UNIT -I

Network equipment

PC network parts are the significant parts which are expected to introduce
the

programming. Some significant organization parts are NIC, switch, link,

center, switch,

what's more, modem. Contingent upon the sort of organization that we

want to introduce, some organization

parts can likewise be taken out. For instance, the remote organization
doesn't need

a link..
Components Of Computer Network:

NIC

 NIC represents network interface card.

 NIC is an equipment part used to interface a PC with one more PC onto an

organization

 It can uphold an exchange pace of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.

 The Macintosh address or actual location is encoded on the organization card

chip which is doled out by the IEEE to recognize an organization card
exceptionally. The Macintosh address is put away in the PROM
(Programmable read-just memory).

There are two types of NIC:

 1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and
connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection
over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub

A Hub Center is an equipment gadget that splits the organization association between
numerous gadgets. At the point when PC demands for some data from an
organization, it initially sends the solicitation to the Center through link. Center point
will communicate this solicitation to the whole organization. Every one of the gadgets
will check regardless of whether the solicitation has a place with them. In the event
that not, the solicitation will be dropped.

The interaction utilized by the Center point consumes more transfer speed and
restricts how much correspondence. These days, the utilization of center point is out
of date, and it is supplanted by further developed PC network parts like Switches, Sw
Switch

A switch is an equipment gadget that interfaces different gadgets on a PC

organization. A Switch contains further developed highlights than Center point. The
Switch contains the refreshed table that chooses where the information is
communicated or not. Change conveys the message to the right objective in view of
the actual location present in the approaching message. A Switch doesn't
communicate the message to the whole organization like the Center point. It decides
the gadget to whom the message is to be communicated. Thusly, we can say that
switch gives an immediate association between the source and objective. It speeds up

the organization.

Router

 A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an

internet connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the
incoming packets to another network.
 A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
 A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the
routing table.
  It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of

the packet..

Advantages Of Router:

 Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse

the entire cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can
read the data.
 Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but
no other networks are affected that are served by the router.
 Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network.
Suppose there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of
traffic. This increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single
network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load by
half.
 Network range

Modem
  A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the
internet over the existing telephone line.
 A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on
the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
 It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an
analog signal over the telephone lines.

Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in
the following categories:

 Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

 Cellular Modem
 Cable modem

Bridges

A bridge connects two separate Ethernet network segments. It forwards packets from
the source network to the destined network.

Gateways

A gateway connects entirely different networks that work upon different protocols. It
is the entry and the exit point of a network and controls access to other networks.
Network Interface Cards

NIC is a component of the computer to connect it to a network. Network cards are of

two types: Internal network cards and external network cards.

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

 Twisted pair cable

 Coaxial cable
 Fibre-optic cable

Network Software

Network software is defined as a wide range of software that streamlines the

operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.
Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system.Network
software plays a crucial role in managing a network infrastructure and simplifying IT
operations by facilitating communication, security, content, and data sharing.

Functions of network software

 User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the

network. This is particularly useful when hiring or relieving

 File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and
control user access to that data.

 Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.

 Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and

preventing data breaches.

Features Of Computer network

A list Of Computer network features is given below.

 Communication speed
 File sharing
 Back up and Roll back is easy
 Software and Hardware sharing
 Security
 Scalability
 Reliability

Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner.
For example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet.
Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing

File sharing is one of the major advantages of the computer network. Computer
network provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is
easy to take the back up from the main server.

Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main servertherefore, the user can access the
applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine.
Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

Security

Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the
certain files and applications.

Scalability

Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must
be scalable so that we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it
decreases the speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also
decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can be
overcome by using the routing or switching devices.
Reliability

Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case
of any hardware failure.

Uses Of Computer Network

 Resource sharing: Asset sharing is the sharing of assets like projects,

printers, and information among the clients on the organization without
the prerequisite of the actual area of the asset and client.

 Server-Client model: PC organizing is utilized in the server-client model.

A server is a focal PC used to store the data and kept up with by the
framework executive. Clients are the machines used to get to the data put
away in the server from a distance.

 Communication medium: PC network acts as a correspondence medium

among the clients. For instance, an organization contains more than one
PC has an email framework which the representatives use for everyday
correspondence.

 E-trade: PC network is likewise significant in organizations. We can do

the business over the web. For instance, amazon.com is doing their
business over the web, i.e., they are doing their business over the web.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can
say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

 o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network

 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked

together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources,
but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system
. Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

OSI Model

 OSI represents Open Framework Interconnection is a reference model that

depicts how data from a product application in one PC travels through an
actual medium to the product application in another PC.

 OSI comprises of seven layers, and each layer plays out a specific
organization capability.

 OSI model was created by the Global Association for Normalization (ISO) in
1984, and it is presently viewed as a building model for the between PC
correspondences.

 OSI model partitions the entire errand into seven more modest and sensible
assignments. Each layer is relegated a specific undertaking.

 Each layer is independent, so that undertaking allocated to each layer can be

performed autonomously.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

 The OSI model is partitioned into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

 The upper layer of the OSI model basically manages the application related
issues, and they are executed exclusively in the product. The application layer
is nearest to the end client. Both the end client and the application layer
interface with the product applications. An upper layer alludes to the layer
simply over another layer.

 The lower layer of the OSI model arrangements with the information transport
issues. The information connect layer and the actual layer are carried out in
equipment and programming. The actual layer is the most minimal layer of the
OSI model and is nearest to the actual medium. The actual layer is mostly
answerable for putting the data on the actual medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers is given below:

1. Physical Layer
 2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

  Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides
on a local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:

o Logical Link Control Layer

 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network

layer of the receiver that is receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
 It also provides flow control.
 o Media Access Control Layer

 A Media access control layer is a link between

the Logical Link Control layer and the network's
physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the
network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer
to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the
hardware destination and source address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such
as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
  Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on

the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
  Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

 It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over

the internet.
  It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
 When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

o User Datagram Protocol

 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does
not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol
unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

 Service-point tending to: PCs run a few projects all the while because of
this explanation, the transmission of information from source to the
objective starting with one PC then onto the next PC as well as starting
with one interaction then onto the next cycle. The vehicle layer adds the
header that contains the location known as a help point address or port
location. The obligation of the organization layer is to send the
information starting with one PC then onto the next PC and the
obligation of the vehicle layer is to communicate the message to the right
cycle.

 Segmentation and reassembly: When the vehicle layer gets the message
from the upper layer, it partitions the message into various sections, and
each fragment is doled out with a grouping number that extraordinarily
distinguishes each portion. At the point when the message has shown up
at the objective, then the vehicle layer reassembles the message in light of
their grouping numbers.
  Connection control: Transport layer offers two types of assistance
Association situated help and connectionless help. A connectionless help
regards each fragment as a singular bundle, and they all movement in
various courses to arrive at the objective. An association situated help
makes an association with the vehicle layer at the objective machine prior
to conveying the parcels. In association arranged assistance, every one of
the parcels travel in the single course.

 Flow control: The vehicle layer likewise liable for stream control however
it is performed start to finish as opposed to across a solitary connection.

 Error control: The vehicle layer is likewise answerable for Mistake

control. Mistake control is performed start to finish as opposed to across
the single connection. The shipper transport layer guarantees that
message reach at the objective with no mistake.

5) Session Layer

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

  Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The cycles in two frameworks trade the data as character

strings, numbers, etc. Various PCs utilize different encoding techniques,
the show layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding strategies. It changes over the information from source
subordinate configuration into a typical organization and changes the
 normal arrangement into collector subordinate configuration at the less
than desirable end.

 Encryption: Encryption is expected to keep up with security. Encryption

is a course of changing over the shipper communicated data into another
structure and sends the subsequent message over the organization.

 Compression: Information pressure is a course of packing the

information, i.e., it decreases the quantity of pieces to be communicated.
Information pressure is vital in mixed media like text, sound, video.

7) Application Layer

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to

access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from
a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
 o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP Reference models

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the least layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the mix of the Actual layer and Information Connection
layer characterized in the OSI reference model.

o It characterizes how the information ought to be sent genuinely through the

organization.

o This layer is primarily answerable for the transmission of the information

between two gadgets on a similar organization.

o The capabilities completed by this layer are embodying the IP datagram into
outlines communicated by the organization and planning of IP addresses into actual
addresses.

o The conventions utilized by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
outline hand-off.
Internet Layer

o An web layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An web layer is otherwise called the organization layer.

o The principal obligation of the web layer is to send the parcels from any
organization, and they show up at the objective regardless of the course they take.

The conventions utilized in this layer are:

IP Convention: IP convention is utilized in this layer, and it is the main piece of the
whole TCP/IP suite.

Following are the obligations of this convention:

o IP Tending to: This convention executes coherent host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are utilized by the web and higher layers to distinguish
the gadget and to give internetwork directing.

o Host-to-have correspondence: It decides the way through which the

information is to be communicated.

o Data Epitome and Arranging: An IP convention acknowledges the information

from the vehicle layer convention. An IP convention guarantees that the information
is sent and gotten safely, it epitomizes the information into message known as IP
datagram.

o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The cutoff forced on the size of the IP

datagram by information interface layer convention is known as Most extreme
Transmission unit (MTU). On the off chance that the size of IP datagram is more
prominent than the MTU unit, the IP convention parts the datagram into more modest
units so they can go over the neighborhood organization. Fracture should be possible
by the shipper or transitional switch. At the collector side, every one of the parts are
reassembled to shape a unique message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over a similar neighborhood organization,
for example, LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as immediate conveyance. At the point
when source and objective are on the far off network, then, at that point, the IP
datagram is sent by implication. This can be achieved by directing the IP datagram
through different gadgets like switches.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of
the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a
router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as
disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP
protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
 o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address
of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram
in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is
active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the
damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be
received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be
completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot
be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the
communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

The main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us
to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of
plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has
 the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This
protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify
the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the
names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the
address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a way
that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.

ARPANET

The full form of ARPANET is Advanced Research Projects Agency NET was
developed under the direction of the US Advanced Research Projects Agency and
was based on a concept first published in 1967. With the interconnection of four
university computers in 1969, the concept became a modest reality.

It was the first network to implement the TCP/IP protocol. It was a very early packet
switch network. This network became the foundation for the modern day internet.

The protocols used in Arpanet were later developed for joining multiple networks,
which gave rise to the modern day internet. It helps in grouping the data in digital
communication to packets. It helps by introducing the protocol suit. Now it is the
foundation for the internet we are using now.

Characteristics
The characteristics of ARPANET are as follows −
  Risk-taking
 Experimental
 Dynamic
 A head of industry at time
 Part of changing the way computing was done
 Building a new discipline.

Advantages
The advantages of ARPANET are as follows −

 ARPANET allowed remote login and was given the name Tenet.
 Transfer of files becomes a part of FTP.
 It uses host-to-host protocol called as NCP (network control protocol)
 It uses packet switching to send data.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of ARPANET are as follows −

 Connection to non-system network architecture networks was difficult.

 Path between the pairs of nodes has to be redesigned and it has to be
stored centrally.
 Maintaining and installation of SNA is complicated.
 SNA products are expensive.
Physical Layer: Guided Transmission Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pairs:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of
the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for
twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the protected turned pair link isn't exceptionally high and not
extremely low.

o An establishment of STP is simple.

o It has higher limit when contrasted with unshielded contorted pair link.

o It has a higher weakening.

o It is safeguarded that gives the higher information transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV

wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

 o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network

Fibre Optic

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used
to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known
as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of
the core, the lighter will be transmitted into the fibre.
 o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and
extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Transmission capacity: The fiber optic link gives more transfer
speed as thought about copper. Subsequently, the fiber optic conveys more
information when contrasted with copper link.

o Faster speed: Fiber optic link conveys the information as light. This
permits the fiber optic link to convey the signs at a higher speed.

o Longer distances: The fiber optic link conveys the information at a more
drawn out distance when contrasted with copper link.

o Better unwavering quality: The fiber optic link is more dependable than
the copper link as it is resistant to any temperature changes while it can cause
impede in the network of copper link.

o Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic link is more slender and lighter in
weight so it can endure more draw strain than copper link.

Unguided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using

any physical medium. Therefore, it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves

o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

 o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is an innovation that sends the engaged

light emission radio transmission from one ground-based microwave transmission
recieving wire to another.

o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the recurrence in the reach
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.

o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and getting recieving wire is to

be adjusted, i.e., the waves sent by the sending radio wire are barely focussed.

o In this case, recieving wires are mounted on the pinnacles to send a pillar to
another radio wire which is km away.

o It chips away at the view transmission, i.e., the radio wires mounted on the
pinnacles are the immediate sight of one another.Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6

GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer
distance.
 o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: A snoopping makes shaky correspondence. Any noxious

client can get the sign in the air by utilizing its own recieving wire.

o Out of stage signal: A sign can be moved out of stage by utilizing

microwave transmission.

o Susceptible to weather pattern: A microwave transmission is defenseless

to weather pattern. This implies that any natural change, for example,
downpour, wind can mutilate the sign.

o Bandwidth restricted: Assignment of data transfer capacity is restricted

on account of microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known

height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The inclusion region of a satellite microwave is more than the earthbound

microwave.

o The transmission cost of the satellite is free of the separation from the focal
point of the inclusion region.

o Satellite correspondence is utilized in versatile and remote correspondence

applications.

o It is not difficult to introduce.

o It is utilized in a wide assortment of uses like weather conditions determining,

radio/television signal telecom, portable correspondence, and so forth.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Wireless Transmission: Infrared

o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication

over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
 o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

The Public switched telephone Networks:

Web Convention (VoIP), which use bundle changed innovation to send voice
brings over the web.

The PSTN has been broadly utilized for quite a long time and has given solid voice
correspondence administrations to billions of individuals all over the planet.
Notwithstanding, with the approach of computerized advancements and the
developing fame of web based correspondence benefits, the PSTN is slowly being
eliminated in certain locales for fresher and further developed correspondence
organizations. In any case, the PSTN keeps on assuming a critical part in many
regions of the planet, particularly in far off regions where web network might be
restricted or problematic.

Mobile Telephone Systems

Cell phone frameworks, generally known as versatile or cell organizations, are a sort
of media communications network that considers remote correspondence utilizing cell
phones, for example, cell phones, tablets, and other remote gadgets. Cell phone
frameworks have turned into a basic piece of current correspondence, empowering
individuals to settle on voice decisions, send instant messages, and access information
administrations in a hurry.

Cell phone frameworks utilize a blend of cell innovation and radio waves to lay out
correspondence joins between cell phones and cell pinnacles or base stations. These
phone towers are decisively situated inside an inclusion region, and as a cell phone
moves, it naturally interfaces and changes between various cell pinnacles to keep a
consistent association.

There are a few ages of cell phone frameworks, each with its own mechanical
headways and guidelines. These include:

1G (Original): Simple cell frameworks that gave essential voice correspondence,

presented during the 1980s.
2G (Second Era): Advanced cell frameworks that presented computerized voice
correspondence and empowered SMS (Short Message Administration), presented
during the 1990s.
3G (Third Era): Advanced frameworks that gave higher information rates to web
access, presented in the mid 2000s.
4G (Fourth Era): Advanced frameworks that offered quicker information speeds and
further developed execution for mixed media applications, presented in the last part of
the 2000s.
5G (Fifth Era): The most recent age of portable frameworks that give essentially
quicker information speeds, lower idleness, and backing for trend setting innovations
like IoT (Web of Things) and expanded reality (AR), presented during the 2010s.
Cell phone frameworks have altered correspondence, empowering far reaching
admittance to voice and information benefits, and have changed different businesses
like transportation, medical care, money, and diversion. They proceed to develop and
assume a significant part in associating individuals and empowering correspondence
in the present speedy computerized world.
UNIT – 2

DATA LINK LAYER

In the OSI model, the information interface layer is a fourth layer from
the top and second layer from the base.
o The correspondence channel that interfaces the contiguous hubs is
known as connections, and to move the datagram from source to the
objective, the datagram should be gotten across a singular connection.
o The fundamental obligation of the Information Connection Layer is
to move the datagram across a singular connection.
o The Information interface layer convention characterizes the
organization of the bundle traded across the hubs as well as the activities,
for example, Mistake identification, retransmission, stream control, and
irregular access.
o The Information Connection Layer conventions are Ethernet, token
ring, FDDI and PPP.
o An significant quality of an Information Connection Layer is that
datagram can be taken care of by various connection layer conventions on
various connections in a way. For instance, the datagram is taken care of
by Ethernet on the primary connection, PPP on the subsequent
connection.
Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer (or) Design
Issues of Data link layer:
o Framing and Connection access: Information Connection Layer conventions
typify each organization outline inside a Connection layer outline before the
transmission across the connection. A casing comprises of an information field
in which organization layer datagram is embedded and various information
fields. It determines the design of the edge as well as a channel access
convention by which casing is to be sent over the connection.
o Reliable conveyance: Information Connection Layer gives a solid conveyance
administration, i.e., sends the organization layer datagram with next to no
blunder. A dependable conveyance administration is achieved with
transmissions and affirmations. An information connect layer basically gives
the dependable conveyance administration over the connections as they have
higher mistake rates and they can be revised locally, interface at which a
blunder happens as opposed to compelling to retransmit the information.
o Flow control: A getting hub can get the casings at a quicker rate than it can
handle the edge. Without stream control, the recipient's cradle can spill over,
and edges can get lost. To defeat this issue, the information connect layer
utilizes the stream control to forestall the sending hub on one side of the
connection from overpowering the getting hub on one more side of the
connection.
 o Error identification: Blunders can be presented by signal lessening and
commotion. Information Connection Layer convention gives a system to
identify at least one blunders. This is accomplished by adding blunder
recognition bits in the casing and afterward getting hub can play out a mistake
check.
o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except
that receiving node not only detect the errors but also determine where the
errors have occurred in the frame.
o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can
transmit the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node can
transmit the data at the same time.

Error Detection

When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system
does not guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data
transmitted by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received at
the receiver end is not identical to the message transmitted.

 Types Of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories:

o Single-Bit Error

o Burst Error

Single-Bit Error:
The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is
changed to 1.

Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For
example, Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s
and for a single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.

Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight
wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-
bit is corrupted per byte.

Burst Error:

The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.
Burst Errors are most likely to occur in Serial Data Transmission.

The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.

 Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

o Single parity check

o Two-dimensional parity check

o Checksum

o Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

o Single Equality checking is the basic component and cheap to distinguish the
blunders.

o In this procedure, an excess piece is otherwise called an equality bit which is

affixed toward the finish of the information unit so the quantity of 1s turns out to be
even. In this way, the all out number of sent pieces would be 9 pieces.

o If the quantity of 1s pieces is odd, then equality bit 1 is affixed and on the off
chance that the quantity of 1s pieces is even, equality bit 0 is annexed toward the
finish of the information unit.

o At the less than desirable end, the equality bit is determined from the got
information bits and contrasted and the got equality bit.
o This method creates the all out number of 1s even, so it is known as even-
equality checking.

Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking

o It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.

o If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity

Check which organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-
parity check.
 o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits
computed from the received data.

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

o If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same
position in another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will
not be able to detect the error.
o This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.

Checksum

A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of

redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator
 A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator
subdivides the data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are
added together by using one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and
appended to the original data, known as checksum field. The extended data is
transmitted across the network.

Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be

The Sender follows the given steps:

1. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
2. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the su
m.
3. The sum is complemented, and it becomes the checksum field.
4. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

Checksum Checker

A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the

incoming data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added
together, and then this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero,
then the data is accepted otherwise data is rejected.

The Receiver follows the given steps:

1. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.

 2. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to
ge-t the sum.
3. The sum is complemented.
4. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is d
is-carded.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

Following are the means utilized in CRC for mistake location:

o In CRC technique, a line of n 0s is joined to the data unit, and this n

number isn't the very amount of pieces in a fated number, known as division
which is n+1 bits.

o Secondly, the as of late expanded data is isolated by a divisor using a

cycle is known as twofold division. The remainder of from this division is
known as CRC extra piece.

o Thirdly, the CRC remaining piece replaces the joined 0s close to the
completion of the principal data. This as of late made unit is sent off the
recipient.

o The authority gets the data followed by the CRC extra piece. The
beneficiary will see this whole unit as a singular unit, and separated by a
 similar divisor was utilized to find the CRC remaining portion.

Error Correction

Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data
is transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver

requests the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting
code which automatically corrects the errors.

Elementary Data Link Protocols:

Protocols in the data link layer are designed so that this layer can perform
its basic functions: Framing, Error control and Flow control.
Elementary Data Link protocols are classified into three categories, as given below −

 Protocol 1 − Unrestricted simplex protocol

 Protocol 2 − Simplex stop and wait protocol
  Protocol 3 − Simplex protocol for noisy channels.

Protocol 1 − Unrestricted simplex protocol

Data transmitting is carried out in one direction only. The transmission

(Tx) and receiving (Rx) are always ready and the processing time can be ignored. In
this protocol, infinite buffer space is available, and no errors are occurring that is no
damage frames and no lost frames.

The Unrestricted Simplex Protocol is diagrammatically represented as

follows −

Protocol 2 − Simplex stop and wait protocol

In this protocol we assume that data is transmitted in one direction only.
No error occurs; the receiver can only process the received information at finite rate.
These assumptions imply that the transmitter cannot send frames at rate faster than
the receiver can process them.
The principal issue this is the way to keep the source from flooding the beneficiary.
The overall answer for this issue is to have the collector send some kind of criticism
to shipper, the interaction is as per the following −

Step1 − The beneficiary send the affirmation outline back to the source let the
shipper know that the last gotten outline has been handled and passed to the host.

Stage 2 − Consent to send the following casing is allowed.

Stage 3 − The source in the wake of sending the sent casing needs to sit tight for a
recognize outline from the recipient prior to sending another edge.

This convention is called Simplex Pause and stand by convention, the shipper sends
one edge and sits tight for input from the recipient. At the point when the ACK shows
up, the shipper sends the following edge.The Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol is
diagrammatically represented as follows –

Protocol 3 − Simplex protocol for noisy channels.

Data transfer is only in one direction, consider separate sender and
receiver, finite processing capacity and speed at the receiver, since it is a noisy
channel, errors in data frames or acknowledgement frames are expected. Every frame
has a unique sequence number.
After a frame has been transmitted, the timer is started for a finite time. Before the
timer expires, if the acknowledgement is not received , the frame gets retransmitted,
when the acknowledgement gets corrupted or sent data frames gets damaged, how
long the sender should wait to transmit the next frame is infinite.

The Simplex Protocol for Noisy Channel is diagrammatically represented as follows

–

Sliding Window Protocol:

Sliding window protocols are data link layer protocols for reliable and sequential
delivery of data frames. The sliding window is also used in Transmission Control
Protocol.

In this protocol, multiple frames can be sent by a sender at a time before receiving an
acknowledgment from the receiver. The term sliding window refers to the imaginary
boxes to hold frames. Sliding window method is also known as windowing.

A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol-

In one – bit sliding window protocol, the size of the window is 1. So the sender
transmits a frame, waits for its acknowledgment, then transmits the next frame. Thus
it uses the concept of stop and waits for the protocol. This protocol provides for full –
duplex communications. Hence, the acknowledgment is attached along with the next
data frame to be sent by piggybacking.

It is a data-link layer protocol which is used for transmitting the data over the
noiseless channels. It provides unidirectional data transmission which means that
either sending or receiving of data will take place at a time. It provides flow-control
mechanism but does not provide any error control mechanism.

The idea behind the usage of this frame is that when the sender sends the frame then
he waits for the acknowledgment before sending the next frame.

A Protocol using GO back n-

Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.
When the acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-
Back-N ARQ method, both sender and receiver maintain a window.
 The sending-window size empowers the shipper to send various casings
without getting the affirmation of the past ones. The getting window empowers the
collector to get various edges and recognize them. The beneficiary monitors
approaching casing's arrangement number.

At the point when the shipper sends every one of the casings in window, it
looks up to what grouping number it has gotten positive affirmation. In the event that
all edges are emphatically recognized, the source sends next set of casings. Assuming
source finds that it has gotten NACK or has not get any ACK for a specific edge, it
retransmits every one of the casings after which it gets no sure ACK.

Selective Repeat ARQ

In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any
buffer space for its window size and has to process each frame as it comes. This
enforces the sender to retransmit all the frames which are not acknowledged.
 In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence
numbers, buffers the frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is
missing or damaged.
The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.

Example Data Link Protocols :

 Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC) − SDLC was developed by
IBM in the 1970s as part of Systems Network Architecture. It was used
to connect remote devices to mainframe computers. It ascertained that
data units arrive correctly and with right flow from one network point
to the next.
 High Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) − HDLC is based upon
SDLC and provides both unreliable service and reliable service. It is a
bit – oriented protocol that is applicable for both point – to – point and
multipoint communications.
 Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) − This is a simple protocol for
transmitting data units between an Internet service provider (ISP) and
home user over a dial-up link. It does not provide error detection /
correction facilities.
 Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) − This is used to transmit
multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point)
computers. It is a byte – oriented protocol that is widely used in
broadband communications having heavy loads and high speeds.
 Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It one of PPP protocols that is
responsible for establishing, configuring, testing, maintaining and
terminating links for transmission. It also imparts negotiation for set up
of options and use of features by the two endpoints of the links.
  Network Control Protocol (NCP) − These protocols are used for
negotiating the parameters and facilities for the network layer. For
every higher-layer protocol supported by PPP, one NCP is there.

Medium Access Sub Layers

Channel Allocation Schemes

Channel Allocation may be done using two schemes −

 Static Channel Allocation

 Dynamic Channel Allocation

Static Channel Allocation

In static channel designation conspire, a decent piece of the recurrence channel is

dispensed to every client. For N contending clients, the transfer speed is partitioned
into N channels utilizing recurrence division multiplexing (FDM), and each piece is
alloted to one client.

This plan is additionally alluded as fixed channel designation or fixed channel task.

In this designation conspire, there is no impedance between the clients since every
client is relegated a decent channel. Be that as it may, it isn't reasonable in the event
of countless clients with variable transmission capacity prerequisites.Dynamic
Channel Allocation

In unique channel designation plot, recurrence groups are not forever doled out to the
clients. Rather channels are designated to clients powerfully depending on the
situation, from a focal pool. The portion is finished considering various boundaries so
transmission impedance is limited.

This designation plot improves transfer speed use and results is quicker
transmissions.
Dynamic channel allotment is additionally partitioned into incorporated and
appropriated portion.

Multiple Access Sub layer:

Multiple Access Protocols

At the point when a shipper and recipient have a committed connection to

communicate information bundles, the information interface control is sufficient to
deal with the channel. Assume there is no committed way to convey or move the
information between two gadgets. All things considered, different stations access the
channel and at the same time communicates the information over the channel. It
might make crash and cross talk. Thus, the numerous entrance convention is expected
to lessen the crash and stay away from crosstalk between the channels. Following
are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different process
as:

Random Access Protocol

In this convention, all the station has the equivalent need to send the information over
a channel. In irregular access convention, at least one stations can't rely upon another
station nor any station control another station. Contingent upon the channel's state
(inactive or occupied), each station communicates the information outline.
Notwithstanding, in the event that more than one station sends the information over a
channel, there might be a crash or information struggle. Because of the crash, the
information outline parcels might be lost or changed. What's more, subsequently, it
doesn't get by the recipient end. Following are the different methods of random-access
protocols for broadcasting frames on the channel.

o Aloha

o CSMA

o CSMA/CD

o CSMA/CA

ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used
in a shared medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data
across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.

Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through
multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision
detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha.
In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the data
frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure
Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the
receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a random amount of time,
called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may assume the frame has been lost or
destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully
transmitted to the receiver.

1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.

2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency

because pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the
shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station
wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning
of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations
are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until
the beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a collision
remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more station time slot.

1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.

2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha
is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the
traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait until
the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a
transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense
the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it
must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the
frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the
data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately
sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously),
and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-

Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is
inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits
for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the frame with the next time
slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station

before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the
channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.
CSMA/ CD

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit

data frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer.
Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the
channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful.
If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision
is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel
to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a
frame to a channel.

CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier

transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control
layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check
whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own)
acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the
receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the collision of
frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel. Detects the collision of
the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973

by Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects computers on a network over a wired
connection. It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also known as Alto Aloha
Network. It connects computers within the local area network and wide area network.
Numerous devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN and
WAN within buildings, homes, and even small neighborhoods.
 It offers a simple user interface that helps to connect various devices
easily, such as switches, routers, and computers. A local area network (LAN) can be
created with the help of a single router and a few Ethernet cables, which enable
communication between all linked devices. This is because an Ethernet port is
included in your laptop in which one end of a cable is plugged in and connect the
other to a router. Ethernet ports are slightly wider, and they look similar to telephone
jacks.

Different Types of Ethernet Networks

An Ethernet device with CAT5/CAT6 copper cables is connected to a fiber optic

cable through fiber optic media converters. The distance covered by the network is
significantly increased by this extension for fiber optic cable. There are some kinds of
Ethernet networks, which are discussed below:
 o Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet is usually supported by a twisted pair or
CAT5 cable, which has the potential to transfer or receive data at around100
Mbps. They function at 100Base and 10/100Base Ethernet on the fiber side of
the link if any device such as a camera, laptop, or other is connected to a
network. The fiber optic cable and twisted pair cable are used by fast Ethernet
to create communication. The 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-
T4 are the three categories of Fast Ethernet.
o Gigabit Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network is an upgrade from Fast
Ethernet, which uses fiber optic cable and twisted pair cable to create
communication. It can transfer data at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps. In
modern times, gigabit Ethernet is more common. This network type also uses
CAT5e or other advanced cables, which can transfer data at a rate of 10 Gbps.

Advantages of Ethernet

o It is very little exorbitant to frame an Ethernet organization. When contrasted

with different frameworks of associating PCs, it is generally economical.

o Ethernet network gives high security to information as it involves firewalls

regarding information security.

o Also, the Gigabit network permits the clients to communicate information at a

speed of 1-100Gbps.

o In this organization, the nature of the information move keeps up with.

o In this organization, organization and upkeep are more straightforward.

o The most recent form of gigabit ethernet and remote ethernet can possibly
communicate information at the speed of 1-100Gbps.

ollision on a transmission medium.

Disadvantages of Ethernet
 o o It needs deterministic help; hence, it isn't viewed as the best for
constant applications.
o o The wired Ethernet network limits you concerning distances, and it is
best for involving in brief distances.
o o If you make a wired ethernet network that necessities links, centers,
switches, switches, they increment the expense of establishment.
o o Data needs speedy exchange in an intuitive application, as well as
information is tiny.
o o In ethernet organization, any recognize isn't sent by collector
subsequent to tolerating a parcel.
o o If you are wanting to set up a remote Ethernet organization, it tends to
be troublesome in the event that you have no involvement with the
organization field.
o o Comparing with the wired Ethernet organization, remote organization
isn't safer.
o o The full-duplex information correspondence mode isn't upheld by the
100Base-T4 adaptation.
o o Additionally, finding an issue is undeniably challenging in an Ethernet
organization (if has), as it isn't not difficult to figure out which hub or link is
causing the issue.

Collision-Free Protocols:

In PC organizations, when more than one station attempts to send all the while by
means of a common channel, the sent information is jumbled. This occasion is called
impact. The Medium Access Control (Macintosh) layer of the OSI model is
answerable for dealing with impact of casings. Crash - free conventions are conceived
with the goal that impacts don't happen. Conventions like CSMA/Disc and
CSMA/CA invalidates the chance of crashes once the transmission channel is gained
by any station. Be that as it may, impact can in any case happen during the conflict
time frame in the event that more than one stations begins to communicate
simultaneously. Crash - free conventions settle impact in the dispute period thus the
potential outcomes of impacts are killed.Types of Collision – free Protocols

Bit – map Protocol

In bit map protocol, the contention period is divided into N slots, where N is the total
number of stations sharing the channel. If a station has a frame to send, it sets the
corresponding bit in the slot. So, before transmission, each station knows whether the
other stations want to transmit. Collisions are avoided by mutual agreement among
the contending stations on who gets the channel.

Binary Countdown

This protocol overcomes the overhead of 1 bit per station of the bit – map protocol.
Here, binary addresses of equal lengths are assigned to each station. For example, if
there are 6 stations, they may be assigned the binary addresses 001, 010, 011, 100,
101 and 110. All stations wanting to communicate broadcast their addresses. The
station with higher address gets the higher priority for transmitting.

Limited Contention Protocols

These protocols combines the advantages of collision based protocols and collision
free protocols. Under light load, they behave like ALOHA scheme. Under heavy
load, they behave like bitmap protocols.

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol

In adaptive tree walk protocol, the stations or nodes are arranged in the form of a
binary tree as follows -

Initially all nodes (A, B ……. G, H) are permitted to compete for the channel. If a
node is successful in acquiring the channel, it transmits its frame. In case of collision,
the nodes are divided into two groups (A, B, C, D in one group and E, F, G, H in
another group). Nodes belonging to only one of them is permitted for competing. This
process continues until successful transmission occurs.

Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN
(Local Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect
to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For
path sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired
equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as
building or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while
they are still connected to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying
cable, while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet
access to the public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up
everywhere.

Advantages of WLANs

o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further

restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be
placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without
previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices
which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but
also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
 o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood
etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break
down completely in disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average
lower than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for
two reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the wireless network via
an access point for the first user, adding additional users to a network will not
increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of
cabling and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs

o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired

networks. The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is
radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference and higher
delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many
companies have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization
functionality plus many enhanced features. Most components today adhere to
the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so,
national and international frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN
design should take this into account and implement special power saving
modes and power management functions.
 o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special
license to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license
free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission,
many other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner,
train engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted
for perfect transmission is a standard office or production environment.

Switching

o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission
media. This technique of transferring the information from one computer
network to another network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a
small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.

o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in
the home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.

o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been
addressed. It verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.

o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and

destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:

 o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very
critical and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for
the effective utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device
transmits the message over the same physical media, and they collide with
each other. To overcome this problem, switching technology is implemented
so that packets do not collide with each other.

Advantages of Switching:

o Switch builds the transfer speed of the organization.

o It lessens the responsibility on individual computers as it sends the data to just

that gadget which has been tended to.

o It builds the general exhibition of the organization by diminishing the traffic

on the organization.

o There will be less edge impact as switch makes the crash area for every
association.

.Disadvantages of Switching:

o A Switch is more costly than network spans.

o A Switch can't decide the organization network issues without any problem.

o Proper planning and design of the switch are expected to deal with multicast
parcels.

Wireless Broadband (WiBB) :

Wireless broadband (WiBB) a networking technology designed to impart highspeed

Internet and data service through wireless networks. Wireless broadband may be
delivered through wireless local area networks (WLANs) or wide area networks
(WWANs).

Similar to other wireless services, wireless broadband can be either fixed or mobile.

Features of WiBB

• WiBB is like wired broadband assistance since they interface

with a web spine, with the distinction that they utilize radio waves
rather than links to associate with the last mile of the organization.

• The scope of most broadband remote access (BWA)

administrations shifts around 50 km from the communicating tower.

• Download speeds given by some remote Network access

suppliers (WISPs) are north of 100 Mbps.

• WiBB generally gives deviated information rates to downloads

and transfers.

• WiBB may likewise be even, for example they have similar

information rate in both downstream as well as upstream. This is most
seen exclusively in fixed remote organizations.
 • Any gadget associated with WiBB should be furnished with a
remote connector to make an interpretation of information into radio
transmissions which can be then sent utilizing a recieving wire.

Types of WiBB

Fixed Wireless Broadband

Fixed WiBB provides wireless Internet services for devices located in more or less
fixed locations, like homes and offices. The services are comparable to those
provided through digital subscriber line (DSL) or cable modem, with the difference
that it has wireless mode of transmission.

The two main technologies used in fixed WiBB are −

 LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution System)

 MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service) systems

Mobile Wireless Broadband

Mobile WiBB, also called mobile broadband, provides high – speed broadband the
connection from mobile phone service providers which is accessible from random
locations. The locations are within the coverage area of the phone towers of mobile
service provider and the connections are subject to monthly service plan subscribed
by the user. Mobile broadband can be costlier due to its portability. Also, they
generally have varying or limited speed except in urban areas.

Bluetooth:
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communications technology intended
to replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security.
Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico
nets, which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.
WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure-based services
through a wireless carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate
wirelessly with one another without an established infrastructure has led to the
emergence of Personal Area Networks (PANs).

Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio
Frequency (RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to
generate radio waves in the ISM band.

The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.

• Bluetooth offers a uniform design for a great many gadgets to interface and
speak with one another.
• Bluetooth innovation has accomplished worldwide acknowledgment to such
an extent that any Bluetooth empowered gadget, wherever on the planet, can be
associated with Bluetooth empowered gadgets.
• Low power utilization of Bluetooth innovation and an offered scope of up to
ten meters has made ready for a few use models.
• Bluetooth offers intelligent gathering by laying out an adhoc organization of
PCs.
• Bluetooth use model incorporates cordless PC, radio, cordless telephone, and
cell phones.
 UNIT-III

Network Layer

o The Organization Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.

o It handles the assistance demands from the vehicle layer and further advances
the help solicitation to the information interface layer.

o The network layer makes an interpretation of the coherent addresses into

actual addresses

o It decides the course from the source to the objective and furthermore deals
with the traffic issues like exchanging, directing and controls the blockage of
information parcels.

o The principal job of the organization layer is to move the parcels from sending
host to the getting host.
Design Issues in Network Layer

Network layer is majorly focused on getting packets from the source to the
destination, routing error handling and congestion control.

Before learning about design issues in the network layer, let’s learn about it’s
various functions.

 Addressing:
Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and destination and
performs addressing to detect various devices in network.
 Packeting:
This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer converts the packets
from its upper layer.
 Routing:
It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the most
relevant and best path for the data transmission from source to destination.
 Inter-networking:
It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple devices.
Network layer design issues:
The network layer comes with some design issues they are described as follows:

1. Store and Forward packet switching:

The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it
has fully arrived once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then it is
forwarded to the next router till it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called
“Store and Forward packet switching.”

2. Services provided to Transport Layer:

Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer transfers it’s
services to the transport layer. These services are described below.
But before providing these services to the transfer layer following goals must be
kept in mind: -

 Offering services must not depend on router technology.

 The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number and topology of
the available router.
 The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform numbering
pattern also at LAN and WAN connections.
Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided:

 Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done

individually. No added setup is required.
 Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets
must be transmitted over a single route.
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service :
Packet are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnet as “datagram subnets”.
When the message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet,
then the network layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to router via.
 a few protocols. Each data packet has destination address and is routed
independently irrespective of the packets.

4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service:

To use a connection-oriented service, first we establish a connection, use it and then
release it. In connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the
receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender.

It can be done in either two ways:

 Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path, or a circuit is

established between the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred.
 Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – The data stream is transferred over a
packet switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that there is a
dedicated path from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here.
While other connections may also be using the same path.

Routing algorithm

o To move the bundles from source to the objective, the organization layer
should decide the best course through which parcels can be communicated.

o Whether the organization layer gives datagram administration or virtual circuit

administration, the principal occupation of the organization layer is to give the best
course. The directing convention gives this work.

o The directing convention is a steering calculation that gives the best way from
the source to the objective. The best way is the way that has the "smallest expense
way" from source to the objective.

o Routing is the most common way of sending the parcels from source to the
objective however the best course to send the not entirely settled by the directing
calculation.Classification of a Routing algorithm

The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories:

o Adaptive Routing algorithm

 o Non-adaptive Routing algorithm

Adaptive Routing algorithm

o An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic routing algorithm.

o This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the topology and network
traffic.
o The main parameters related to this algorithm are hop count, distance and
estimated transit time.

An adaptive routing algorithm can be classified into three parts:

o Centralized algorithm: It is also known as global routing algorithm as it

computes the least-cost path between source and destination by using
complete and global knowledge about the network. This algorithm takes the
connectivity between the nodes and link cost as input, and this information is
obtained before actually performing any calculation. Link state algorithm is
referred to as a centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link
in the network.
o Isolation algorithm: It is an algorithm that obtains the routing information by
using local information rather than gathering information from other nodes.
o Distributed algorithm: It is also known as decentralized algorithm as it
computes the least-cost path between source and destination in an iterative and
distributed manner. In the decentralized algorithm, no node has the knowledge
about the cost of all the network links. In the beginning, a node contains the
information only about its own directly attached links and through an iterative
process of calculation computes the least-cost path to the destination. A
 Distance vector algorithm is a decentralized algorithm as it never knows the
complete path from source to the destination, instead it knows the direction
through which the packet is to be forwarded along with the least cost path.

Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm

o Non-Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing algorithm.

o When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the routers.
o Non-Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision based on the
network topology or network traffic.

The Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm is of two types:

Flooding: In case of flooding, every incoming packet is sent to all the outgoing links
except the one from it has been reached. The disadvantage of flooding is that node
may contain several copies of a particular packet.

Random walks: In case of random walks, a packet sent by the node to one of its
neighbors randomly. An advantage of using random walks is that it uses the
alternative routes very efficiently.

Differences b/w Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithm

Basis Of Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive Routing

Comparison algorithm algorithm

Define Adaptive Routing The Non-Adaptive

algorithm is an Routing algorithm is an
algorithm that algorithm that constructs
constructs the routing the static table to
table based on the determine which node to
network conditions. send the packet.

Usage Adaptive routing The Non-Adaptive

 algorithm is used by Routing algorithm is used
dynamic routing. by static routing.

Routing Routing decisions are Routing decisions are the

decision made based on topology static tables.
and network traffic.

Categorization The types of adaptive The types of Non

routing algorithm, are Adaptive routing
Centralized, isolation algorithm are flooding
and distributed and random walks.
algorithm.

Complexity Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive Routing

algorithms are more algorithms are simple.
complex.

Multicast:

Multicast refers to a type of network communication where data is sent from one
source to multiple recipients simultaneously. In a multicast communication, the
sender sends a single copy of data, and the data is then replicated and forwarded by
the network infrastructure to multiple recipients who are interested in receiving the
data. This contrasts with unicast communication, where data is sent from one source
to a single recipient.

Multicast is often used in multimedia streaming, online gaming, financial services,

and other applications where it is necessary to deliver data to multiple recipients
efficiently. One of the key advantages of multicast is that it conserves network
bandwidth, as the data is replicated only once by the sender and then forwarded by the
network, reducing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted over the network
compared to unicast communication.
Multicast uses special group addresses, known as multicast group addresses, to
identify the group of recipients who are interested in receiving the data. Receivers
who want to receive the multicast data can join the multicast group by indicating their
interest to the network. Multicast communication is typically supported by specialized
networking protocols, such as Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) for IPv4
networks or Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) for IPv6 networks, which help
manage membership in multicast groups and ensure efficient delivery of data to the
intended recipients.

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

o The Distance vector algorithm is iterative, asynchronous and distributed.

o Distributed: It is distributed in that each node receives information
from one or more of its directly attached neighbors, performs
calculation and then distributes the result back to its neighbors.
o Iterative: It is iterative in that its process continues until no more
information is available to be exchanged between neighbors.
o Asynchronous: It does not require that all of its nodes operate in the
lock step with each other.
o The Distance vector algorithm is a dynamic algorithm.
o It is mainly used in ARPANET, and RIP.
o Each router maintains a distance table known as Vector.

Three Keys to understand the working of Distance Vector Routing Algorithm:

o Knowledge about the whole network: Each router shares its knowledge
through the entire network. The Router sends its collected knowledge about
the network to its neighbors.
o Routing only to neighbors: The router sends its knowledge about the network
to only those routers which have direct links. The router sends whatever it has
about the network through the ports. The information is received by the router
and uses the information to update its own routing table.
 o Information sharing at regular intervals: Within 30 seconds, the router sends
the information to the neighboring routers.

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

Let dx(y) be the cost of the least-cost path from node x to node y. The least costs are
related by Bellman-Ford equation,

dx(y) = minv{c(x,v) + dv(y)}

Where the minv is the equation taken for all x neighbors. After traveling from x to v,
if we consider the least-cost path from v to y, the path cost will be c(x,v)+dv(y). The
least cost from x to y is the minimum of c(x,v)+dv(y) taken over all neighbors.

With the Distance Vector Routing algorithm, the node x contains the following
routing information:

o For each neighbor v, the cost c(x,v) is the path cost from x to directly attached
neighbor, v.
o The distance vector x, i.e., Dx = [ Dx(y) : y in N ], containing its cost to all
destinations, y, in N.
o The distance vector of each of its neighbors, i.e., Dv = [ Dv(y) : y in N ] for
each neighbor v of x.

Distance vector routing is an asynchronous algorithm in which node x sends the copy
of its distance vector to all its neighbors. When node x receives the new distance
vector from one of its neighboring vector, v, it saves the distance vector of v and uses
the Bellman-Ford equation to update its own distance vector. The equation is given
below:

dx(y) = minv{ c(x,v) + dv(y)} for each node y in N

The node x has updated its own distance vector table by using the above equation and
sends its updated table to all its neighbors so that they can update their own distance
vectors.
Algorithm

At each node x,

Initialization

for all destinations y in N:

Dx(y) = c(x,y) // If y is not a neighbor then c(x,y) = ∞

for each neighbor w

Dw(y) = ? for all destination y in N.

for each neighbor w

send distance vector Dx = [ Dx(y) : y in N ] to wloop

wait(until I receive any distance vector from some neighbor w)

for each y in N:

Dx(y) = minv{c(x,v)+Dv(y)}

If Dx(y) is changed for any destination y

Send distance vector Dx = [ Dx(y) : y in N ] to all neighbors forever

NOTE: In Distance vector algorithm, node x update its table when it either see any
cost change in one directly linked nodes orreceives any vector update from some
neighbor.

Sharing Information
 o In the above figure, each cloud represents the network, and the number inside
the cloud represents the network ID.
o All the LANs are connected by routers, and they are represented in boxes
labeled as A, B, C, D, E, F.
o Distance vector routing algorithm simplifies the routing process by assuming
the cost of every link is one unit. Therefore, the efficiency of transmission can
be measured by the number of links to reach the destination.
o In Distance vector routing, the cost is based on hop count.

In the above figure, we observe that the router sends the knowledge to the immediate
neighbors. The neighbors add this knowledge to their own knowledge and sends the
updated table to their own neighbors. In this way, routers get its own information plus
the new information about the neighbors.
Routing Table

Two process occurs:

o Creating the Table

o Updating the Table

Creating the Table

Initially, the routing table is created for each router that contains atleast three types of
information such as Network ID, the cost and the next hop.

o NET ID: The Network ID defines the final destination of the packet.
o Cost: The cost is the number of hops that packet must take to get there.
o Next hop: It is the router to which the packet must be delivered.

o In the above figure, the original routing tables are shown of all the routers. In a
routing table, the first column represents the network ID, the second column
represents the cost of the link, and the third column is empty.
 o These routing tables are sent to all the neighbors.

For Example:

1. A sends its routing table to B, F & E.

2. B sends its routing table to A & C.
3. C sends its routing table to B & D.
4. D sends its routing table to E & C.
5. E sends its routing table to A & D.
6. F sends its routing table to A.

Updating the Table

o When A receives a routing table from B, then it uses its information to update
the table.
o The routing table of B shows how the packets can move to the networks 1 and
4.
o The B is a neighbor to the A router, the packets from A to B can reach in one
hop. So, 1 is added to all the costs given in the B's table and the sum will be
the cost to reach a particular network.

o After adjustment, A then combines this table with its own table to create a
combined table.

o The combined table may contain some duplicate data. In the above figure, the
combined table of router A contains the duplicate data, so it keeps only those
 data which has the lowest cost. For example, A can send the data to network 1
in two ways. The first, which uses no next router, so it costs one hop. The
second requires two hops (A to B, then B to Network 1). The first option has
the lowest cost, therefore it is kept and the second one is dropped.

o The process of creating the routing table continues for all routers. Every router
receives the information from the neighbors, and update the routing table.

Final routing tables of all the routers are given below:

Link State Routing

Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its
neighborhood with every other router in the internetwork.
The three keys to understand the Link State Routing algorithm:

o Knowledge about the neighborhood: Instead of sending its routing table, a

router sends the information about its neighborhood only. A router broadcast
its identities and cost of the directly attached links to other routers.
o Flooding: Each router sends the information to every other router on the
internetwork except its neighbors. This process is known as Flooding. Every
router that receives the packet sends the copies to all its neighbors. Finally,
each and every router receives a copy of the same information.
o Information sharing: A router sends the information to every other router only
when the change occurs in the information.

Link State Routing has two phases:

Reliable Flooding

o Initial state: Each node knows the cost of its neighbors.

o Final state: Each node knows the entire graph.

Route Calculation

Each node uses Dijkstra's algorithm on the graph to calculate the optimal routes to all
nodes.

o The Link state routing algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm which
is used to find the shortest path from one node to every other node in the
network.
o The Dijkstra's algorithm is an iterative, and it has the property that after
kth iteration of the algorithm, the least cost paths are well known for k
destination nodes.

Let's describe some notations:

o c( i , j): Link cost from node i to node j. If i and j nodes are not directly linked,
then c(i , j) = ∞.
 o D(v): It defines the cost of the path from source code to destination v that has
the least cost currently.
o P(v): It defines the previous node (neighbor of v) along with current least cost
path from source to v.
o N: It is the total number of nodes available in the network.

Algorithm

Initialization

N = {A} // A is a root node.

for all nodes v

if v adjacent to A

then D(v) = c(A,v)

else D(v) = infinityloop

find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum.

Add w to N

Update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:

D(v) = min(D(v) , D(w) + c(w,v))

Until all nodes in N

In the above algorithm, an initialization step is followed by the loop. The number of
times the loop is executed is equal to the total number of nodes available in the
network.

EXAMPLE:
 In the above figure, source vertex is A.

Step 1:

The first step is an initialization step. The currently known least cost path from A to
its directly attached neighbors, B, C, D are 2,5,1 respectively. The cost from A to B is
set to 2, from A to D is set to 1 and from A to C is set to 5. The cost from A to E and
F are set to infinity as they are not directly linked to A.

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

Step 2:

In the above table, we observe that vertex D contains the least cost path in step 1.
Therefore, it is added in N. Now, we need to determine a least-cost path through D
vertex.

a) Calculating shortest path from A to B

1. v = B, w = D
2. D(B) = min( D(B) , D(D) + c(D,B) )
3. = min( 2, 1+2)>
4. = min( 2, 3)
5. The minimum value is 2. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to B is 2.

b) Calculating shortest path from A to C

1. v = C, w = D
2. D(B) = min( D(C) , D(D) + c(D,C) )
3. = min( 5, 1+3)
4. = min( 5, 4)
5. The minimum value is 4. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to C is 4.</p>

c) Calculating shortest path from A to E

1. v = E, w = D
2. D(B) = min( D(E) , D(D) + c(D,E) )
3. = min( ∞, 1+1)
4. = min(∞, 2)
5. The minimum value is 2. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to E is 2.

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

2 A 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞

D

Step 3:

In the above table, we observe that both E and B have the least cost path in step 2.
Let's consider the E vertex. Now, we determine the least cost path of remaining
vertices through E.
 a) Calculating the shortest path from A to B.

1. v = B, w = E
2. D(B) = min( D(B) , D(E) + c(E,B) )
3. = min( 2 , 2+ ∞ )
4. = min( 2, ∞)
5. The minimum value is 2. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to B is 2.

b) Calculating the shortest path from A to C.

1. v = C, w = E
2. D(B) = min( D(C) , D(E) + c(E,C) )
3. = min( 4 , 2+1 )
4. = min( 4,3)
5. The minimum value is 3. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to C is 3.

c) Calculating the shortest path from A to F.

1. v = F, w = E
2. D(B) = min( D(F) , D(E) + c(E,F) )
3. = min( ∞ , 2+2 )
4. = min(∞ ,4)
5. The minimum value is 4. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to F is 4.

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

2 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞

3 AD 2,A 3,E 4,E

 E

Step 4:

In the above table, we observe that B vertex has the least cost path in step 3.
Therefore, it is added in N. Now, we determine the least cost path of remaining
vertices through B.

a) Calculating the shortest path from A to C.

1. v = C, w = B
2. D(B) = min( D(C) , D(B) + c(B,C) )
3. = min( 3 , 2+3 )
4. = min( 3,5)
5. The minimum value is 3. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to C is 3.

b) Calculating the shortest path from A to F.

1. v = F, w = B
2. D(B) = min( D(F) , D(B) + c(B,F) )
3. = min( 4, ∞)
4. = min(4, ∞)
5. The minimum value is 4. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to F is 4.

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

2 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞

3 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E

 4 ADE 3,E 4,E
B

Step 5:

In the above table, we observe that C vertex has the least cost path in step 4.
Therefore, it is added in N. Now, we determine the least cost path of remaining
vertices through C.

a) Calculating the shortest path from A to F.

1. v = F, w = C
2. D(B) = min( D(F) , D(C) + c(C,F) )
3. = min( 4, 3+5)
4. = min(4,8)
5. The minimum value is 4. Therefore, the currently shortest path from A to F is 4.

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

2 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞

3 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E

4 ADEB 3,E 4,E

5 ADEB 4,E
C

Final table:

Ste N D(B),P( D(C),P( D(D),P( D(E),P( D(F),P(

p B) C) D) E) F)

1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞

2 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞

3 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E

4 ADEB 3,E 4,E

5 ADEB 4,E
C

6 ADEB
CF

Disadvantage:

Heavy traffic is created in Line state routing due to Flooding. Flooding can cause an
infinite looping, this problem can be solved by using Time-to-leave field

FLOODING:

Flooding is a non-adaptive routing technique following this simple method: when a

data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the outgoing links except the one it has
arrived on.

For example, let us consider the network in the figure, having six routers that are
connected through transmission lines.

Using flooding technique −

An incoming packet to A, will be sent to B, C and D.

B will send the packet to C and E.
C will send the packet to B, D and F.
 D will send the packet to C and F.
E will send the packet to F.
F will send the packet to C and E.

Types of Flooding

Flooding may be of three types −

Uncontrolled flooding − Here, each router unconditionally transmits the

incoming data packets to all its neighbours.
Controlled flooding − They use some methods to control the transmission of
packets to the neighbouring nodes. The two popular algorithms for controlled
flooding are Sequence Number Controlled Flooding (SNCF) and Reverse Path
Forwarding (RPF).
Selective flooding − Here, the routers don't transmit the incoming packets only
along those paths which are heading towards approximately in the right direction,
instead of every available path

Advantages of Flooding

It is exceptionally easy to arrangement and execute, since a switch might know

just its neighbors.

It is very vigorous. Indeed, even if there should be an occurrence of failing of a

huge number switches, the parcels figure out how to arrive at the objective.

All hubs which are straightforwardly or by implication associated are visited.

Along these lines, there are no opportunities for any hub to be forgotten about.
This is a primary models if there should be an occurrence of transmission
messages.
 The most brief way is constantly picked by flooding.

Limitations of Flooding

Flooding tends to create an infinite number of duplicate data packets, unless

some measures are adopted to damp packet generation.

It is wasteful if a single destination needs the packet, since it delivers the data
packet to all nodes irrespective of the destination.

The network may be clogged with unwanted and duplicate data packets. This
may hamper delivery of other data packets.

Hierarchical routing

In progressive directing, the switches are separated into districts. Every switch has
total insights regarding how to course bundles to objections inside its own district. Be
that as it may, it has no clue about the interior construction of different locales.

As we probably are aware, in both LS and DV calculations, each switch needs to save
some data about different switches. At the point when organization size is developing,
the quantity of switches in the organization will increment. Accordingly, the size of
steering table increments, then, at that point, switches can't deal with network traffic
as effectively. To beat this issue we are utilizing progressive directing.

In progressive directing, switches are ordered in bunches called districts. Every switch
has data about the switches in its own district and it has no data about switches in
different areas. Along these lines, switches save one record in their table for each and
every other locale.
For gigantic organizations, a two-level order might be inadequate subsequently, it
could be important to bunch the locales into bunches, the groups into zones, the zones
into gatherings, etc.Example

Consider an example of two-level hierarchy with five regions as shown in figure −

Let see the full routing table for router 1A which has 17 entries, as shown below −

Full Table for 1A

Dest. Line Hops

1A - -

1B 1B 1

1C 1C 1

2A 1B 2

2B 1B 3

2C 1B 3

2D 1B 4

3A 1C 3

3B 1C 2

4A 1C 3

4B 1C 4
Dest. Line Hops

4C 1C 4

5A 1C 4

5B 1C 5

5C 1B 5

5D 1C 6

5E 1C 5

When routing is done hierarchically then there will be only 7 entries as shown below
−

Hierarchical Table for 1A

Dest. Line Hops

1A - -

1B 1B 1

1C 1C 1

2 1B 2

3 1C 2

4 1C 3

5 1C 4

Unfortunately, this reduction in table space comes with the increased path length.

Explanation

Step 1 − For example, the best path from 1A to 5C is via region 2, but hierarchical
routing of all traffic to region 5 goes via region 3 as it is better for most of the other
destinations of region 5.

Step 2 − Consider a subnet of 720 routers. If no hierarchy is used, each router will
have 720 entries in its routing table.
Step 3 − Now if the subnet is partitioned into 24 regions of 30 routers each, then each
router will require 30 local entries and 23 remote entries for a total of 53 entries.

Example

If the same subnet of 720 routers is partitioned into 8 clusters, each containing 9
regions and each region containing 10 routers. Then what will be the total number of
table entries in each router.

Solution

10 local entries + 8 remote regions + 7 clusters = 25 entries.

Broadcast

Broadcast is a transmission instrument that permits all organization hosts to use a

similar correspondence channel. Any remaining hosts get a bundle sent by a host on
the organization in broadcast mode. This strategy is otherwise called "all-to-all". A
gadget on a Neighborhood (LAN) can be designed to communicate messages to
different gadgets on the organization.
At the point when a host communicates a parcel, the expected beneficiary's location is
determined in the bundle's location field. Since the parcel has been communicated, it
is gotten by any remaining organization locales. Each host looks at the bundle's
location field subsequent to getting it. Assuming the bundle contains the accepting
host's location, it is dealt with by the getting host. In any case, the bundle is
dismissed.
The transmission capability can address parcels to all hosts on the organization. To do
this, the host communicating the parcel determines a particular code in the bundle's
location field. At the point when a bundle with a particular code in the location field is
sent, it is gotten and handled by each host in the organization. A typical instance of
broadcasting is a remote organization.

Comparison between the Broadcast and Multicast

Features Broadcast Multicast

Definition Broadcasting is a method It is a group
of sending a message to communication method in
all recipients which data is sent
simultaneously. simultaneously to a group
of target computers.

Mapping It contains one-to-all It contains one-to-many

mapping. mapping.

Bandwidth The bandwidth of the The bandwidth of

broadcast is wasted. multicast is utilized
effectively.

Management It doesn't need any group It needs group

management. management to specify the
group of hosts and stations
which will receive packets.

Process The bandwidth process is The multicast process is

slow. fast.

Traffic It creates a large amount It keeps traffic under

of network traffic by control by delivering
delivering each packet to packets only to interested
every site on the network. hosts, lowering the
network load.

Congestion Control Algorithm

Congestion causes choking of the communication medium. When too many packets
are displayed in a method of the subnet, the subnet's performance degrades. Hence, a
network's communication channel is called congested if packets are traversing the
path and experience delays mainly over the path's propagation delay.

There is two congestion control algorithm which is as follows:

Leaky Bucket
The leaky bucket algorithm discovers its use in the context of network traffic shaping
or rate-limiting. The algorithm allows controlling the rate at which a record is
injected into a network and managing burstiness in the data rate.

A leaky bucket execution and a token bucket execution are predominantly used for
traffic shaping algorithms. This algorithm is used to control the rate at which traffic is
sent to the network and shape the burst traffic to a steady traffic stream.

The figure shows the leaky bucket algorithm.

In this calculation, a can with a volume of, say, b bytes and an opening in the Notes
base is thought of. In the event that the can is invalid, it implies b bytes are accessible
as stockpiling. A parcel with a size more modest than b bytes shows up at the
container and will advance it. On the off chance that the parcel's size increments by
more than b bytes, it will either be disposed of or lined. It is likewise viewed as that
the container spills through the opening in its base at a steady pace of r bytes each
second.

The surge is viewed as consistent when there is any parcel in the container and zero
when it is vacant. This characterizes that assuming information streams into the can
quicker than information streams out through the opening, the pail spills over.

The inconveniences contrasted and the cracked can calculation are the wasteful
utilization of accessible organization assets. The break rate is a decent boundary. On
account of the traffic, volume is inadequate, the enormous area of organization assets,
for example, transmission capacity isn't being utilized successfully. The cracked
container calculation doesn't permit individual streams to burst up to port speed to
successfully consume network assets when there wouldn't be asset dispute in the
organization.

Token Bucket Algorithm

The flawed container calculation has an inflexible result plan at the typical rate free of
the burst traffic. In certain applications, when enormous blasts show up, the result is
permitted to accelerate. This requires a more adaptable calculation, ideally one that
never loses data. Hence, a symbolic can calculation finds its purposes in network
traffic forming or rate-restricting.

A control calculation shows when traffic ought to be sent. This request comes in view
of the presentation of tokens in the container. The container contains tokens. Every
one of the tokens characterizes a bundle of foreordained size. Tokens in the can are
erased for the capacity to share a parcel.

At the point when tokens are shown, a stream to communicate traffic shows up in the
showcase of tokens. No symbolic means no stream sends its parcels. Thus, a stream
moves traffic up to its pinnacle burst rate in great tokens in the pail.

Hence, the symbolic container calculation adds a token to the can every 1/r seconds.
The volume of the pail is b tokens. At the point when a token shows up, and the pail is
finished, the token is disposed of. In the event that a parcel of n bytes shows up and n
tokens are erased from the container, the bundle is sent to the organization.

At the point when a parcel of n bytes shows up however less than n tokens are
accessible. No tokens are taken out from the can in such a case, and the parcel is
considered non-conformant. The non-conformant bundles can either be dropped or
lined for ensuing transmission when adequate tokens have aggregated in the pail.

They can likewise be communicated yet set apart as being non-conformant. The
chance is that they might be dropped thusly assuming the organization is over-burden.
Internetworking
In real world scenario, networks under same administration are generally scattered
geographically. There may exist requirement of connecting two different networks of
same kind as well as of different kinds. Routing between two networks is called
internetworking.

Networks can be considered different based on various parameters such as, Protocol,
topology, Layer-2 network and addressing scheme.

In internetworking, routers have knowledge of each other’s address and addresses

beyond them. They can be statically configured go on different network or they can
learn by using internetworking routing protocol.

Routing protocols which are used within an organization or administration are called
Interior Gateway Protocols or IGP. RIP, OSPF are examples of IGP. Routing between
different organizations or administrations may have Exterior Gateway Protocol, and
there is only one EGP i.e. Border Gateway Protocol.

Tunneling

If they are two geographically separate networks, which want to communicate with
each other, they may deploy a dedicated line between or they have to pass their data
through intermediate networks.

Tunneling is a mechanism by which two or more same networks communicate with

each other, by passing intermediate networking complexities. Tunneling is configured
at both ends.
When the data enters from one end of Tunnel, it is tagged. This tagged data is then
routed inside the intermediate or transit network to reach the other end of Tunnel.
When data exists the Tunnel its tag is removed and delivered to the other part of the
network.

Both ends seem as if they are directly connected and tagging makes data travel
through transit network without any modifications.

Packet Fragmentation

Most Ethernet sections have their greatest transmission unit (MTU) fixed to 1500
bytes. An information bundle can have pretty much parcel length relying on the
application. Gadgets in the travel way additionally have their equipment and
programming abilities which determine what measure of information that gadget can
deal with and what size of bundle it can process.

Assuming the information bundle size is not exactly or equivalent to the size of parcel
the travel organization can deal with, it is handled impartially. In the event that the
parcel is bigger, it is broken into more modest pieces and sent. This is called bundle
fracture. Each piece contains a similar objective and source address and steered
through travel way without any problem. At the less than desirable end it is gathered
once more.
If a bundle with DF (don't piece) bit set to 1 comes to a switch which can not deal
with the parcel due to its length, the bundle is dropped.When a packet is received by a
router has its MF (more fragments) bit set to 1, the router then knows that it is a
fragmented packet and parts of the original packet is on the way.

If packet is fragmented too small, the overhead is increases. If the packet is

fragmented too large, intermediate router may not be able to process it and it might
get dropped.

Network Layer Protocols

Every computer in a network has an IP address by which it can be uniquely identified
and addressed. An IP address is Layer-3 (Network Layer) logical address. This
address may change every time a computer restarts. A computer can have one IP at
one instance of time and another IP at some different time.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

While communicating, a host needs Layer-2 (MAC) address of the destination

machine which belongs to the same broadcast domain or network. A MAC address is
physically burnt into the Network Interface Card (NIC) of a machine and it never
changes.

On the other hand, IP address on the public domain is rarely changed. If the NIC is
changed in case of some fault, the MAC address also changes. This way, for Layer-2
communication to take place, a mapping between the two is required.
To know the MAC address of remote host on a broadcast domain, a computer wishing
to initiate communication sends out an ARP broadcast message asking, “Who has this
IP address?” Because it is a broadcast, all hosts on the network segment (broadcast
domain) receive this packet and process it. ARP packet contains the IP address of
destination host, the sending host wishes to talk to. When a host receives an ARP
packet destined to it, it replies back with its own MAC address.

Once the host gets destination MAC address, it can communicate with remote host
using Layer-2 link protocol. This MAC to IP mapping is saved into ARP cache of
both sending and receiving hosts. Next time, if they require to communicate, they can
directly refer to their respective ARP cache.

Reverse ARP is a mechanism where host knows the MAC address of remote host but
requires to know IP address to communicate.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP is network diagnostic and error reporting protocol. ICMP belongs to IP
protocol suite and uses IP as carrier protocol. After constructing ICMP packet, it is
encapsulated in IP packet. Because IP itself is a best-effort non-reliable protocol, so is
ICMP.

Any feedback about network is sent back to the originating host. If some error in the
network occurs, it is reported by means of ICMP. ICMP contains dozens of diagnostic
and error reporting messages.

ICMP-echo and ICMP-echo-reply are the most commonly used ICMP messages to
check the reachability of end-to-end hosts. When a host receives an ICMP-echo
request, it is bound to send back an ICMP-echo-reply. If there is any problem in the
transit network, the ICMP will report that problem.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

IPv4 is 32-bit addressing scheme used as TCP/IP host addressing mechanism. IP

addressing enables every host on the TCP/IP network to be uniquely identifiable.

IPv4 provides hierarchical addressing scheme which enables it to divide the network
into sub-networks, each with well-defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided
into many categories:

Class A - it uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host
addressing
Class B - it uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host
addressing
Class C - it uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host
addressing
Class D - it provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical
structure for above three.
Class E - It is used as experimental.

IPv4 also has well-defined address spaces to be used as private addresses (not
routable on internet), and public addresses (provided by ISPs and are routable on
internet).

Though IP is not reliable one; it provides ‘Best-Effort-Delivery’ mechanism.

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Depletion of IPv4 addresses brought forth a cutting edge Web Convention form 6.
IPv6 tends to its hubs with 128-digit wide location giving a lot of address space to
future to be utilized on whole planet or past.

IPv6 has presented Anycast tending to however has eliminated the idea of
broadcasting. IPv6 empowers gadgets to self-gain an IPv6 address and convey inside
that subnet. This auto-design eliminates the trustworthiness of Dynamic Host
Arrangement Convention (DHCP) servers. Along these lines, regardless of whether
the DHCP server on that subnet is down, the hosts can speak with one another.

IPv6 gives new element of IPv6 portability. Versatile IPv6 prepared machines can
meander around without the need of changing their IP addresses.

IPv6 is still experiencing significant change stage and is supposed to supplant IPv4
totally before very long. As of now, there are not many organizations which are
running on IPv6. There are some change components accessible for IPv6 empowered
organizations to talk and meander around various organizations effectively on IPv4.
These are:

 Dual stack implementation

 Tunneling
 NAT-PT

Quality of Service (QOS)

Quality of Service (QOS) determines a network's capability to support predictable
service over various technologies, containing frame relay, Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), Ethernet, SONET IP-routed networks. The networks can use any or all
of these frameworks.

The QOS also provides that while supporting priority for one or more flows does not
create other flows fail. A flow can be a combination of source and destination
addresses, source and destination socket numbers, session identifier, or packet from a
specific application or an incoming interface.
The QOS is primarily used to control resources like bandwidth, equipment, wide-area
facilities etc. It can get more efficient use of network resources, provide tailored
services, provide coexistence of mission-critical applications, etc.

QOS Concepts

The QOS concepts are explained below−

Congestion Management
The burst feature of data traffic sometimes bounds to increase traffic more than a
connection speed. QoS allows a router to put packets into different queues. Service
specific queues more often depend on priority than buffer traffic in an individual
queue and let the first packet by the first packet out.

Queue Management
The queues in a buffer can fill and overflow. A packet would be dropped if a queue is
complete, and the router cannot prevent it from being dropped if it is a high priority
packet. This is referred to as tail drop.

Link Efficiency
The low-speed links are bottlenecks for lower packets. The serialization delay caused
by the high packets forces the lower packets to wait longer. The serialization delay is
the time created to put a packet on the connection.

Elimination of overhead bits

It can also increase efficiency by removing too many overhead bits.

Traffic shaping and policing

Shaping can prevent the overflow problem in buffers by limiting the full bandwidth
potential of the applications packets. Sometimes, many network topologies with a
high bandwidth link connected with a low-bandwidth link in remote sites can
overflow low bandwidth connections.

Therefore, shaping is used to provide the traffic flow from the high bandwidth link
closer to the low bandwidth link to avoid the low bandwidth link's overflow. Policing
can discard the traffic that exceeds the configured rate, but it is buffered in the case of
shaping.
 UNIT-IV

Transport Layer

o The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.

o The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services
directly to the application processes running on different hosts.
o The transport layer provides a logical communication between application
processes running on different hosts. Although the application processes on
different hosts are not physically connected, application processes use the
logical communication provided by the transport layer to send the messages to
each other.
o The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not in
the network routers.
 o A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network
applications. For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols
that provide a different set of services to the network layer.
o All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It
also provides other services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth
guarantees, and delay guarantees.
o Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a
message by using TCP or UDP. The application communicates by using either
of these two protocols. Both TCP and UDP will then communicate with the
internet protocol in the internet layer. The applications can read and write to
the transport layer. Therefore, we can say that communication is a two-way
process.

Services provided by the Transport Layer

The services provided by the transport layer are similar to those of the data link layer.
The data link layer provides the services within a single network while the transport
layer provides the services across an internetwork made up of many networks. The
data link layer controls the physical layer while the transport layer controls all the
lower layers.

The services provided by the transport layer protocols can be divided into five
categories:
 o End-to-end delivery
o Addressing
o Reliable delivery
o Flow control
o Multiplexing

End-to-end delivery:

The transport layer transmits the entire message to the destination. Therefore, it
ensures the end-to-end delivery of an entire message from a source to the destination.

Reliable delivery:

The transport layer provides reliability services by retransmitting the lost and
damaged packets.

The reliable delivery has four aspects:

o Error control
o Sequence control
o Loss control
o Duplication control
 Error Control

o The essential job of unwavering quality is Blunder Control. As a general rule,

no transmission will be 100% blunder free conveyance. Thusly, transport layer
conventions are intended to give blunder free transmission.
o The information interface layer additionally gives the blunder taking care of
system, however it guarantees just hub to-hub mistake free conveyance. Nonetheless,
hub to-hub dependability doesn't guarantee the start to finish unwavering quality.
o The information interface layer checks for the blunder between each
organization. In the event that a blunder is presented inside one of the switches, this
mistake won't be gotten by the information connect layer. It just distinguishes those
blunders that have been presented between the start and end of the connection.
Accordingly, the vehicle layer plays out the checking for the mistakes start to finish to
guarantee that the bundle has shown up accurately.
Sequence Control

o The second aspect of the reliability is sequence control which is implemented

at the transport layer.
o On the sending end, the transport layer is responsible for ensuring that the
packets received from the upper layers can be used by the lower layers. On the
receiving end, it ensures that the various segments of a transmission can be
correctly reassembled.

Loss Control

Loss Control is a third aspect of reliability. The transport layer ensures that all the
fragments of a transmission arrive at the destination, not some of them. On the
sending end, all the fragments of transmission are given sequence numbers by a
transport layer. These sequence numbers allow the receiver? transport layer to identify
the missing segment.

Duplication Control

Duplication Control is the fourth aspect of reliability. The transport layer guarantees
that no duplicate data arrive at the destination. Sequence numbers are used to identify
the lost packets; similarly, it allows the receiver to identify and discard duplicate
segments.

Flow Control

Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver. If the
receiver is overloaded with too much data, then the receiver discards the packets and
asking for the retransmission of packets. This increases network congestion and thus,
reducing the system performance. The transport layer is responsible for flow control.
It uses the sliding window protocol that makes the data transmission more efficient as
well as it controls the flow of data so that the receiver does not become overwhelmed.
Sliding window protocol is byte oriented rather than frame oriented.
Multiplexing

The transport layer uses the multiplexing to improve transmission efficiency.

Multiplexing can occur in two ways:

o Upward multiplexing: Upward multiplexing means multiple transport layer

connections use the same network connection. To make more cost-effective,
the transport layer sends several transmissions bound for the same destination
along the same path; this is achieved through upward multiplexing.

o Downward multiplexing: Downward multiplexing means one transport layer

connection uses the multiple network connections. Downward multiplexing
allows the transport layer to split a connection among several paths to improve
the throughput. This type of multiplexing is used when networks have a low or
slow capacity.
Addressing

o According to the layered model, the transport layer interacts with the functions
of the session layer. Many protocols combine session, presentation, and
application layer protocols into a single layer known as the application layer.
In these cases, delivery to the session layer means the delivery to the
application layer. Data generated by an application on one machine must be
transmitted to the correct application on another machine. In this case,
addressing is provided by the transport layer.
o The transport layer provides the user address which is specified as a station or
port. The port variable represents a particular TS user of a specified station
known as a Transport Service access point (TSAP). Each station has only one
transport entity.
o The transport layer protocols need to know which upper-layer protocols are
communicating.
TCP Connection Management

The connection is established in TCP using the three-way handshake as discussed

earlier to create a connection. One side, say the server, passively stays for an
incoming link by implementing the LISTEN and ACCEPT primitives, either
determining a particular other side or nobody in particular.

The other side performs a connect primitive specifying the I/O port to which it wants
to join. The maximum TCP segment size available, other options are optionally like
some private data (example password).

The CONNECT primitive transmits a TCP segment with the SYN bit on and the
ACK bit off and waits for a response.

The sequence of TCP segments sent in the typical case, as shown in the figure below
−

When the segment sent by Host-1 reaches the destination, i.e., host -2, the receiving
server checks to see if there is a process that has done a LISTEN on the port given in
the destination port field. If not, it sends a response with the RST bit on to refuse the
connection. Otherwise, it governs the TCP segment to the listing process, which can
accept or decline (for example, if it does not look similar to the client) the connection.

Call Collision

On the off chance that two hosts attempt to lay out an association all the while
between similar two attachments, then the occasions grouping is shown in the figure
under such conditions. Just a single association is laid out. It can't choose both the
connections on the grounds that their endpoints recognize associations.
Assume the principal set up brings about an association recognized by (x, y) and the
subsequent association are likewise delivered up. All things considered, just tail enter
will be made, i.e., for (x, y) for the underlying grouping number, a clock-based
conspire is utilized, with a clock heartbeat coming after each 4 microseconds. For
guaranteeing extra wellbeing when a host crashes, it may not reboot for sec, which is
the most extreme bundle lifetime. This is to ensure that no parcels from past
associations are wandering near.

Transport Layer protocols

o The transport layer is represented by two protocols: TCP and UDP.

o The IP protocol in the network layer delivers a datagram from a source host to
the destination host.
o Nowadays, the operating system supports multiuser and multiprocessing
environments, an executing program is called a process. When a host sends a
message to other host means that source process is sending a process to a
destination process. The transport layer protocols define some connections to
individual ports known as protocol ports.
o An IP protocol is a host-to-host protocol used to deliver a packet from source
host to the destination host while transport layer protocols are port-to-port
protocols that work on the top of the IP protocols to deliver the packet from
the originating port to the IP services, and from IP services to the destination
port.
 o Each port is defined by a positive integer address, and it is of 16 bits.

UDP

o UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

o UDP is a simple protocol, and it provides no sequenced transport
functionality.
o UDP is a connectionless protocol.
o This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important
than speed and size.
o UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level
addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.
o The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.

User Datagram Format

The user datagram has a 16-byte header which is shown below:

Where,

o Source port address: It defines the address of the application process that has
delivered a message. The source port address is of 16 bits address.
o Destination port address: It defines the address of the application process that
will receive the message. The destination port address is of a 16-bit address.
o Total length: It defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes. It is a 16-
bit field.
o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field which is used in error detection.

Disadvantages of UDP protocol

o UDP gives essential capabilities expected to the start to finish conveyance of a

transmission.

o It doesn't give any sequencing or reordering capabilities and doesn't determine

the harmed bundle while revealing a blunder.

o UDP can find that a blunder has happened, yet it doesn't indicate which bundle
has been lost as it doesn't contain an ID or sequencing number of a specific
information portion.

TCP

o TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

o It provides full transport layer services to applications.
o It is a connection-oriented protocol means the connection established between
both the ends of the transmission. For creating the connection, TCP generates
a virtual circuit between sender and receiver for the duration of a transmission.
Features Of TCP protocol

o Stream information move: TCP convention moves the information as

touching stream of bytes. TCP bunch the bytes as TCP fragments and afterward
passed it to the IP layer for transmission to the objective. TCP itself portions the
information and forward to the IP.

o Reliability: TCP relegates a succession number to every byte sent and

anticipates a positive affirmation from the getting TCP. On the off chance that
ACK isn't gotten inside a break span, then the information is retransmitted to
the objective.

The getting TCP utilizes the succession number to reassemble the sections
assuming they show up mixed up or to dispose of the copy portions.

o Flow Control: While getting TCP sends an affirmation back to the

shipper showing the number the bytes it can get without spilling over its inside
support. The quantity of bytes is sent in ACK as the most noteworthy
arrangement number that it can get easily. This instrument is likewise alluded to
as a window component.

o Multiplexing: Multiplexing is a course of tolerating the information from

various applications and sending to the various applications on various PCs. At
the less than desirable end, the information is sent to the right application. This
cycle is known as demultiplexing. TCP sends the parcel to the right application
by utilizing the intelligent channels known as ports.

o Logical Associations: The blend of attachments, grouping numbers, and

window sizes, is known as a legitimate association. Every association is
distinguished by the sets of attachments utilized by sending and getting
processes.

o Full Duplex: TCP offers Full Duplex assistance, i.e., the information
stream in both the bearings simultaneously. To accomplish Full Duplex help,
every TCP ought to have sent and getting cushions with the goal that the
portions can stream in both the headings. TCP is an association situated
convention. Assume the cycle A needs to send and get the information from
process B. The accompanying advances happen:

o Establish an association between two TCPs.

o Data is traded in both the headings.

o The Association is ended.

TCP Segment Format

Where,

o Source port address: It is used to define the address of the application program
in a source computer. It is a 16-bit field.
o Destination port address: It is used to define the address of the application
program in a destination computer. It is a 16-bit field.
o Sequence number: A stream of data is divided into two or more TCP
segments. The 32-bit sequence number field represents the position of the data
in an original data stream.
o Acknowledgement number: A 32-field acknowledgement number
acknowledge the data from other communicating devices. If ACK field is set
to 1, then it specifies the sequence number that the receiver is expecting to
receive.
o Header Length (HLEN): It specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit
words. The minimum size of the header is 5 words, and the maximum size of
 the header is 15 words. Therefore, the maximum size of the TCP header is 60
bytes, and the minimum size of the TCP header is 20 bytes.
o Reserved: It is a six-bit field which is reserved for future use.
o Control bits: Each bit of a control field functions individually and
independently. A control bit defines the use of a segment or serves as a
validity check for other fields.

There are total six types of flags in control field:

o URG: The URG field indicates that the data in a segment is urgent.
o ACK: When ACK field is set, then it validates the acknowledgement number.
o PSH: The PSH field is used to inform the sender that higher throughput is
needed so if possible, data must be pushed with higher throughput.
o RST: The reset bit is used to reset the TCP connection when there is any
confusion occurs in the sequence numbers.
o SYN: The SYN field is used to synchronize the sequence numbers in three
types of segments: connection request, connection confirmation ( with the
ACK bit set ), and confirmation acknowledgement.
o FIN: The FIN field is used to inform the receiving TCP module that the sender
has finished sending data. It is used in connection termination in three types of
segments: termination request, termination confirmation, and
acknowledgement of termination confirmation.

o Window Size: The window is a 16-bit field that defines the size of the
window.
o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o Urgent pointer: If URG flag is set to 1, then this 16-bit field is an offset
from the sequence number indicating that it is a last urgent data byte.
o Options and padding: It defines the optional fields that convey the
additional information to the receiver.

Differences b/w TCP & UDP

Basis for TCP UDP
Comparison

Definition TCP establishes a UDP transmits the data

virtual circuit before directly to the
transmitting the data. destination computer
without verifying
whether the receiver is
ready to receive or not.

Connection Type It is a Connection- It is a Connectionless

Oriented protocol protocol

Speed slow high

Reliability It is a reliable It is an unreliable

protocol. protocol.

Header size 20 bytes 8 bytes

acknowledgement It waits for the It neither takes the

acknowledgement of acknowledgement, nor
data and has the it retransmits the
ability to resend the damaged frame.
lost packets.
UNIT – 5

APPLICATION LAYER

Application layer:

The application layer in the OSI model is the closest layer to the end user which
means that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the software
application. The application layer programs are based on client and servers.

The Application layer includes the following functions:

o Identifying communication partners: The application layer identifies the

availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
o Determining resource availability: The application layer determines whether
sufficient network resources are available for the requested communication.
o Synchronizing communication: All the communications occur between the
applications requires cooperation which is managed by an application layer.

Services of Application Layers

o Network Virtual terminal: An application layer permits a client to sign on to a

remote host. To do as such, the application makes a product imitating of a
terminal at the remote host. The client's PC converses with the product
terminal, which thusly, converses with the host. The remote host believes that
it is speaking with one of its own terminals, so it permits the client to sign on.
o File Move, Access, and The executives (FTAM): An application permits a
client to get to records in a far off PC, to recover documents from a PC and to
oversee records in a far off PC. FTAM characterizes a various leveled virtual
record as far as document structure, document credits and the sort of tasks
performed on the records and their properties.
 o Addressing: To get correspondence among client and server, there is a
requirement for tending to. At the point when a client made a solicitation to
the server, the solicitation contains the server address and its own location.
The server reaction to the client demand, the solicitation contains the objective
location, i.e., client address. To accomplish this sort of tending to, DNS is
utilized.
o Mail Administrations: An application layer gives Email sending and
stockpiling.
o Directory Administrations: An application contains a circulated data set that
gives admittance to worldwide data about different items and administrations.
o Authentication: It validates the source or recipient's message or both.

DNS:

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on

different systems, pass the messages to each other.

o DNS stands for Domain Name System.

o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host
on the network and its numerical address.
o DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.

o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence
of symbols specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for
other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
o For example, suppose the FTP site at Edu Soft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying
ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse
domain.
Generic Domains -

o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behaviour.

o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

Country Domain -

The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three-character
organizational abbreviations.

Inverse Domain -

The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has
received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized
clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a
query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

Working of DNS

o DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send

requests to the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
 o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as
a forward DNS lookup while requests containing an IP address which is
converted into a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts
available on the internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a
piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to
obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP
address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the request to another
DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn completes
the request over the internet protocol.

SNMP:

o SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.

o SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.

o It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.

o SNMP has two components Manager and agent.

o The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as
routers.
o It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can handle
a set of agents.
o The protocol designed at the application level can monitor the devices made
by different manufacturers and installed on different physical networks.
o It is used in a heterogeneous network made of different LANs and WANs
connected by routers or gateways.

SNMP types:

SNMP defines five types of messages: GetRequest,

GetNextRequest, SetRequest, GetResponse, and Trap.

o GetRequest: The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client) to the

agent (server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
o GetNextRequest: The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to
agent to retrieve the value of a variable. This type of message is used to
 retrieve the values of the entries in a table. If the manager does not know the
indexes of the entries, then it will not be able to retrieve the values. In such
situations, GetNextRequest message is used to define an object.
o GetResponse: The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the
manager in response to the GetRequest and GetNextRequest message. This
message contains the value of a variable requested by the manager.
o SetRequest: The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the agent to
set a value in a variable.
o Trap: The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an
event. For example, if the agent is rebooted, then it informs the manager as
well as sends the time of rebooting.

E-mail:

o E-mail is characterized as the transmission of messages on the Web. It is quite

possibly of the most utilized include over correspondences networks that might
contain text, records, pictures, or different connections. By and large, data is put away
on a PC sent through an organization to a predetermined individual or gathering of
people.
o Email messages are passed on through email servers; it utilizes different
conventions inside theTCP/IP suite.
o Although the vast majority of the webmail servers consequently arrange your
mail account, hence, you simply expected to enter your email address and secret
word. Notwithstanding, you might have to physically design each record assuming
you utilize an email client like Microsoft Viewpoint or Apple Mail.
o In expansion, to enter the email address and secret key, you may likewise have
to enter approaching and active mail servers and the right port numbers for every one.

Email messages include three components, which are as follows:

o Message envelope: It depicts the email's electronic format.

 o Message header: It contains email subject line and sender/recipient
information.
o Message body: It comprises images, text, and other file attachments.

The email was created to help rich message with custom organizing, and the first
email standard is just equipped for supporting plain instant messages. In current
times, email upholds HTML (Hypertext markup language), which makes it fit for
messages to help similar arranging as sites. The email that upholds HTML can
contain joins, pictures, CSS formats, and furthermore can send records or "email
connections" alongside messages. The majority of the mail servers empower
clients to send a few connections with each message. The connections were
ordinarily restricted to one megabyte in the beginning of email. All things
considered, these days, many mail servers can uphold email connections of 20
megabytes or more in size.

Basic Functions:

The E-mail system supports five basic systems, which are as follows:

Composition -

The process of generating messages and answering them is called composition. The
system can also support assistance with addressing and several header fields attached
to each message.

Transfer -

It is the process of moving messages from the sender to the recipient. This includes
establishing a connection from the sender to a destination or some intermediate
machine, outputting the message and releasing the connection.

Reporting -

This is to tell the sender whether the message was delivered or rejected, or lost.
Displaying -

It is the process of displaying incoming messages. For this purpose, simple

conversation and formatting are required to be done.

Disposition -

This is concerned with what the recipient does with the messages after receiving
them. Some of the possibilities are as follows −

 Throw after reading

 Throw before reading
 Save messages
 Forward messages
 Process messages in some other way

Advantages of Email -

There are various advantages of email, which are as follows:

 • It is a savvy administration to send with others as there are

different email administrations accessible to people and associations for
free of cost. When a client is on the web, it contains no extra charge for
the administrations.
 • Email upholds a basic UI and permits clients to classify and
channel their messages. This can assist us with recognizing undesirable
messages, for example, garbage and spam mail.
 • Messages are helpful for broadcasting items. As email is a type
of transmission, associations can affect many individuals and illuminate
them rapidly.
 • Email trades can be put something aside for future recovery,
which permits clients to keep fundamental discussions or affirmations
in their information and can be looked and recovered when required
quickly.
  Emails are beneficial for advertising products. An email is a form of
transmission. Organizations or companies can interact with many
people and inform them in a short time.

World Wide Web:

Internet, which is otherwise called an Internet, is an assortment of sites or pages put

away in web servers and associated with neighborhood PCs through the web. These
sites contain text pages, advanced pictures, sounds, recordings, and so on. Clients can
get to the substance of these destinations from any region of the planet over the web
utilizing their gadgets, for example, PCs, PCs, phones, and so on. The WWW,
alongside web, empowers the recovery and show of text and media to your gadget.

Internet, which is otherwise called an Internet, is an assortment of sites or pages put

away in web servers and associated with neighborhood PCs through the web. These
sites contain text pages, advanced pictures, sounds, recordings, and so on. Clients can
get to the substance of these destinations from any region of the planet over the web
utilizing their gadgets, for example, PCs, PCs, phones, and so on. The WWW,
alongside web, empowers the recovery and show of text and media to your gadget.A
web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A
particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website,
e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a
huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the world.

So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and exchange
information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one page to
another in a sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext links to
visit a web page and from that web page to move to other web pages. You need a
browser, which is installed on your computer, to access the Web.

World Wide Web Works -

The Internet functions according to the web's fundamental client-server design as
displayed in the accompanying picture. The servers store and move pages or data to
client's PCs on the organization when mentioned by the clients. A web server is a
product program which serves the site pages mentioned by web clients utilizing a
program. The PC of a client who solicitations records from a server is known as a
client. Program, which is introduced on the client' PC, permits clients to see the
recovered archives.

Every one of the sites are put away in web servers. Similarly as somebody lives on
lease in a house, a site consumes a space in a server and remains put away in it. The
server has the site at whatever point a client demands its Pages, and the site proprietor
needs to follow through on the facilitating cost for something similar.

The second you open the program and type a URL in the location bar or search
something on Google, the WWW begins working. There are three fundamental
advancements engaged with moving data (pages) from servers to clients (PCs of
clients). These advancements incorporate Hypertext Markup Language (HTML),
Hypertext Move Convention (HTTP) and Internet browsers.

HTTP:

o HTTP represents Hypertext Move Convention.

o It is a convention used to get to the information on the Internet (www).

 o The HTTP convention can be utilized to move the information as plain text,
hypertext, sound, video, etc.
o This convention is known as Hypertext Move Convention in light of
productivity permits us to use in a hypertext climate where there are quick
leaps starting with one record then onto the next report.
o HTTP resembles the FTP as it additionally moves the documents starting with
one host then onto the next have. Yet, HTTP is easier than FTP as HTTP
utilizes just a single association, i.e., no control association with move the
documents.
o HTTP is utilized to convey the information as Emulate like configuration.

o HTTP is like SMTP as the information is moved among client and server. The
HTTP contrasts from the SMTP in the manner the messages are sent from the
client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages are put away
and sent while HTTP messages are conveyed right away.

Features of HTTP:

o Connectionless convention: HTTP is a connectionless convention. HTTP

client starts a solicitation and hangs tight for a reaction from the server. At the
point when the server gets the solicitation, the server processes the solicitation
and sends back the reaction to the HTTP client after which the client
disengages the association. The association among client and server exist just
during the ongoing solicitation and reaction time as it were.
o Media free: HTTP convention is a media free as information can be sent on
the off chance that both the client and server know how to deal with the
information content. It is expected for both the client and server to determine
the substance type in Emulate type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless convention as both the client and server know
one another just during the ongoing solicitation. Because of this nature of the
convention, both the client and server don't hold the data between different
solicitations of the pages.
HTTP Transactions -

o The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The
client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server. The
server replies to the request message by sending a response message.

Messages

HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types
follow the same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request
line, headers, and sometimes a body.
Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that
consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

SMTP:

o SMTP represents Basic Mail Move Convention.

o SMTP is a bunch of correspondence rules that permit programming to

communicate an electronic mail over the web is called Basic Mail Move Convention.

o It is a program utilized for sending messages to other PC clients in view of

email addresses.

o It gives a mail trade between clients on the equivalent or various PCs, and it
likewise upholds:

o It can send a solitary message to at least one beneficiaries.

o Sending message can incorporate message, voice, video or designs.

o It can likewise send the messages on networks outside the web.

o The principal motivation behind SMTP is utilized to set up correspondence

rules between servers. The servers have an approach to recognizing themselves and
reporting what sort of correspondence they are attempting to perform. They likewise
have an approach to dealing with the mistakes, for example, erroneous email address.
For instance, in the event that the beneficiary location is off-base, getting server
answer with a blunder message or some likeness thereof.Components of SMTP-

o First, we will break the SMTP client and SMTP server into two components
such as user agent (UA) and mail transfer agent (MTA). The user agent (UA)
prepares the message, creates the envelope and then puts the message in the
envelope. The mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers this mail across the
internet.
o SMTP allows a more complex system by adding a relaying system. Instead of
just having one MTA at sending side and one at receiving side, more MTAs
can be added, acting either as a client or server to relay the email.

o The relaying system without TCP/IP protocol can also be used to send the
emails to users, and this is achieved using the mail gateway. The mail gateway
is a relay MTA that can be used to receive an email.
Working of SMTP -

1. Composition of Mail: A client sends an email by making an electronic mail

message utilizing a Mail Client Specialist (MUA). Mail Client Specialist is a program
which is utilized to send and get mail. The message contains two sections: body and
header. The body is the fundamental piece of the message while the header
incorporates data, for example, the shipper and beneficiary location. The header
likewise incorporates elucidating data like the subject of the message. For this
situation, the message body resembles a letter and header resembles an envelope that
contains the beneficiary's location.

2. Submission of Mail: Subsequent to forming an email, the mail client then, at

that point, presents the finished email to the SMTP server by utilizing SMTP on TCP
port 25.

3. Delivery of Mail: Email addresses contain two sections: username of the

beneficiary and area name. For instance, vivek@gmail.com, where "vivek" is the
username of the beneficiary and "gmail.com" is the area name.

On the off chance that the space name of the beneficiary's email address is not quite
the same as the shipper's area name, then MSA will send the mail to the Mail Move
Specialist (MTA). To hand-off the email, the MTA will track down the objective area.
It checks the MX record from Area Name Framework to acquire the objective space.
The MX record contains the area name and IP address of the beneficiary's space.
When the record is found, MTA associates with the trade server to transfer the
message.

4. Receipt and Handling of Mail: When the approaching message is gotten, the
trade server conveys it to the approaching server (Mail Conveyance Specialist) which
stores the email where it trusts that the client will recover it.

5. Access and Recovery of Mail: The put away email in MDA can be recovered
by utilizing MUA (Mail Client Specialist). MUA can be gotten to by utilizing login
and secret key.

.FTP:

o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting

the files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Objectives of FTP -

o It provides the sharing of files.

o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.

o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

Mechanism of FTP -
 o The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data
transfer process.

There are two types of connections in FTP:

o Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
between the control processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.
 o Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types
may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The
data connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and
closes when the file is transferred.

FTP Clients -

o FTP client is a program that executes a document move convention which

permits you to move records between two hosts on the web.

o It permits a client to interface with a remote host and transfer or download the
records.

o It has a bunch of orders that we can use to interface with a host, move the
records among you and your host and close the association.

o The FTP program is likewise accessible as an underlying part in an Internet

browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the record move extremely simple and
furthermore doesn't need to recollect the FTP orders.

.Advantages of FTP -

o Speed: One of the best advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the
speediest technique for moving the records beginning with one PC then onto the
following PC.

o Efficient: It is more powerful as we don't need to complete all of the exercises

to get the entire record.

o Security: To get to the FTP server, we truly need to login with the username
and secret expression. Thusly, we can say that FTP is more secure.

o Back and forward improvement: FTP licenses us to move the reports back and
forth. Expect you are an overseer of the association, you send an information to all of
the specialists, and they all send information back on a comparative server.
.

.Disadvantages of FTP -

o The standard prerequisite of the business is that all the FTP

transmissions ought to be scrambled. In any case, not all the FTP suppliers are
equivalent and not every one of the suppliers offer encryption. In this way, we
should pay special attention to the FTP suppliers that gives encryption.
o FTP serves two tasks, i.e., to send and get enormous documents on an
organization. In any case, the size furthest reaches of the document is 2GB
that can be sent. It likewise doesn't permit you to run concurrent exchanges to
various recipients.
o Passwords and record contents are sent in clear message that permits
undesirable listening in. Thus, it is very conceivable that aggressors can
complete the savage power assault by attempting to figure the FTP secret key.
o It isn't viable with each framework.