24 3.152
DS-2 T2 4 96 6.312
DS-3 T3 28 672 44.736
DS-4 T4 168 4032 274.760

Figure 3 - T1 Hierarchy Summary Chart

DS1 and T1 are both digital signal levels that are part of a standardized hierarchy or building
blocks of digital services for TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) digital lines. A T1 line multiplexes
or aggregates 24 of these DS0 channels into a DS1 with a total bandwidth of 1.536 Mbps. But a
T1 line runs at 1.544 Mbps 123. DS1 includes framing bits as well as all the data (or voice) within
the frames, but does not include definitions for physical cabling, or line coding, etc 24. In
colloquial terms, DS1 and T1 mean the same thing, but there is a very fine point of technical
difference between the two. You can get DS1 service without a T1 line but if you have a T1 line,
you’ve got DS1 1.

DS1 is the digital signal, which includes framing bits as well as all
the data (or voice) within the frames. DS1 does not include
definitions for physical cabling, or line coding, etc.

T1 is a superset of DS1 because T1 includes cabling, line coding, and

digital signaling, etc.--basically everything that is necessary to get
the signal from one end to the other. So talking about a "DS1 over a
T1 line" is totally redundant since the term T1 includes definitions
for DS1 framing.
The reason for the distinction is that a DS1 can exist apart from a
T1, but the reverse is not true. For instance, you can have a DS1
carried by a Sonet VT. In fact there are DS#'s that won't ever cross
a cable. For instance, the DS2 in the process of multiplexing 28
DS1's into a DS3 has no physical cabling or line coding. On the other
hand, if you have a T1, you are always carrying DS1 frames.
This is also analogous to the STS-1 vs. OC-1 terminology. OC-1 always
carries an STS-1 frame, and OC-1 covers all the physical layer specs
including cabling. The STS-1 is just the digital signal, and can
exist in electrical (within an optical switch) or optical (on the
fiber) form.
Frequently Answered Questions

Are T1 lines still used?

A T1 line is a digital connection that transmits data at a rate of 1.544 megabits per second.
While some companies still use T1 lines, they are gradually being replaced by faster T3 lines and
other technologies, such as Ethernet and fiber optic cable.

Is T1 faster than fiber?

T1 is faster than fiber.

T1

1. Type of Connection: T1 lines are a type of digital telephone line that has been
used traditionally for voice and data transmission.
2. Technology: T1 lines are made up of twisted copper wires. They are a legacy
technology that predates the modern internet but have been adapted for
digital data transmission.
3. Speed: A standard T1 line typically provides a dedicated symmetric
bandwidth of 1.544 megabits per second (Mbps). This means that the
upload and download speeds are the same.
4. Reliability: While reliable and offering dedicated bandwidth not influenced
by other users, T1 lines are generally considered less advanced than fiber
optics. However, because of their dedicated nature, they can be quite
stable.
5. Distance: T1 lines can run relatively long distances from the user to the ISP
without significant signal degradation, although repeaters are often
needed to boost the signal over longer runs.
6. Usage: T1 lines are often used by small to medium-sized businesses that
require a reliable connection but don’t have the need for extremely high-
speed broadband internet services.

Fiber Optic

1. Type of Connection: Fiber optic technology uses fibers made of glass or

plastic to transmit data. It is the cutting-edge technology for
telecommunications, data networking, and internet traffic.
 2. Technology: Fiber optics work by sending light through the fiber, which can
carry large amounts of data at very high speeds over greater distances
than traditional metal conductors.
3. Speed: Fiber optic cables provide significantly higher bandwidth than T1
lines. Speeds can range from 25 megabits per second (Mbps) to 100
gigabits per second (Gbps) or even higher, depending on the
infrastructure.
4. Reliability: Fiber optic cables are less susceptible to electromagnetic
interference and offer higher reliability and lower latency than copper-
based solutions like T1.
5. Distance: Fiber optics can transmit data over tens of kilometers without
significant loss, which makes them ideal for long-distance
communication.
6. Usage: Fiber optics are used for internet services, cable television, and
telephone systems, particularly in situations where high bandwidth and
long distances are involved. It’s common for large enterprises, data
centers, and as the backbone for internet service providers.

Key Differences

• Speed and Bandwidth: Fiber optic provides much higher speeds and
bandwidth compared to T1.
• Technology Medium: T1 uses copper lines, while fiber optic uses glass or
plastic fibers.
• Signal Type: T1 transmits electrical signals, whereas fiber optics transmit
light.
• Distance Capability: Fiber optics can carry signals over much longer
distances without the need for as many repeaters or signal boosters.
• Interference: Fiber is less prone to electromagnetic interference, which can
be a concern for T1 lines.
• Future-Proofing: Fiber optic infrastructure is considered to be more future-
proof due to its higher capacity for speed and bandwidth improvements.
• Cost: T1 lines can be less expensive in the short term, particularly where
fiber optic infrastructure is not yet in place, but fiber optics offer more
value in terms of speed and capacity for bandwidth.

In summary, while T1 lines are a stable and reliable technology for transmitting
data, fiber optics offer significantly higher speeds, bandwidth, and reliability,
which make them more suitable for modern high-speed internet and data
transmission needs.
Overview
With the development of communication systems to the present, voice communication is still
play an important role in all communication traffic. the method used in the initial
communication system is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM Frequency Division
Multiplexing).

With the pursuit of transmission rate, transmission quality, and transmission cost, digital
systems such as PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) and TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) technology
have been widely used in communication systems.

In PDH (Plesiochronous digital hierarchy), two basic PCM communication systems are used as
the basis, one is the T1 system recommended by ANSI, and the other is the E1 system
recommended by ITU-T. The T1 system is widely used mainly in North America (the J1 used in
Japan is basically similar to the T1), while the E1 system is used in Europe and other Asian
countries.

From this article, we will learn.

What is PCM ?
What is TDM ?
What is T1 ?
What is E1 ?
Products related to E1
What is PCM
PCM (Pulse code modulation) is a method used to converter analog signals, such as a
telephone call, to digital signals, In PCM, an analog signal is sampled and converted to a series
of binary bits.

PCM consists of three steps: sampling, quantizing, and encoding, you can see the whole process
of PCM as shown in the figure below.
Sampling

Sampling is a process of finding a sufficient number of samples, so that the original signal can
be represented by those samples completely and it should be possible to reconstruct the
original signal. Samples are basically discrete values of amplitudes with a regular interval over
time. that is why the process of sampling is also called PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation).

PAM signal is simply the result of series of these discrete sample values. The number of
samples per second is called sample rate.
◆ Telephone, sample rate is 8KHz (8000 samples per second)
◆ Voice over IP (VoIP), sample rate is 16KHz
◆ Audio CD or MP3, sample rate is about 44KHz(44000 samples per second)
◆ For very high quality sound such as Blu-ray disc, 1MHz (1million samples per second)

Quantizing
Sampling converts a time-varying signal into a discrete-time signal, a sequence of real numbers.
Real numbers are any number you could find on a line segment. On any line segment, we can
find an infinite set of real numbers. However, we only need a finite set of values which can be
converted to binary numbers. Quantizing process exactly server this purpose, Quantizing
process is the process of rounding off the amplitudes of flat top samples a manageable number
of levels. We try to make each sample to match each level because each level has a specific bit
value.
Encoding

In encoding step, we will convert each sample from right to left, in time order, the sampled PAM
signal is not yet a binary signal, and the PAM signal must be converted into a binary code
through quantization and encoding. In actual PCM equipment, quantization and coding are
closely integrated. The process of quantization is the process of encoding sample pulses. After
the quantization is completed, the encoding is over.

In Summary, Sampling converts a time-varying signal into a discrete-time signal, a sequence of

real numbers. Sampling is like drawing vertical lines with a regular interval, Quantizing process
is like drawing horizontal lines and each line has a specific measurable bit value, and then make
each sample flat top match a specific horizontal line. In this way, each sample can be uniformly
encoded with specific bit values.

T1 Frame Types

The T1 interface supports 4 different frame structures, dictated by the mode of operation, they
are Frame, Super Frame (SF), Extended Super Frame (ESF) and Unframed.

D type channel bank

The purpose of a Channel Bank in the telephone company is to form the foundation of
multiplexing and demultiplexing the 24 voice channels (DS0). The D-type Channel
Bank is used for digital signals. There are five kinds of Channel Banks that are used in
the System: D1, D2, D3, D4, and DCT (Digital Carrier Trunk).

A channel bank is a device that performs multiplexing or demultiplexing of a group of

communications channels, such as analog or digital telephone lines, into one channel of
higher bandwidth or higher digital bit rate, such as a DS-1 (T1) circuit 1. The D-type
Channel Bank is used for digital signals and there are five kinds of Channel Banks that are
used in the System: D1, D2, D3, D4, and DCT (Digital Carrier Trunk) 2.

A transmitting portion of a Channel Bank digitally encodes the 24 analog channels, adds
signalling information into each channel, and multiplexes the digital stream onto the
transmission medium. The receiving portion reverses the process 2. The purpose of a
Channel Bank in the telephone company is to form the foundation of multiplexing and
demultiplexing the 24 voice channels (DS0) 2.
DS1 is a digital signal that uses T1 transmission technology to transmit data at a rate
of 1.544 Mbps 1. It is a digital signal level 1 (DS1) signal that is used to transmit voice and
data over a T1 line 1. DS1 is a 24-channel signal that is used to transmit voice and data
over a T1 line 1. The D4 Channel Bank is an example of a digital source that produces a
DS1 signal 2.
In summary, a Channel Bank is a device that performs multiplexing or demultiplexing of a
group of communications channels, while DS1 is a digital signal that uses T1 transmission
technology to transmit data at a rate of 1.544 Mbps 21.

Frame

A basic T1 frame DS1 (digital signal-level one) contains 24 DS0 (64kbps) time slots, numbered
from 1 to 24, each time slot has 8 bits, a total of 192 bits. The T1 basic frame also includes an F
bit (framing bit), which is used as a frame synchronization bit to indicate the end of the current
frame and the beginning of the next frame. The transmission rate of DS1=193*8k= 1.544 Mbps.
● T1 frame is constructed of 24 timelsots (each timeslots is of 8 bits) plus one framing bit
added.
● Total frame length is 193 bits.
● Each TS is regarded as a channel of 64 kbit/s bandwidth.
● Framing bit creates a channel of 8kbit/s and is used for messages, synchronization, and
alarms.
● A frame is the basic building block for the SF and the ESF.

Super Frame (SF)

The SF frame format (also known as the D4 frame format) is the most commonly used format in
the current public switched telephone network. Each SF consists of 12 basic DS1 frames. The
193th bit of each frame is used as the control bit, and the 12th 193bit of the SF Combine them
to form a 12-bit control word (eg 100011011100) to provide frame synchronization and
signaling management information. The odd bits of the 12-bit control word of the SF frame
(called the Ft bit, and the corresponding frame is called the terminal frame) are used to mark
the frame and superframe boundary so that the receiving device can correctly process user
data; the even bits of the control word (called Fs) Bit, the corresponding frame is called
signaling frame) used to carry signaling flags.
Extended Super Frame (ESF)

The ESF frame format extends the SF frame mode from 12 frames to 24 frames, a total of 193*
24 = 4632 bits. ESF and SF frame format are basically the same.
Frame synchronization is the process of identifying the beginning and end of a frame in a
stream of data being received 1. In telecommunication, incoming frame alignment signals,
such as a distinctive bit sequences or syncwords, are identified, permitting the data bits
within the frame to be extracted for decoding or retransmission 1.
The framing bit is a common practice in telecommunications, for example in T-carrier,
where a non-information bit is inserted in a dedicated time slot within the frame that is
used for synchronization of the incoming data with the receiver 1. In a bit stream, framing
bits indicate the beginning or end of a frame. They occur at specified positions in the frame,
do not carry information, and are usually repetitive 1.

A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital

networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to digital data 1. It is based on
the theory of cyclic error-correcting codes and has a fixed-length check value. CRCs are
popular because they are simple to implement in binary hardware, easy to analyze
mathematically, and particularly good at detecting common errors caused by noise in
transmission channels 1.
CRC-6 is a type of CRC that uses a 6-bit check value 2. It is used in various communication
protocols such as I2C, SMBus, and others 23. The polynomial used for CRC-6 is X^6 + X^1 +
1 2.

A Facility Data Link (FDL) is an embedded communications channel in Extended Super

Frame (ESF) DS1 framing that is used to convey both bit-oriented and message-oriented
signals 1. FDL is a digital signal that is used to transmit data at a rate of 1.544 Mbps 1. It is
used to connect data terminal equipment (DTE) to data communication
equipment (DCE) 2
In telecommunications, signaling refers to the use of signals for controlling
communications 1. A signaling channel is a dedicated channel that is used to convey
signaling information relating to multiple bearer channels 12.

Fractional T carrier service

Fractional T1 is a type of Internet connection that provides less bandwidth than a regular
T1 line, which carries 24 DS0 channels multiplexed together, and is leased by a T-carrier
service provider to a customer 12. The bandwidth of a fractional T1 line is less than 1.544
Mbps, which is the bandwidth of a regular T1 line 1.
T-carrier is a series of digital communication services provided by telcos for high-speed
permanent voice and data connections that was first developed by Bell in the
1960s 3. Telcos typically use T1 lines to connect telephone exchange switching equipment
within the telco’s central office (CO) 3. Other T-carrier services provided by
telecommunications carriers include fractional T1 circuits, consisting of 4, 8, 12, or more
DS0 channels multiplexed together 31.

The North American Digital Hierarchy (NADH) is a digital voice system that was created by the old US
‘Bell system’ (AT&T) in the early 1960s 1. It is based on multiples of the DS0 signal with a little bit of
overhead to show its age 1. The North American signal hierarchy consists of T-carrier digital services
that are provided by telecommunications carriers for high-speed permanent voice and data
connections 2. The DS1 line rate is 1.544 Mbps, supporting 24 voice channels or their equivalent in other
services 3. The NADH uses time division multiplexing (TDM) to divide a circuit into a continuous
stream of time slots and multiple channels are multiplexed into the circuit 4.

Muldem is a term that is short for multiplexer/demultiplexer 1. It is a special device that

is used to upgrade from one level in the North American Digital Multiplexing
hierarchy to the next higher level 1. Muldem handles bit-rate conversions in both
directions and is designated as M12, M23, etc., which identifies the respective input and
output digital signals 12.
A digital cross-connect system (DCS or DXC) is a piece of circuit-switched network
equipment that is used in telecommunications networks to allow lower-level TDM bit
streams, such as DS0 bit streams, to be rearranged and interconnected among higher-level
TDM signals, such as DS1 bit streams 1. DCS units are available that operate on both older
T-carrier / E-carrier bit streams, as well as newer SONET/SDH bit streams 1. DCS devices
can be used for “grooming” telecommunications traffic, switching traffic from one circuit to
another in the event of a network failure, supporting automated provisioning, and other
applications 1. Having a DCS in a circuit-switched network provides important flexibility
that can otherwise only be obtained at higher cost using manual “DSX” cross-connect patch
panels 1.

Mastergroup and commercial TV terminals

The Picturephone was a video telephone system developed by Bell Labs in the 1960s 1. It
was first demonstrated at the 1964 New York World’s Fair and later commercially
introduced in Pittsburgh and Chicago in 1970 1.

The Picturephone was a major attraction at the fair, and visitors were able to make their
own video telephone calls using a set of eight Picturephone booths 1.

It was the first system that allowed people to see each other while talking on the phone 2.

The Picturephone required three pairs of twisted copper wires to operate: the first carried
the audio as it would in a conventional telephone circuit, and the additional two pairs
carried the video 1.

While video telephony is now cheap, easy, and readily available over the internet on
computers and smartphones, it remains but a small sliver of the total volumes of calls 1.
The Picturephone was a futuristic demonstration of a long-held vision that one day all
telephone calls would have video as well as audio 1.

The Picturephone was a major attraction at the fair, and visitors were able to make their
own video telephone calls using a set of eight Picturephone booths 1.

However, the Picturephone was not a commercial success and was withdrawn from the
market a few years later 13.

Today, video telephony is cheap, easy, and readily available over the internet on
computers and smartphones, but it remains but a small sliver of the total volumes of calls 1.

A data terminal equipment (DTE) is a device that functions as either a source or

destination of binary digital data 1. It can be a terminal, microcomputer, computer, printer,
fax machine, or any other device that generates or consumes digital data 1. DTEs do not
often communicate information but need an intermediary to be able to
communicate. A data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) is a functional unit that
transmits or receives data in the form of an analog or digital signal through a network 1. At
the physical layer, a DCE takes data generated by a DTE, converts them to an appropriate
signal, and then introduces the signal onto the telecommunication link 1. Commonly used
DCEs at this layer include modems 1. In any network, a DTE generates digital data and
passes them to a DCE. The DCE converts that data to a form acceptable to the transmission
medium and sends the converted signal to another DCE on the network. The second DCE
takes the signal off the line, converts it to a form usable by its DTE, and delivers it 1.

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is a device that communicates with the data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE) to transmit and receive digital data over communication
channels 1. DTE is responsible for generating, sending, receiving, and interpreting digital
data signals. It is also responsible for controlling the flow of data between the DTE and
DCE 1.
DTE is an essential component of data transmission systems as it provides the interface
between the user and the communication network 1. It is used to connect devices such as
computers, printers, and routers to communication networks such as the internet, local
area networks (LANs), and wide area networks (WANs) 2.
In summary, DTE is necessary for data transmission as it provides the interface between
the user and the communication network, allowing digital data to be transmitted and
received over communication channels.
Digital carrier line encoding

Digital carrier line encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link 1. The common types of line
encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester 1.

1. Transmission voltages and DC component

2. Duty cycle
3. Bandwidth considerations
4. Clock and framing bit recovery
5. Error detection
6. Ease of detection and decoding

Digital Biphase is a type of encoding that uses one cycle of a square wave at 0 phase to
represent a logic 1 and one cycle of a square wave at 180 phase to represent a logic 0 1. It is
a popular type of encoding that produces a strong timing component for clock recovery and
does not cause DC wandering 2.
Digital Biphase is used in various applications such as encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes 1. It is also
used in digital transmission systems to minimize Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) by
avoiding distortion and overlapping of consecutive pulses 1.