PHS 402 Public Health Law

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES
Department of Public Health
COURSE CODE: PHS 402
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO

PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS
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PHS 411: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS
COURSE DEVELOPMENT
Course Developer Dr Saka Mohammed Jimoh MBBS, FMCPH, PhD,

Dip. Law (Nig), Dip. Health Systems (Isrel), Cer. Health Economic
&RBF (World Bank), Cert HMIIS & Health Planning Mgt
University of Ilorin and Former Dean of Faculty
of BMS Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja.
Course Developer Ewhrudjakpo Lawrence Esq

Plot 250 A Old Kuntuku Compensation Layout,
Off Radio Road House, Gwagwalada, Abuja.
Chapter Writer: Dr Saka Mohammed Jimoh MBBS, FMCPH, PhD,

Dip. Law (Nig), Dip. Health Systems (Isrel), Cer. Health Economic
&RBF (World Bank), Cert HMIIS & Health Planning Mgt
University of Ilorin and Former Dean of Faculty
of BMS Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja.
Chapter Writer Ewhrudjakpo Lawrence Esq

Plot 250 A Old Kuntuku Compensation Layout,
Off Radio Road House, Gwagwalada, Abuja.
Programme Leader: Dr Gloria Anator

Faculty of Health Sciences National
Open University of Nigeria, Abuja
Course Coordinator: Dr Gloria Anator

Head of Department of Public Health
Faculty of Health Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria.
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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
Headquarter Office Address
National Open University of Nigeria

University Village, 91 Cadastral Zone, Jabi -Abuja
e-mail: centrainfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2019
ISBN
All Rights Reserved
Printed by NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE GUIDE 12-15

CHAPTER ONE
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW CONCEPT AND LIMITATION 16-18
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Concept of Public Health Law
3.2 Stewardship In Health Systems For Improved Health Outcoems
3.3 Relationship Between the Policy, Regulations, Legislation and The Law
3.4 Public Health Laws and Health of Population
3.5 Public Health Law Challenges in Nigeria Health Systems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self Assessed Exerceises
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
8.0 Reference/Further Reading
CHAPER TWO UNIT TWO 19-20
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW AS A LEGAL TOOLS FOR PROTECTION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Meaning of Health Law
3.2 Defination of Public Health Law
3.3 The Difference Between Health Law, Public Health Law and Medical Jurisprudence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER THREE UNIT THREE 21-22
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW STRUCTURE, PROCESS AND IMPLEMENTATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Meaning of Public Health
3.2 The key point you need to know about the functions of public health
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4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER FOUR UNIT FOUR 23- 25
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW CHARACTERISTICS, STRUCTURE AND PROCESS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Essential Characteristics of Public Health Law
3.2 Structure of The Public Health Law
3.3 Public Health Law Process and Improvement
3.4 Role of Legistlature in Implementation of Public Health Law
3.5 Law Reform and Health Interventions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER FIVE UNIT FIVE 26-28
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW ORIGIN, FOCUS AND VARIOUS PARTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Historical Development of Public Health Law; Global Perspective
3.2 Contribution of The Ancient Greece. Plato, Aristotle King John II, Edward III
3.3 Beginning of Public Health Law in America; -Conquering an Epidemic
3.4 Establishment of Public Health Laws to Combat Epidemic Diseases
3.5 Board Enforcement of Sanitary Rules and Regulation
3.6 Role of International Development Law Organization in Public Health Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER SIX UNIT SIX 29-31
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW IN NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 History of Public Health in Nigeria
3.2 From Public Health Policy to primary Health Care
3.3 From Public Health Policy Public Health Law
3.4 The Parts, Focus and Description of Public Health Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER SEVEN UNIT SEVEN 32-33
LEGAL APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS IN 21ST CENTUARY
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Trends of Law and Public Health Issues
3.2 Legal Authority Appraise of Acts of Public Health
3.3 Distinction Between Old and New Ppublic Health Laws
3.4 Looking at The New Public Health Rules
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER EIGHT UNIT EIGHT 34- 35
THE FRAMEWORK AND RATIONALE FOR PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Framework of Public Health Law and Ottawa Declaration
3.2 The Framework of PHL and Tallinn Charter Decalration on Health Systems
3.3 Rationale for the Establishment of Public Health Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER NINE UNIT NINE 36- 38
ATTRIBUTES OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Main content
3.1 The Do and Don’t of Public Health Laws
3.2 Continuum Nature of Public Health Law
3.3 Public Health Laws Are Made to Addresses Health Issues
3.4 Territorial and Regional Limit of Public Health Law
3.5 Amendment and Reformed of Public Health Laws
3.6 Public Health Laws and Advancement of Community
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER TEN UNIT TEN 39-40

THE USEFULNESS OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW AS A LEGAL TOOL
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Code, Rule and Structure
3.3 Right, Framework, Instrument
3.4 Acceptable Conduct or Behavior and Standard
3.5 A Tool For Restructure Any Aspect Or Sector Of The Environment
3.6 Prohibition of customs and practices
3.7 Legal tool for growth
3.8 Regulating Society
3.9 Establishment of law of Enforcement Agencies
3.10 Legitimacy, Equality and Justice
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER ELEVEN UNIT ELEVEN 41-49
THE CONCEPT OF LAW AND MORALITY
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Origin of Law
3.2 Definition of Law
3.3 Theories of Law
3.4 Definition of Morality
3.5 Difference Between Morality and Law
3.6 Similarities Between Morality and Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER TWELVE UNIT TWELVE 50-56
CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTION OF LAW
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Classifications of Law
3.2 Functions of Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER THIRTEEN UNIT THIRTEEN 57-61
SOURCES OF LAW IN RELATING TO PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Sources of Law
3.2 Main Sources of Law in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN UNIT FOURTEEN 62-64
SOURCES OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW IN NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Cross Cutting in the Sources of Public Health Law
3.2 Nigeria Constitution
3.3 African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Rights
3.4 Federal Government, States and Local Government legislation
3.5 Town and Country Planning Laws
3.6 The Law of Torts Dealing with Nuisance, Trespass and Negligence
3.7 All Laws Related to Drugs
3.8 Human Rights
3.9 International Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER FIVETEEN UNIT FIVETEEN 65-70

LAW MAKING PROCESS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Law Making Process in Military Regime
3.2 Types of Laws in Military Regimes
3.3 Law Making Process in Democracy
3.4 Types of Laws in A Democratic Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN UNIT SIXTEEN 71-75
PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS TYPES AND PRINCIPLES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Types of Public Health Laws
3.2 The Principles of Public Health Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN UNIT SEVENTEEN 76-84
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW OFFENCES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Offence
3.2 Types of Public Health Offences
3.3 List of Offences Under the Lagos State Environmental Sanitation Edict 1998
3.4 Defence To Public Health Offences
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN UNIT EIGHTEEN 85-92
RIGHT OF AN OFFENDER (ACCUSED)
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.2 Definition and Types of Human Rights
3.4 Environmental Rights
3.5 Definition of An Offender (An Accused)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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CHAPTER NINETEEN UNIT NINETEEN 93-98
PROCESS OF ENFORCING PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Enforcement
3.2 Public Health Laws Enforcement Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
CHAPTER TWENTY UNIT TWENTY 99-106

PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS ENFORCEMENT BODIES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Public Health Laws Enforcement Bodies at Federal Level
3.2 Public Health Laws Enforcement Bodies At State Level
3.3 Public Health Law Enforcement Bodies At The Local Government Level
3.4 Environmental Health Remedies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS
Introduction to Public Health Law, intends to acquaint the students with the tradition of health
laws in Nigeria, a multi-cultural society and the suitability of a federal constitution for public
health practices in Nigeria. It also intends to make students familiar with nature, scope, and
significance of health-related laws that will inform evidence-based delivery of health care
services across the country.
This Course is also designed to introduce you to the Nigerian Legal and Public Health System,
which forms a vital part of the total package for your degree course. The Course is designed to
equip you with a sound foundation of legal knowledge and enable you to cope with the legal
needs of health services in a plural society that is faced with a rapid political, social economic
and cultural development. The course therefore provides an opportunity to be kept abreast of
the expected roles of the Public Health Practitioner in the implementation of the Health
Services in collaboration with other sectors in other to maintain high professional ethics,
integrity and in accordance with laid down policies.
2.0 Justification
Public Health Law does not operate in a vacuum. It has to reflect social values, attitudes and
behavior. Societal values and norms, directly or indirectly, influence public health activities.
Public Health Law also endeavors to mould and control these values, attitudes and appropriate
behavioral changes in achieving health better heath outcome. It attempts either to support the
social system or to change the prevalent social situation or relationship by its formal processes.
Health related Laws also influences other parts of the social system. Public Health Law,
therefore, can be perceived as symbolizing the public affirmation of social facts and norms as
well as means of social control and an instrument of social change.
Course Aims
The aim of this course is to introduce the student to related public health laws with the
background knowledge of how to avoid unprofessional conduct which could lead to breach of
duty that has severe consequence.
Course Objectives
In order to achieve the aims of this course, there are some set of objectives that have been
stated. Each unit of this course has its own objective which is indicated immediately after the
introduction at the beginning of the unit. You should read these objectives before you study
the unit. It is also advisable to refer to them as you study the unit and at the end of your study
of the unit to enable you determine the progress you are making.
However, below are the general objectives of the course. It is important you meet the objectives
as they would enable you achieve the aims of this course. Therefore, at the end of studying the
course you should be able to:
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1. Describe the Nigerian Legal and Health System
2. Describe and Explain Historic Development of Public Health Law
3. Define ethics, professional ethics and list some health ethics, etiquettes and code of
conduct.
4. Explain the concept of morality, law and other legal concepts relating to ethics as
well as the differences and similarities between law and morality.
5. Describe the law-making process in both military and democratic regime
6. Define Public Health Law offences.
7. Explain the process of enforcing public health laws and the enforcement agencies
Working through this Course

To complete this course you are required to read each unit, read the textbooks and other
materials which may be provided by the National Open University of Nigeria.
Each unit contains a Tutor Marked Assignment which you must attempt to answer on your own
and which you will be required at certain point in this course to submit for purposes of
assessment. At the end of the course there will be a final examination. The course should take
you about a total of 16 weeks to complete. Also, stated below is the list of the all things you
need to do in this course and how to allocate your time as you study each unit. The nature of
study of the Open University requires that you spend a lot of time studying alone. You are
–
therefore advised to spend between 2 3 hours studying each unit, in addition to availing
yourself of the tutorial classes to be facilitated in order to be able to get explanations from
your facilitator and compare notes with your classmates.
What You Will Learn in this Course
This course consists of a course material and course guide. The course guide gives you a brief
of what materials you will be using and how you can work on own with the materials. In
addition, it states general guidelines with regards to the amount of time you are to spend while
studying each unit of the course in order to enable you successfully completes its study on
schedule.
The course guide helps guide you with respect to your Tutor Marked Assignment which are to
be made available in the assignment file. Also, there would be regular tutorial classes in this
course to be conducted by a facilitator. It is important that you attend these tutorial classes. You
are equally encouraged to form study group with your classmates in order to have thorough
discussions before the tutorial classes. The course is intended to prepare you for the ethical
challenges you are likely to meet in the delivery of public health services at home, community
and in the field of public health practices.
The Course Material
The main components of this course material include:
1. The Course Guide
2. Study Unit
3. Tutor Marked Assignment
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4. Reference/Further Readings
5. Presentation Schedule
Each unit is made up of about one to two weeks work and it includes an Introduction,
Objective, the main Content, Conclusion, Summary, Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) and
Reference/Further Reading. The unit helps you to work on your Tutor Marked Assignments
which will enable you determine the progress you are making and also help you achieve the
learning objectives stated in each unit, and the course as a whole.
Presentation Schedule
Your course materials have some important date to ensure early and timely completion and
submission of your TMAs and attendance of tutorial classes. You should endeavour to submit
all your TMAs by the stipulated time and date. You should not lack behind in any of your
work.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment in this course. The first consist of the Tutor Marked
Assignment and the second is the written examination at the end of the course. The Tutor
Marked Assignment which you will submit to your tutor for marking will count for 30% of
your total course scores, while the final examination you shall write at the end of the course
which shall last for three hours counts for 70% of your total course scores.
Tutor Marked Assignment

The TMA is a continuous assessment component of your course. It accounts for 30% of the
total score. You will be given four (4) TMAs to answer. Three of these must be answered
before you are allowed to sit for the end of course examination. The TMAs would be given to
you by your facilitator and returned after you have done the assignment. You should be able
to answer your assignment from the information and material contained in your further
reading, reference and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level of education to
demonstrate that you have read and researched more into your reference, which will give you
a wider view point and may provide you with a deeper understanding of the subject.
Also make sure that each TMA reaches your facilitator on or before the last date stipulated in
the presentation schedule and assignment file. If for any reason you are unable to complete
your work on time, contact your facilitator before the assignment is due to discuss the
possibility of an extension. Extension may not be granted after the due date except for
exceptional circumstances.
Final Examination and Grading

The end of course examination for professional ethics will be for about 3 hours and it has a
value of 70% of the total course work. The examination will consist of questions, which will
reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor marked assignment problems you
have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be examined, Endeavour to use the
period between finishing the last unit and sitting for examination to revise the whole course.
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You might find it useful to review your TMAs and comments on them before the examination.
This is because the end of course examination covers all aspects of the course. Course
Marking Scheme
Assignment Marks
Assignment 1 – 4 TMAs, 30% of course marks.
End of course examination 70% of overall course marks.
Total 100%
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There shall be 16 hours of tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be informed of
the times, dates and location for these tutorials. You will also be given the name and phone
number(s) of your facilitators, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
The facilitator will mark and comment on your assignment, keep a close watch on your
progress and in case of any difficulty you might encounter during the course he will provide
you with assistance. You are expected to mail your Tutor Marked Assignment to your
facilitator before the stipulated date (at least two working days are required). These would be
marked and returned to you as soon as possible.
Please do not hesitate to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail whenever you need
assistance.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find assistance necessary, hence
you would have to contact your facilitator if:
 You do not understand any part of the study material or the assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the Tutor Marked Assignment
 You have a question or problem with an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment,
You should endeavour to attend the tutorial classes. This is the only chance to have face to
face contact with your course facilitator and to ask questions which are answered instantly.
You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study.
To gain much benefit from the tutorial classes prepare a list of questions before attending
them. You will learn a lot from participating actively in discussions.
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CHAPTER ONE UNIT ONE
UNDERSTADING PUBLIC HEALTH LAW CONCEPT AND LIMITATION IN
NIGERIA HEALTH SYSTEMS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter unit we shall be considering the stewardship in health systems public
health law concept and the limitations. The stewardship role and instrument for
improving the health of populations through health laws.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of studying this chapter the learner should be able to:
1. Describe the concept of Public Health Law
2. Describe Stewardship in Health Systems For Improved Health Outcoems
3. Understand How Legistlation And Health Laws Improve Health of Populations
4. Understand How Legistlation Improve The Health of Populations
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Public Health Law

At the commencement of the 21st century, the institutions that are protective and
promotive to health systems faced challenges such as communicable and Non-
Communicable Diseases (NCD) toxic surroundings, increase populations with
insufficient access to health care which will lead to emerging infectious diseases. The
global and cultural circumstances of the country health systems are also undergoing fast
and intense changes. Technological and scientific advances, such as informatics and
genomics, spread the limits of human potential and knowledge faster than their
consequences which can be acted upon and absorbed. At the same time, people,
products and nation’s demographics are shifting in ways that challenge public and
private resources.
3.2 Stewardship In Health Systems For Improved Health Outcoems

The recognition of the protection and preservation of the public health from time
immemorial has been one of the necessary duties and the primary functions of the
government. Stewardship in health systems in many countries is the responsibilities of
ministry, agency or department of health, whose principal obligation’s to promote and
protect the health of the populace. A multiplicity of problems encounters includes the
growing burden of non-communicable diseases, the challenge of health system reform
and the Sustainable Development Goals. These contributed to renewed interest by
governments in the role of law in realising national health objectives and health
regulation. Law is an important (social) determinant of health, and the process of
improving law can result in improved health outcomes across the population.
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Two essential tools that assist governments in protecting their populations from threats
to health are public health law and public health policy. Policy can exist without resort
to law, but where the design of policy for long-term uses and where voluntary
agreement has not proved successful, there may be a need for the heavier hand of the
law in the implementation of health policy. However, the law is not always an
appropriate mechanism for achieving public health objectives. Unquestionably, the rule
can exist without recourse to law. Legislation may provide only legal mechanisms for
implementation of policy. The law or legislation must be on principles, policy objectives
and directions that guarantee effective legal systems. Thus, policy development should
be follow with the formulation of law. Public health law envisages the duties of
individual, people and organizations. Moreover, the responsibilities of the government’s
to provide healthy society. Regulations specify the manner in which public health
officials exercise their authorities and define the jurisdiction of the officers. It also
creates the social conditions in which people can be healthy and establishes the norms
for healthy behaviour. The legislature, administrative agencies and courts serve as
channels for social debates on public health issues that are important within the legal
language of rights, duties and justice.

Law is significant for improving the health of populations, through legislative and
administrative actions taken at the national, sub-national and international levels.
Internationally, health is a fundamental human right recognised in the Constitution of
the World Health Organization (WHO).
Although, health in Nigeria is better than ever before. There remain substantial
challenges relating to care for an ageing population and early disease (with variations
geographically, between social groups and among minorities). Moreover, while
cardiovascular disease, cancer and injuries are not yet controlled significantly, new
lifestyle diseases such as obesity and HIV/AIDS are on the increase. In response to
these challenges, there need to be improvements in health systems with precise
emphasis on effectiveness, efficiency and equitable interventions on prevention,
treatment and care of common ailments.

Public health law in Nigeria still does not respond to modern developments and does not
delineate the responsibilities entrusted to the public health ministry, department,
agencies, boards and officials at different states or local government. The relationship
between various levels of government fails to equip public health officers (medical
officer of health) with the necessary powers to control diseases based on current disease
classification schemes that address contemporary health problems.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit give an overview of the concepto f public healt law inreltionwith health
systems in Nigeria and how challeges in health care systems can be resolve leaglly
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit it was understood that law as a legal tool for improving health of population.
We also read that Stewardship in health systems is the responsibilities of ministry,
agency or department of health, whose principal obligation’s to promote and protect the
health of the populace

1. How does Public Health Law respond to health Systems?
7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the view that custom is a source of law from
2. What are institutions involved in health systems
8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1. Saka M.J. (2017). The Nigeria Public Health Law First Edition
2. Concept and Limitation of Public Health Law CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/phlp/docs/.../PHL101-Unit-1-16Jan09-Secure.pd accessed
August 2019
3. Martin R. Law and public health policy. In: Heggenhougen K, ed. International
Encyclopedia of Public Health. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2018:30−38.
4. Gostin, Conceptual Foundations of Public Health Law 8/1/08 2:00 PM Page 32:
2019
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CHAPTER TWO UNIT TWO
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW AS A LEGAL TOOLS FOR PROTECTION FROM
THREATS TO HEALTH
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall discuss policy, regulation and legislation. Important legal tool and
relationship between health law and public health law
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of studying this unit the learner should be able to:
1. Meaning of Health Law
2. Define Public Health Law
3. Explain the meaning of Health Law and Public Health Law
4. The Difference Between Health Law, Public Health Law and Medical
Jurisprudence
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Health Law
“Health law envisioned to provide an enabling environment in which the
promotion of health goes hand in hand with the general principles of equality,
justice and the protection of individual rights. Over the years, the status of the
healthiness law has grown, both at national and international levels. As there is
a relationship between health and human rights, it is important to integrate
health act and health policy. The impact of the health law on health policy-
making is expected to improve as a result of several advances, e.g. the
internationalization of health care and health policy, the issue of consumer
protection and the legalization of society. It requires a strategy to stimulate the
fruitful relationship between health policy and health law.”
3.2 Defination of Public Health Law

Gostin, 2000 understand public health law as ―the study of the legal powers and duties
of the government that guarantee healthy conditions of the people (such as
identification, prevention and improve risks to health in the population). They also
understand the limitations on the power of the government to liberty, constrain the
autonomy, privacy, or other legally protected interests of individuals for protection or
promotion of community and public health‖. Although there is broad consensus that
legislation is essential for good public health, the objectives and content of the law
remain a challenge.
3.2 The Difference Between Health Law, Public Health Law and Medical
Jurisprudence
While building on this definition, public health law is; ―The study of legal duties and
powers of the government to assure the conditions for persons or group of people to be
healthy (e.g., identification, prevention and amelioration of population risks to health).
Also, the restrictions of government power to confine the privacy, liberty, autonomy or
other lawfully secure benefits of persons for protection or promotion of community
health.‖
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Health law refers to a statute, ordinance or code that prescribes sanitary standards and
regulations for the purpose of preserving and promoting community's health.
Public Health Law may also mean the branch of jurisprudence which concerns with the
relationship and application of the common and statutory law on procedures, principles
of hygienic practices, the science of sanitation and public health administration. Public
health law is different from and is not a part of medical jurisprudence, more correctly
known as legal or forensic medicine, which is the science related to the application of
medical facts to right values of medical practice.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter you studied the concept of Public Health Law as a tool for the Protection
and preservation of health of the population. We also describe the rationale for
stewardship role in health outcome and role of health regulations in achiving national
health objectives. We differentiate between policy, regulation, legislations and Law.
Finally, we discussed the meaning of health law and public health law.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this lecture, we discussed Public Health Law as a tool for positive health outcome
while the Health law envisioned to provide an enabling environment in which the
promotion of health goes hand in hand with the general principles of equality, justice
and the protection of individual rights. Public health Law is the study of the legal
powers and duties of the government that guarantee healthy conditions of the people

1. What are the relationship between Policy, and Law
2. What are the rationale for Public Health Law

Discuss the view that custom is a source of law from
1. List the rationale for Public Health Law
2. Explain the meaning of Public Health Law
8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1. Saka M.J. (2017). The Nigeria Public Health Law First Edition
2. National Academic Press. Law and Public health law as a Tool for improving
Population health.57-127. 2019. https://www.nap.edu/read/13093/chapter/5
2. Snezhanna. Developing A Framework for Public Health Law in Europe: World
health Organization 2019. (http://www.euro.who.int/phl/2011/acessed 30 July. 2019)
3. The Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization states:
http://www.who.int/governance/eb/constitution/en/index.html
4. Martin R. Law and public health policy.(2019) In: Heggenhougen K, ed.
International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2008:30−38.
6.Gostin LO, Hodge JG. Oregon public health law − review and recommendations.
Washington DC, Georgetown University Law Center, 2000
(http://www.publichealthlaw.net/Resources/ResourcesPDFs/Oregon.pdf, accessed on 10
June, 2019).
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CHAPER THREE UNIT THREE
MEANING AND KEY FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC HEALTH
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter unit we shall be considering the interpretation of public health and key
points of the function of public health
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Explain The Meaning of Public Health
2. The key point you need to know about the function of public health
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Public Health

The term public health has different translations and meanings in the different languages
and cultures, but it indicates a population-level approach with a likelihood of society-
wide benefits. World Health Organization (WHO) defined public health as ―the art and
science of applying in the context of politics to reduce inequalities in health while
ensuring the best health for the greatest number.‖
Additional accepted definition of public health is: ―The art and science of preventing
illness, prolonging life, and promoting health through the organized and informed
efforts of society, organizations, public and private communities and individuals.‖ The
meaning of public health formerly put forward by Winslow in 1920 and adapted by
Acheson in 1988, has been widely accepted and is proposed for adoption. ―Public health
is the art and science of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health
through the organized efforts of society.‖ According to Frenk public health has five
different connotations. First, it equates with governmental action, that is, the public
sector. Secondly, and more broadly it embraces the community as a whole-the public –
and not the government (meaning the citizenry). Third, public health is directed towards
non-personal health services, but services affecting the environment or the community.
Fourth, it entails preventive services which are directed at a particular group of people
such as children and women or disease control such as HIV/AIDS and Malaria control
or polio eradication. Finally, the term public health problem is sometimes used to refer
to illness that are particularly dangerous such as the epidemic associated with
tuberculosis or HIV/AIDS.
Acheson (1988) defined public health as ―the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts of society. From the
above discussion public health can be defined as that branch of medicine which deals
with the science and art of preventing and controlling diseases, prolonging live,
promoting health and rehabilitating the sick through the combined effort of the
government, community and individuals.
21
3.2 The key point you need to know about the function of public health:
1. Promotion of health, including tackling health inequalities
2. Quality and clinical standards that is clinical governance
3. Protection of public health and the management of risk (Holland and Stewart,
1998).
Public health also includes environmental health and laws because in the prevention of
diseases a healthy environment that is pollutant free is essential. It also entails provision
of adequate nutrition and housings. The remit of public health is quite broad because it
cuts across several fields including health, education, agriculture, environment, land and
housing, water, industry and works. However, quite often public health has been
confused and mixed up with medical practice, especially clinical practice and this tend
to affects its effectiveness in the disease control and prevention. The basic function of
public health is to determine disease pattern among the population, their causes and
ways of preventing and recording deaths births, changes in population and other social
behaviour patterns, assessing health needs and evaluating services to ensure better
health of the society as a whole and not individual personal health care. However, the
profession of public health especially doctors started in England in 1948 (Hunter, 2003)
which is similar to the time the training of Rural Health Superintendents and Sanitary
Inspectors started in Nigeria.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter our focus was on the meaning of public health in promotion of health,
including tackling health inequalities. Public health address quality and clinical
standards in clinical governance. Public health also includes environmental health and
laws because in the prevention of diseases a healthy environment that is pollutant free is
essential. It also entails provision of adequate nutrition and housings.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this chapter it very clear that the basic function of public health is to determine
disease pattern among the population, their causes and ways of preventing and recording
deaths births, changes in population and other social behaviour patterns,
6.0 SELF ASSESSED EXERCEISES

1. Briefly define the term public health in your own words
2. What are the various of public health issues?

2. what are the major aimed of public health
8.0 REFRENCES
1. Honoré, P. A., and T. Schlechte. 2017. State public health agency expenditures:
Categorizing and comparing to performance levels. Journal of Public Health
Management and Practice 13(2):156-162.
2. Saka, M.J 2017.Chapter one in a book titled;- the Nigeria Public Health Law
22
CHAPTER FOUR UNIT FOUR
CHARACTERISTICS, STRUCTURE, PROCESS AND IMPLMENTAION OF
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The chapter unit will discuss the essential characteristics of public health law structure, process
and Implementation. The unit also discussed law reform and intervention.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Essential Different Between Public Health Law, Medicine and Law
2. Describe the Structure of The Public Health Law
3. Describe Public Health Law Process and Improvement
4. Dsicuss Law Reform and Health Interventions
5. Discuss the Role of Legistlature in Implementation of Public Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Essential Characteristics of Public Health Law

From the meaning of public health law. Five essential characteristics distinguished
public health law from the fields of medicine and law are:
I. Public health law are primarily (but not exclusively) the responsibility of
government rather than the private sector;
II. Populations: Public Healh Law focuses on the health of populace rather than
individual patients for clinical improvement;
III. Association: public health contemplates the relationship between the state and the
populace, rather than the relationship between the physician and patient;
IV. Facilities: public health deals with the provision of public health services to/for
the community rather than personal medical amenities and;
V. Force: Public Healh Law possesses the rule to compel people for the protection
of the community as appropriate and within the framework of the international
legal standards for protection of human rights
3.2 Structure of The Public Health Law

Consequently, the law can give legal frame, influence the activities of government and
societal expectations on the scope and importance of public health, specifically,
regarding financial crisis. The structure of the public health law should embrace and
defined its functions to include the minimum infrastructure, funding mechanisms and
personnel needed which can provide a yardstick for policy-makers in health sectors in
the future. Health Law in the public domain offers absolute power for the exercise of
public health right while at the same time, limiting that power needed to safeguard
individual rights. In considering law reform, it is important to distinguish between duties
and powers in public health.
23
3.3 Public Health Law Process and Improvement
Public health law (PHL) envisages the tasks of individuals and the roles of government
on healthy society. Thus, public health law serves as a legal framework and foundation
for public health issues. Public health law should ensure that public health institutions
are fully and capable of responding to current and future public health fears.
Unfortunately, the existing public health laws often fail to take determinants of health
into account in carrying out their essential services to achieve the stated goal.
3.4 Role of Legistlature in Implementation of Public Health Law
The legislature should impose responsibilities on health departments to initiate a broad
range of activities relating to surveillance, control of communicable and non-
communicable diseases, environmental sanitation, and prevention of injuries. It is
significant that health officials should maintain flexibility in the used of power to
achieve public health goal.
The law must also place proper limits on powers to protect human dignity and rights.
These can best be accomplished if:
 Clear criteria can be recognized for the implementation of essential authorities.

For example, requiring health establishments to use evidence base information
that has an insignificant risk of the practices of public health as the basis for the
implementation to prevent differences on infringements of individual rights or
discrimination of action that is unlawful;
 the procedural due process provided for all persons who face grave constraints on
their liberty; and
 the protection of privacy of individuals.
While public Health Law is and must be understood as a tool for prevention, it uses a
wide variety of legal means to prevent diseases and injury by creating the conditions for
people to be healthy. Improving PHL could bring benefits such as the updating of acts;
acquiescence with both international and national legal requirements; and improvements
in the interactions between relevant and public health authorities, within country-
specific vertical hierarchies of public health consultants, and between public health
specialists and private initiatives in public health.
3.5 Law Reform and Health Interventions

Law reform sees public health interventions in promoting and protecting individual
rights and improving actual decision-making. Though, public health interventions can
be highly cost-effective. This intervention includes actions to reduce consumption of
alcohol through taxation and advertising bans; regulation to reduce salt content in food
and fats; control of tobacco measures related to taxation, advertising and smoke-free;
and road safety through mandatory seat belt use, speed bumps and breath tests. While
many of these actions would already justify for other reasons, including cost-
effectiveness evidence in implementation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter our focus was on the meaning of Public Health, Health Law and Public
Health Law. We equally discussed the differences and similarities between Public
Health Law, Medicine and Law. The Structure of Public Health Law and role of
legislatures in implementation of Public Health Law Interventions.
24
5.0 SUMMARY
In this chapter it very clear that there are many differences between public health, health
law and public health law. The legislatures roles in public health law interventions
implementation are important for improving health outcomes of the population.
6.0 SELF ASSESSED EXERCISES

1. What is your understanding of health law
2. Explain the meaning of Public health
3. Explain Medical Jurisprudence and medico
4. Enumerate and explain three difference between health law and public health
law in your own words.
Explain

2. Explain three difference between health law and public health
law in your own words
3. Essential Different Between Public Health Law, Medicine and Law
8.0 REFERENCES
1. Saka M.J. Legislative response to health. In Chapter three of the Nigeria public
health Law 2017. Published in Unilorin.
2. Goodman, R. A., P. L. Kocher, D. J. O’Brien, and F. S. Alexander. 2018. The
structure of law in public health systems and practice
3. Acheson D. Public health in England. The report of the committee of inquiry into
the future development of the public health function. London: HMSO
4. Shapiro RJ. Future cast: how superpowers, populations and globalization will
change the way you live and work. New York, St Martin’s Press, 2018.
5. Saka M.J. Definition and the historical development of public health law. In
Chapter one of the Nigeria Public Health Law. 2017, Vol 1;1-7
25
CHAPTER FIVE UNIT FIVE
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW; GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this Chapter we shall be considering the global development of Public Health Law in
other countries
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Describe The Origin of Public Health Law a Global Perspective
2. Discuss the Contribution of The Ancient Greece
3. Describe role of Public Health Law in Conquering an Epidemic
4. Discuss how Public Health Laws help in Combating Epidemic Diseases
5. Explain Enforcement of Sanitary Rules and Regulation
6. Describe the Role of International Development Law Organization in Public
Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Historical Origin Development of Public Health Law; Global Perspective
Since the disease is as old humanity, society has realized from its beginnings that
organized efforts by the sovereign power are necessary to cope with plague and
pestilence. Perhaps the initial of the sanitary codes was the ordered by Moses for the
government of ancient Hebrews. This code, as given in Chapters 11 to 16 of the Book of
Leviticus, was transcribed some five centuries before the Christ dates from about 1500
B .C., and is based in part upon the Code of Hammurabi of 4,000 years ago. The ancient
Greeks and the Romans recognized the value of sanitary measures and were "the most
sagacious and extensive legislators in such matters;
3.2 Contribution of The Ancient Greece. Plato (427-847 s.c.). Aristotle (384-322
B.C). King John II, Edward III
Plato (427-847 s.c.). Aristotle (384-322 B.C) stated that no city should exist without
health officers. The positions occupied in ancient Greece by such notable figures as
Epaminondas, Demosthenes, and Plutarch, who wrote a book on rules of health in 494
B.C on the duties of the Roman, which include sanitary supervision of city districts.
Though in medieval Europe, the first sanitary laws were promulgated by King John II of
France in 1350 by 1357, Edward III of England promulgated a royal edict against
pollution of the Thames. In 1348, during an epidemic of plague, Venice appointed a
board of health, which established guidelines for forty days' isolation of infected
persons, thus giving rise to the term "quarantine." In 1374, Venice imposed quarantine
upon maritime commerce, a procedure monitored by other cities, such as Ragusa and
Marseille. In the centuries that followed, sanitary ordinances were adopted from time to
time, but when Queen Victoria climbed the throne of England in 1837, the science of
public health was virtually unrecognized by the parliament. Through the influence of
Edwin Chadwick, a lawyer who was secretary of the Poor Law Commission, physicians
were employed to investigate conditions contributing to ill health. In 1842 Chadwick
26
published a report on the sanitary situation of the laboring classes, and in 1843 a Royal
Commission was appointed to study the health of large towns and populous districts? As
a result of these activities, a General Board of Health created in England in 1848.
According to Dr William H. Welch, he says, ―for the first time in human history was the
upkeep of the health of the people fully recognized as an important administrative
function of government." This marks the modern public health era dates from the event.
3.3 Beginning of Public Health Law in America; -Conquering an Epidemic

Commencement of public health in America started with the increase of epidemic
diseases such as cholera in the 19 th Century, Tuberculosis in the 20 th Century
including Yellow fever which was claiming lives of innocent citizens, especially
those living in poor sanitary conditions. As Charles Rosenberg rightly points out ―in
the history of public health in the United States, there is no date more importa nt than
1866, no event more significant than the organization of the Metropolitan Board of
Health as that was the first time an American community had successfully organised
itself to conquer an epidemic‖.
3.4 Establishment of Public Health Laws to Combat Epidemic Diseases

From the above you can see that there is need to combat epidemic diseases that were
rampage in America at that time that led to the introduction of public health and the
establishment of Board to deal with the emerging public health diseases which were
affecting large number of the population. In order to ensure the effectiveness of the
Board in dealing with the issues of disease prevention and control, as well as promotion
of health. Public health laws were established to empower the Board to deal with all
issues relating to public health. The role of public health laws in public health
promotion is very crucial and as Wing, Mariner, Annas and Strouse (2007) points out
―legislative and administrative law can be extremely effective tools in the promotion of
public health‖.
3.5 Board Enforcement of Sanitary Rules and Regulation

However, the Board was set and authorized to work with the police in the promotion
of public health and safety, and were latter required to enforce and execute the
sanitary rules and regulation. Staff of the board then included physician, health
inspectors, lawyers, engineers and the police. Their duty was to ensure proper
erection of buildings, evacuation of refuse, cleanliness of premises through
inspection, ensure proper drainages, removal all public nuisances, serve notices and
orders to abate nuisances and appear to answer allegation of violation of public
health laws, undertake general and gratuitous vaccination, isolate those having
diseases such as small-pox as well as take steps to prevent the occurrence of diseases
and control diseases which will threaten public health and safety. It was upon this
foundation that modern America public health system and laws were built.
27
3.6 Role of International Development Law Organization in Public Health Law
On 26 April 2010, the International Development Law Organization (IDLO) hosted an
international professional talk on the provision of a manual to assist countries engaged
in the process of developing, modernizing and improving their public health laws. The
discussion took place at IDLO’s regional office in Cairo, Egypt. Participants made of
twenty-two experts from many countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, China,
Canada, Columbia, Egypt, Ecuador, Indonesia, South Africa, Suriname, Uganda, and
the United States of America attended the conference. International agencies including
the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR);
WHO’s Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO); and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). The Cairo consultation followed from an initial talk
at IDLO headquarters in Rome, 26-28 April 2009.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter unit, historic development of public health law extensively discussed.
The role of Greece and role of public health law in combating outbreak of epidemic
disease.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this chapter it very clear that public health law practices differed from one country to
another and also different implementation of public health law occurred in each State of
Federation.

1. What do understand by global perspective of public health law
2. What are the role of International law in Public health law
3. How does Public Health law begin in America
7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGN

1. How does Public Health Law help in conquering an Epidemic
2. Liist the ancient greece and contribution to public health
8.0 REFERENCES
1. The World Health Report 2003: shaping the future. Geneva, World Health
Organization, 2013 (http://www.who.int/whr/2003/en/whr03_en.pdf, accessed 11
April 2019).
2. Saka M.J Historic Development of Public Health Law in The Nigeria Public
Health Law First Edition. Page 11-14
28
CHAPTER SIX UNIT SIX
THE ORIGIN, FOCUS AND VARIOUS PARTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW IN
NIGERIA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter unit we shall be considering the development of public health law in
Nigeria with particular preference to different parts, focus and description. The Unit also
discuss the policy issues to development of public health and primary health care.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Describe The Origin of Public Health in Nigeria
2. Explain establishment of Primary health care
3. Describe the development of Public Health Law
4. Discuss different part, focus and Description of Public Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 History of Public Health in Nigeria
In Nigeria the history of public health is also traceable to the outbreak of diseases such
as Cholera, Yellow fever, Yaws, Chicken pox and Small-pox in the mid-20th century.
Although medical service started in Nigeria with the establishment in 1860s when the
Sacred Heart Hospital was established by Roman Catholic missionaries in Abeokuta
public health was not introduced until later. Throughout the ensuing colonial period,
the religious missions played a major role in the supply of modern health care facilities
in Nigeria (Ibet-Iragunima, 2006). This was followed by the colonial health system
which was also largely hospital or curative it was not until the middle of the 19 th
century that Dr. Williams a Briton carried out the first series of vaccination in Nigeria
(Kale, 2006). The increase in epidemic diseases led to establishment of the medical
auxiliary schools in Zaria, Jos, Maidugrui and Ibadan to train Rural Health Attendants
and Health Inspectors to undertake public health services just similar to those renders
in America during the period of their epidemic. This also coincided with enactment of
relevant public health laws to ensure both environmental sanitation and disease
control.
3.2 From Public Health Policy to Primary Health Care

In 1978, global history of public health changed gear at Alma-Ata, Kazakh Republic,
former USSR, when primary health care (PHC) was universally adopted as the strategy
for achieving Health for All (defined as a level of health that guarantees socially and
economically productive lives) (Aja, 2001).
3.3 From Public Health Policy Public Health Law
The first attempt to explain public health law practices In Nigeria is written in a book
title The Nigeria Public Health law by Saka M.J (2017). Nigeria had the Public Health
Ordinance designated as public health law in 1948. The ordinance was applicable in the
whole of Nigeria which was at that time administered by the Colonial Authorities as a
single entity under a unitary government. Public health law achieved dramatic successes
all over the country. A spectacular feature of this achievement was the revision of 1948
29
public health law ordinance leading to the evolution or with the advent of regionalism in
the 50s, the public health law was revised and specifically passed for each of the three
regions, namely Northern, Western and Eastern Regions in 1957. The public health law
became operational in 1959. These public health laws were inherited by the 12 States
that were created in 1967 which in turn were inherited by the various states created
subsequently. Today, there is a public health law for each of the 36 States and the
Federal Capital Territory. It provides the definition of medical officer of health,
environmental health officer. It also spells out the power of public health officer (PHO)
and defines the general duty of a medical officer of health.
3.4 The Parts, Focus and Description of Public Health Law
The public health laws are contained in special volumes of the laws of each state. Public
health law is made up of different parts as in the table below.
Part Focus Description

I Introduction Application and Interpretation
Ii MOH or EHO Appointment and Functions
III Nuisance Notice abatement on non-compliance &court order
IV Occupier of Duties, power to sell premises, right of entry, Cost of execution
Premises relating to nuisance
V Infectious DXs Declaration of infected area and order for evacuation
VI Vaccination Major vaccine preventable diseases

VII Water Drinking Quality water, Fouling water
VIII Streets& open (Market sanitation/Street Trading and Illegal Market
spaces trading Regulation)
IX Food & Food MOH to inspect food exposed for sale and condemn unsound
Premises food.
X Local Liquor Spirit, wine and beer licenses in area
XI Abattoir Abattoir and slaughter houses regulations
4.0 CONCLUSION
In Nigeria the history of public health law stemmed from the outbreak of diseases such
as Cholera, Yellow fever, Yaws, Chicken pox and Small-pox in the mid-20th century.
Nigeria had the Public Health Ordinance designated as public health law in 1948, The
first attempt to explain public health law practices In Nigeria is written in a book title
The Nigeria Public Health law by Saka M.J (2017). Finally, description of different
parts, focus and description of what constitute public health law in Nigeria.
30
5.0 SUMMARY
In this chapter it very clear that public health law practices differed from one country to
another and also different implementation of public health law occurred in each State of
Federation.

1. Explain from public health policy to public health law
2. What is your understanding of term from policy to primary health care

1. How many parts of Public Health Law in Nigeria do you know?
2. What are the focus of Public Health Law
3. Describe the development of Public Health Law in Nigeria
8.0 REFERENCE/ FURTHER READING
TEXT BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING
1. Saka M.J. Nigeria Public Health Law (2017)
2. The World Health Report 2003: shaping the future. Geneva, World Health
Organization, 2003 (http://www.who.int/whr/2003/en/whr03_en.pdf, accessed 11
January 2011).
3. Gostin LO, Burris S, Lazzarini Z. The law and the public’s health: a study of
infectious disease law in the United States. Columbia Law Review, 1999, 69.
4. About WHO in the Western Pacific Region. Manila, WHO Regional Office for
the Western Pacific, 2016
31
CHAPTER SEVEN UNIT SEVEN
TREND AND LEGAL AUTHORITY APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS
IN 21ST CENTUARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this Chapter we shall be considering the trend in the establishments of Public Health
Law with emphasis on conceptualization of public health law.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Describe The Trend of Law and Public Health Issues
2. Discuss the Legal Authority Appraisal of Public Health Law
3. Distinguish Between Old and New Public Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Trends of Law and Public Health Issues
Conceptualization of public health law is not easy, as judges, lawmakers, health
officials, scholars and others have often seen public health law at the intersection of
other disciplines or fields including forensic medicine, health law, health care law,
environmental law, and bioethics. While public health law conceptually related to the
arenas of law and medicine, it is a distinctive discipline which is subjected to empirical,
theoretical and practical distinction from other disciplines at the nexus of the health and
law.
3.2 Legal Authority Appraise of Acts of Public Health

Most legal authorities are in the process of appraising their main acts of public health.
The documentation of some fundamentals or values, supported by examples of good
practice, would seem useful to aid reliability in approach concerning the various
jurisdictions. The governments in Nigeria like other countries today have passed a law
in response to specific disease threats such as yellow fever, trypanosomiasis, sexually
transmitted infection and HIV/AIDS, road traffic accident, etc.
3.3 Distinction Between Old and New Ppublic Health Laws

Definitely, old laws are not automatically laws that are bad. A well-written Act may
remain useful, efficacious and constitutional for many decades. Old laws are, however,
often outdated in ways that directly reduce their efficacy and conformity to modern legal
standards. Old laws may not reflect current medical treatments of choice or
contemporary scientific understanding of a disease or constitutional limits on the
government's authority to limit individual freedoms. The law may also fail to allow
public health agencies, the choice to administrative regulation for enactments. Some old
public health laws lag behind advances in discrimination law, constitutional law,
confidentiality in health information and requirements in the modern day. Today, most
courts have more challenging standards for equal protection under the laws, substantive
due process, procedural and due process.
32
3.4 Looking at The New Public Health Rules
Public health rules that affect independence (such as quarantine, isolation, and directly
observed treatment), confidentiality (such as partner notification and reporting) and
autonomy (such as mandatory testing, immunization or treatment) may undergo more
inspection. The legal systems, before the exercise of compulsory powers more rigorous
procedural, must be available. It may require health officials to adopt a standard of
―significant risk‖ before resorting to compulsion. Also, the major risk point to a direct
threat and safety of other people on an unremovable issue by a modification of practices,
policies or procedures. Consequently, under this normal, treatment in advanse, such as a
judgment to use essential authorities, would only be allowed if the individual posed a
significant risk to the health or safety of others. A substantial risk regarding
communicable diseases determined through an individualized assessment of the mode of
transmission, the probability of transmission, the severity of harm and the duration of
infectiousness. General or overlapping provisions concerning public health duties and
responsibilities sometimes result in confusion about who has what public health powers
and when exercising those powers. This confusion is logical, given the ladder-upon-
layer tactic of law in public health, even the most skillful lawyers will struggle in
providing clear responses to public health executives about the right to act. One major
advantage of reform to public health law would be to offer better clearness on legal
powers and responsibilities.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Public health law conceptually related to the arenas of law and medicine, it is a
distinctive discipline which is subjected to empirical, theoretical and practical
distinction from other disciplines at the nexus of the health and law.
5.0 SUMMARY
The governments in Nigeria like other countries today have passed a law in response to
specific disease threats such as yellow fever, trypanosomiasis, sexually transmitted
infection and HIV/AIDS, road traffic accident.
Some old laws may fail to allow public health agencies, the choice to administrative
regulation for enactments. One major advantage of reform to public health law would
be to offer better clearness on legal powers and responsibilities

1. Explain trend of law and public health issues
2 Legal Authority Appraise of Acts of Public Health
1. What are the major different between old and new public health laws
2. How does government help in specific diseases threats
1. Saka M.J. Framework of Public Health in Nigeria Public Health Law (2017)
2. CDC. 2019. State-specific prevalence and trends in adult cigarette smoking—United
States, 1998–2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58(09):221-226.
33
CHAPTER EIGHT UNIT EIGHT
THE FRAMEWORK AND RATIONALE FOR PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Law. We will also discuss the attributes and usefulness of public health Law in
improving population health.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Describe The The Framework of Public Health Law and Ottawa Declaration
2. Describe The Framework of Public Health Law and Tallinn Charter Decalration
on Health Systems
3. Enumerate the Rationale for the Establishment of Public Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Framework of Public Health Law and Ottawa Declaration on Health
Promotion
Public health law provides an opportunity for development of a framework of the
philosophy of public health. The Charter for health promotion was agreed upon in
Ottawa November 1986 at the First International Conference on Health Promotion was a
useful example. It takes a proactive and broad view of health to define the prerequisites
for health as ―peace, shelter, food, income, education, a stable eco-system, social justice,
equity and sustainable resources. There are prerequisites required for improvement in
health which was recognised in Ottawa as the coordinated action of‖ the governments,
non-governmental and voluntary organisations, local authorities, industry, and the
media.‖ It highlights the essential for administrations to build ―healthy public policy‖
and to ―accept their tasks for health‖ through a varied range of policies and initiatives,
including the construction of healthy environments and the strengthening of community
action.
3.2 The Framework of Public Health Law and Tallinn Charter Decalration on
Health Systems
A shared commitment to improving health as well as healthcare system operation
recently captured in 2008. International Conference on health systems for health and
wealth by WHO tagged ―Tallinn Charter‖ which confirmed and articulated the
following principles:
 Promote shared values of equity, participation, and solidarity through resource
allocation, health policies for the needs of the vulnerable groups and the poor;
 Investment in health systems spread across other sectors that affect health;
 Make health systems more responsive to people’s needs, expectations and
preferences while recognizing their rights and responsibilities about their health;
 Engage stakeholders development and implementation of policy.
34
3.3 Rationale for the Establishment of Public Health Law
Appropriate legislation is fundamental to improving public health. At the national level
countries continuously need to review and update health legislature for:
1. protection and promotion of populations health;
2. sustain their health policies and programmes;
3. prevent ill-health resulting from unsafe products and unsafe living conditions;
4. fight new and re-emerging communicable diseases;
5. support the development of health systems; and
6. combat continuing poverty, inequities in health and discrimination.
At the international level:
1. contemporary global health challenges reveal our inter-dependence, and demand
collective consensus and collective action;
2. national and international health laws are mutually supportive, and are vital to
protecting and promoting health; and
3. the importance of health legislation reflected in many national constitutions and
the WHO Constitution.
4.0 CONCLUSION The chapter examined the rationale for the establishments of
public health law. It also discussed various type of declarations on the framework
for public health Laws in Nigeria
5.0 SUMMARY
The rationed for Public Health Law is not only for the protection and
preservation of health of population. It is a collection of do and don’t. Like other
law it is formulated by law makers at all levels.

1. Expalin The Framework of Public Health Law and
2. Expain Tallinn Charter Decalration on Health Systems
3. The important of Ottawa decalration to establishment of public health law

1. What are reasons for the establishment of Public Health law at National Level
2. What are reasons for the establishment of Public Health law at International
Level

1. Saka M.J. (2017) Framework of Public Health in Nigeria Public Health Law
2. Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. First International Conference on
Health Promotion Ottawa, (WHO/HPR/HEP/95.1)
(www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/ottawa_charter_hp.pdf, accessed 29 July 2019).
3. WHO. The Tallinn Charter: Health Systems for Health and
Wealthhttp://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/conferences/who-european-
ministerialconference- on-health-systems/documentation/conference-
documents/the-tallinn-charterhealth-systems-for-health-and-wealth
35
CHAPTER NINE UNIT NINE
ATTRIBUTES OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Describe the do and don’ts of public health laws
2. Discuss continuum nature of public health law
3. Describe the territorial and regional limit of public health law
4. Describe reformed and advancement of public health laws to the community
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Public Health Law Attributes are as follow:
3.1 The Do and Don’t of Public Health Laws
I. Public Health Law (PHL) is a collection of rules, remedies, and sanctions as the
case may be related to health. PHL is an assemblage of do's and don'ts or norms
for healthy living. Thus, PHL is normative.
Legislatives Action on PHLs
II. Nowadays, PHL like other laws is usually made by the legislature that is,
Parliament National or State Assembly (NASS or SASS), or by a delegated
authority, agency or by some other authority, according to the system of
government or legal system that is in place in a given country. In the olden days
in Nigeria, many public health laws evolved from customs (sanitary inspectors of
olden days).
III. Nowadays, health-related laws mostly codified, that is, written, at the instance of
the lawmakers, especially, where parliament makes it and so forth. However,
public health law which crystallized from custom are mostly unwritten, and today
they exist either partly written or wholly unwritten and in the form of judicial
precedents and so forth. Thus, written public health law, that is, codified as a
statute law and so forth, or partly uncodified in the form of common law and
customary law.
3.2 Continuum Nature of Public Health Law

IV. Public health law exists in a continuum or continually, except, where serious
social, political or economic upheaval occasion a disruption of law and order.
V. Public health law is fundamental and pervasive. There is a law concerning nearly
all things as it affects the health of individual or population. Public health law
covers and regulates practically all aspects of health-related life and human
activity.
36
3.3 Public Health Laws Are Made to Addresses Health Issues
VI. Public health laws are often the reaction or response of the lawmakers to the
problems and issues confronting health systems in the country. More so Public
health related laws are often passed in response to deal with the issues causing
dilapidating or collapse of the health of the country. Public health laws are often
a picture, or it gives a picture of the issue’s society is trying to solve. It reflects
the stage of the development of civilization.
3.4 Territorial and Regional Limit of Public Health Law

VII. Public health law is territorial and has a regional limit. Law of Federation of
Nigeria, public health Laws of each State in Nigeria, bye-laws. Thus, PH laws
only operate or takes effect in the geographical territory in which the health law
applies, such as a corporation, institution, agencies, local government, state,
country or the international community, as the case may be.
VIII. Public Health Law is realistic, or peculiar to each society, and is usually tailored
(made) to serve and suit the needs and purposes of the society the health law is to
regulate.
IX. Public health Law may be rooted and spring from the nature, culture, history, or
religion of the people, or social, political, and economic life of the people.
X. The purpose of Public Health Law may be for motivation, utility or function it
will serve a particular society. Furthermore, public health law may simply be a
command, affirmative declaration, legal order, decree or do’s and don’t issued by
a lawmaker.
3.5 Amendment and reformed of Public Health Laws to meet the needs of
the people as changes occur, and society grows
XI. Public Health Law is dynamic in nature and may be amended and reformed to
meet the needs of the people as changes occur, and society grows. Thus, Public
health legislation evolves over time, and it changes. Accordingly, public health
law should get better with time to better secure and achieve the objectives of the
society.
3.6 Public Health Laws and Advancement of Community

XII. Ideally, public health law advances community and community, in turn, improves
the health laws. Health legislation moves the communal forward, and
community, in turn, changes health law forward. Public health Law brings
changes to the community and communal changes the law to meet its needs.
Thus, public health law develops community and community develop the public
health law by reforming it. Health laws changes community and community will
modify health laws.
As long as there are life and society, this is a continuous cycle. The following
cases, among thousands of others, illustrate this circle of change:
37
4.0 CONCLUSION
The chapter unit discussed the various attributes of Public health laws ranging from the
don and don’t. the territorial and regional. It also discussed the advancement with
continuum nature.
5.0 SUMMARY
The rationed for Public Health Law is not only for the protection and preservation of
health of population. It is a collection of do and don’t. Like other law it is formulated by
law makers at all levels.

1. Discuss continuum nature of PHL and Health Issues PHL address
2. Describe the territorial and regional limit of public health law
3. Describe reformed and advancement of public health laws to the community
1. List the classification of attribute of Public Health Law
2. List the attribute of Public Health Law

1. Saka M.J. (2017). Attributes of Public Health Law. Section 10. Pg. 16-17
2. Gostin LO, Hodge JG. Oregon public health law − review and recommendations.
Washington DC, Georgetown University Law Center, 2015
(http://www.publichealthlaw.net/Resources/ResourcesPDFs/Oregon.pdf, accessed 10
April, 2018).
3. Food Standards Agency. (2018). UK Salt Intake Levels Heading in the Right
Direction. http://www.food.gov.uk/news/pressreleases/2008/jul/sodiumrep08 (April,
2018).
4. Food Standards Agency. (2019). Impact Assessment of the Revised Salt Reduction
Targets: Summary—Intervention and Options. London, UK: Food Standards Agency
38
CHAPTER TEN UNIT TEN
THE USEFULNESS OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW AS A LEGAL TOOL
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Explain the different types on usefulness of the Public Health Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Introduction
Public Health Law, of whatever form is a necessity for right life or good life in any
realm. However, the functions of public health legislation in the community include:
3.2 Code, Rule and Structure
I. It is a code of conduct.
II. A rule of action to ensure that persons, bodies, and community live orderly,
peaceful and healthy lives
III. It specifies the structure, framework and the order for all health aspects of life
and society, whether it be the structure of government, or private and so forth.
3.3 Right, Framework, Instrument
IV. It is a guarantee of rights, freedoms, and duties.
V. It is a necessary framework to ensure a functional and free society.
VI. It is an instrument of regulating healthy living in the humanity.
VII. Public health law prohibits what is wrong, lawlessness and unlawful conduct.
VIII. It ensures order and peace in health systems. Otherwise, life would be brutish,
nasty and with high premature death.
3.4 Acceptable Conduct or Behavior and Standard
IX. Public Health Laws and regulations prescribing what is acceptable conduct or
behavior for better health outcome, which is standard a person (health workers,
owner of premises) must comply with and prohibiting conduct which is
objectionable can be used to civilize and make society a better living condition
save from health hazards and risks.
3.5 A Tool For Restructure Any Aspect Or Sector Of The Environment
X. Public health law is a tool or an instrument of political, economic and social
change and stability.
XI. Public health law can be used to restructure any aspect or sector of the
environment, to improve, re-organize, upgrade, preserve, protect, establish,
recover, save, pardon and so forth in health-related matters.
3.6 Prohibition of customs and practices
XII. Public health law is used to prohibit what is unhealthy conduct.
XIII. It forbids obnoxious and inhuman customs and practices and reforms society.
XIV. Public health law changes society and society in, turn reforms and advances
public health law in a continuous circle.
39
3.7 Legal tool for growth
XV. Public health law is a legal tool for the growth and advancement of society.
XVI. Public health law provides the environment that enables individuals,
organisations and society to live, operate and to realise their aims and ambitions
and to reach their fullest potentials.
3.8 Regulating Society
XVII. Public health law is a means of regulating society. It prescribes acceptable
conduct and prohibits unacceptable behaviour.
XVIII. It penalises wrong, criminal or unlawful conduct.
3.9 Establishment of law of Enforcement Agencies
XIX. Public health law creates law enforcement agencies such as NEMA, NAFDAC
etc health institutions (Teaching Hospitals and Federal Medical Centers),
administration of justice system, penal and correctional institutions and facilities.
3.10 Legitimacy, Equality and Justice
XX. Public health law is an instrument of legitimacy. It is used to confer legitimacy
and call what is right legitimate. On the other hand, it is used to call what is
wrong illegitimate.
XXI. A means of achieving social equilibrium, equality, social justice and by extension
peace. Women rights to health, children health rights and prevent discrimination
of the minority by the majority, gender discrimination and other forms of
discrimination and put measures in place that will guarantee equal opportunities
and even development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter unit is very explicit on usefulness of public health laws for human growth
and development.
5.0 SUMMARY
Public Health Laws is used to confer legitimacy and call what is right legitimate. On the
other hand, it is used to call what is wrong illegitimate.
A means of achieving social equilibrium, equality, social justice and by extension peace.

1. Public Health law is a legal tool for improve health care Explain

1. List five usefulness of Public Health Law

1. Saka M.J. Framework of Public Health in Nigeria Public Health Law (2017)
2 United Nations Economic and Social Council, General Comment No 14: The right to
the highest attainable
standard of health. United Nations document E/C.12/2000/4 (11 August 2019): paras 4
3. Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems, 2nd ed. Geneva:
World Health Organization; 2015:17–29, 87–103.
40
CHAPTER ELEVEN UNIT ELEVEN
THE CONCEPT OF LAW AND MORALITY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be considering the origin of the concept of public Health law, some
definitions of law and theories of law.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define the term law
2. Mention and describe some of the theories of law.
3. Describe the origin of law
4. Define Morality
5. State the different and similarity between morality and law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Origin of Law

There are several arguments regarding the origin of law. While one school of thought
holds that law started before the creation of man, the other school contends that law
started after the creation of man. Those who hold the first school of thought argue that
it was through law that God brought the chaotic nature of the world to order and it was
only after order has been restored by God that man was created. The second school
argues that although God created man last He never gave a command to any creature
but to man with the first law forbidding him from eating of the fruit of life and death
that was at the centre of the Garden of Eden and therefore that was the beginning of
law. However, as Ogbu (2002) rightly pointed very early in life, man has become aware
that he is living in a world of laws. He went further to assert that that man becomes
aware that to live in any society, he has to abide by the law of that society.
Although, man is always the centre of attraction each time the issue of law is
discussed, suffice it to note that all other creation of God have laws which they obey.
Hence there times and season, also hence among animals, birds and plants there is
some form of regulation that ensure mutual co-existence and cohabitation. According
to Soyinka (2000) there is some kind of system, or codes of cohabitation that regulate
the conduct and relation between individuals and groups even within the communities
of bees, ants, geese and fishes. Some scholars such as Karl Marx have predicted the
disappearance of law at some time because they perceive it as an oppressive tool in the
hand of capitalists to exploit the working class. Unfortunately, several after this
postulation law still remain according to Kayode Eso JSC the social modulator and
regulate of all forms of relationship both legal, social, religious, political, economic
and technological relationships. This shows that no society can exist without law and
law is the beginning and end of all human and non-human society. Take law out of the
gravity of the world and see what will happen.
From the above discussion so far you can see how the concept of law began. Also you
can see that law is not a creation of recent times and that law has existed in the very
early years of man creation and that there law regulate the behavior of all God ‟s
creation, although law is more often discussed within human circle.
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3.2 Definition of Law
The next issue we shall be discussing in this unit is the definition of law. There are
several definitions of law, this is because it has been difficult to build consensus
among jurists, legal practitioners, legal scholars, social scientists and even among
anthropologists as to the actual meaning of law. As Elegido (2006) rightly notes law
is a very complex phenomenon which can be studied from many different
perspectives. However, this does not mean that there no accepted definition of law.
And on this note we shall examine some definitions which we consider appropriate
for the purpose of this course.
According to Jegede (1981) law is an instrument of social change, instructional
framework employed by man in society either to dictate and promote the required
change in the development of values of the society or to respond to and control changes
dictated by the political and socio-economic facts of life of the society. Law may also be
defined as set of rules that regulate the relationship between members of a given society
a breach of which attracts sanction.
Law can also be defined as major means by which institutions that provide public
service such as health care, education or other social amenities and benefits are
established, regulated, structured and the conduct of their affair monitored. What the
above means is that law is not only meant to regulate the affairs of people in their
relationship with one another, but also the affairs of institutions that provide public
service. This aspect of law appears to have been very much neglected in Nigeria,
because most public institutions are not made to account, their activities are poor or
sometimes totally unregulated. This brings about arbitrariness and acting with
impunity. This is most important if viewed from the public health law perspective,
because most institutions do not obey public health laws which perhaps is one of the
reasons for the high rate of public health diseases. Even organization such
Environmental Sanitation Authorities do not abide by rules regarding the collection
and disposal of refuse. However, from the above you will notice that the intention of
the law is to ensure rules, regulation and a decent society where everything is done
according to rules and not based on might or brute power. As Ogbu (2002) states ―every
human activity is carried on within the framework of the law‖.
3.3 Theories of Law
We shall now consider some of the theories of law. There are several theories of law just
like the definition of law because several scholars and philosophers' have viewed it how
law works from their own personal construct or world view. Some of the major theories
of law include: the natural school, the positivist theory, the utilitarian theory and the
Marxist theory of law among others. We shall now consider each of these theories
briefly in turn.
3.3.1 Natural Theory of Law.

One of the earliest if not the first theory of law is the natural theory of law. It
expounds that laws are ordained by God and not subject to any man-made law. It is
universal and immutable achieves justice where justice means righting of wrongs and
proper distribution of burdens and benefits is society. It is a higher law (it is legal) It
is discoverable by reason (natural). Their application is unchanging and everlasting, it
summons to duty by its command, and averts from wrong-doing by its prohibition
(Harris, 1997). According to St. Thomas Aquinas natural law ranks higher in the
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order of laws next eternal law which is the law governing the universe, this followed
by divine law which are laws dictated by religion and at the bottom man-made law
which is often referred to positive law.
What you need to know is that the natural law scholars are arguing that law is inherent
in human nature, it existed before man because it was by law God created the universe
as it was law that was used to bring the disorder that existed before creation to order.
They are also arguing that no matter where we find ourselves there are certain things
that are naturally forbidding in all society. For example, to kill somebody, telling lies,
taking another person 's property without their consent. Even until recently marriage
between man and man was regarded as wrong. As we can see in the case of Corbett v.
Corbett (1971) p. 83 at 106 where Ormerod J. Held that a ―a marriage between a man
and a person who had undergone a sex change was a nullity since it could not involve
the natural, biologically determined consequences of marriage‖.
On the whole there are certain things that are wrong and since they are wrong nobody
should do them because they are wrong. People should rather do what is right as doing
wrong will definitely attract punishment from God. As Elegido (2006) rightly points out
―some actions are objectively right and others are objectively wrong. For instance, it is
objectively right to keep promises or to be kind to neighbours and it is objectively
wrong to indulge in gratuitous cruelty towards other human beings. Some of the
scholars associated with the natural school of law theory include: Aristotle, Cicero, St.
Augustine (354 – 430), St. Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), others are Thomas
Hobbes (1588 – 1679), John Locke (1632 – 1704), John Rawls and Sir William
Blackstone (1723 – 1780) who argued that ―natural law is willed by God and
discoverable by reason, positive law deriving its binding force from natural law;
therefore any positive law that conflicts with natural law is a nullity ‖. However, some
scholars disagree with this line of reasoning this led to positivist movement.
3.3.2 Positive Theory of Law

The positive theory of law which is also sometimes referred to as the command theory
is based on the fact that laws are made by man and for man not by God or any super
or supra-natural being. Also that there is need to separate morality and law, because
morality is not objective as what may be considered moral in one particular society
may be immoral in another society. For example, same sex marriage may be moral in
the West, but in Africa in Nigeria in particular it is considered immoral. Therefore,
laws should be what the authorities of the given society regard as law that is the law.
According to John Austin (1790 – 1859)) one of the leading lights of the positive
school of thought ―every law simply and strictly so-called, is set, directly or
circuitously, by a sovereign person or body, to a member or members of the
independent political society wherein that person or body is sovereign or supreme.
Basically, what Austin and his co-positivist scholars are saying is that it is the
sovereign that is the person who heads the society that gives the law and what he
says is the law is what is the law and everybody within the society have a duty to
43
obey or face sanctions from the sovereign. The underpinning of their argument
according to Harris (1997) is that every human act should be seen either as
commanded or prohibited; or not commanded or prohibited, by law. Where an act
was commanded or prohibited, it was the subject of legal duty. So, if the sovereign
says everybody should have one child and nobody should have a female child. That
becomes the law and everybody is expected to obey because it is a command from
the sovereign. Some example, include the one child policy of China, the
extermination of the Jews by Nazi Germany on the orders of Adolf Hitler and the
killing of girl children in India because of discrimination against women is recent
past. Some local example, in Nigeria would be the four children policy of the
Babaginda administration which has been abandoned and the War Against
Indiscipline of the Buhari and Idiagbon administration.
However, the flaw of the positivist theory is that there are challenges in defining who or
what constitute a sovereign. Again the sovereign does not last forever in fact it last to
extend to which the people of the society allows it to last and it is because the people
willingly accept to obey and not necessary based on the command that the laws made
are observed. For example, Hitler and his Nazi policy were overthrown and put on trial.
Here in Nigeria after the June 12 annulment the Babaginda administration was brought
to its knees by the peoples‟ resistance which forced him to step aside. These are some of
the weakness of the positive theory which appears to have made of its proponents like
Jeremy Bentham to propose the Utilitarian theory.
3.3.3. Utilitarian Theory

The utilitarian theory of law is basically an attempt to overcome the flaws of the
natural and positive theories, because they are considered not to satisfy the interest of
the majority of members of society. First morality is not objective and what you may
consider moral may be immoral to me. Again to allow the sovereign to dictate what is
the law is to encourage arbitrariness and the imposition of an individual will over the
society. On the contrary the law should be what will bring about the greatest happiness
of the greater number of the society. Therefore, any act or statement that will not lead
to the welfare and happiness of the greater majority is immoral and should not be
regarded as the law.
According to Bentham who is the father of the utilitarian theory a measure may be
justified by utility which increases the happiness of a few greatly even though it
marginally diminishes that of the many. And what is meant by the principle of utility is
that the principle approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the
tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party
whose interest is in question; or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to
oppose the happiness.
The point been made here which may appear little complex and difficult to understand
is that every action should be weigh against a number of variables which add pleasure
and pain to members of the society and if adding more pain to a particular person or
group of persons would lead to the greater happiness of the majority of members of that
society then that person or group of persons happiness should be augmented with pain
so that there will be greater happiness for the majority of society. Bentham developed a
list of 14 pleasures, 12 pains and 7 criteria which all actions should be tested against to
44
determine the happiness and relevant consequences. The seven criteria include:
intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity and extent.
However, just like the earlier two theories the utilitarian theory has come under heavy
criticism. First, because the so-called felicific calculus is impracticable as know nobody
can know all the consequences of his action before they are carried out. Secondly, it
lack morality because we cannot justify inflicting pain on some people in order to let
some enjoy and this is what some scholars argue that the pleasures and pain of different
people are not intra-commensurable. Thirdly, most human desires and satisfaction are
capable of manipulation and finally who is the lamb that Bentham thinks should be
offered for the satisfaction of society in every action. This again appears to have
motivated another school of legal thought called the Marxist theory.
3.3.4. Marxist Theory

The last theory of law we shall be discussing is the Marxist theory of law, although
there are other theories of law we shall just mention them and the scholars with whom
they are associated. The Marxist theory of law has been described by some scholars as
more of an economic concept than a legal phenomenology because it gave a lot of
economic analogy. Theory presupposes that there are class relations in every society
and laws are made to ensure the maintenance of this class differential at every stage
of the society. Thus, as society changes the laws are also change to ensure that the
class status is not obliterated. Basically the pillars upon which this theory of law rest
are three: first is that the law is a product of evolving economic forces; secondly it is a
tool used by the ruling class to maintain its power and control over the lower class;
and finally, that in the communist society of the future law as an instrument of social
control will wither away and disappear.
According to Marx in every society there are production forces which include: facilities,
materials, machinery, labour and conditions of production including the technological
knowledge available in that society. In this system there is a relationship between the
force of production and the social class which he categorized into three namely: the
proletarians (who are the labourer or lower member of the society who sell their labour
(skills) in order to earn a living), the capitalists (who are the owners of the means of
production and who hire the labour or make him to sell his labour at a given price) and
the land-owners (who are the law lords who decide what happens in the society). That
while the labourer is made to sell is labour at a fixed price which paid for by the
capitalist, the capitalist is not compel to sell the product produced by the labour at a
fixed rate. He decides how much to sell it and in the process make huge profit which is
never shared with the labourer who was responsible for the process of producing the
product. And in most cases what the labour gets for his labour is never commensurate
with the effort he puts into the production. At the end the capitalists and land owner
make and retain huge profit and further exploit the labour by selling is product to him
(the labourer) at a high price. At every given time in society the law is made to ensure
that this class status is maintained and the labourer is unable to move from the class he
belongs and if attempt is made by the proletarians to bridge the gap, the capitalists and
land owners make laws to either widen it or maintain.
The Marxist theory to say the least is one of the most complex theories of law, because
it tried to combine economic, social and legal concepts together. However, the point
45
you need to note is that in any given society there are three broad groups of classes and
laws are made to ensure that people in one class continue to remain in their class and to
be exploited by others especially the capitalists and the land owner. Although, this is
common to all societies including developed, developing and less developed societies,
however, these illustrations are more apt when you consider most African society in
particular Nigeria. Where laws are made to ensure that rich get richer and poor get
poorer through the policies that are never targeted at obliterating the various social
class. Thus, the children of the poor continue to attend poor school, have access to poor
health care, while the children of the rich and the ruling class continue to attend better
school, receive better health care and at the end are more healthy and better suitable to
get a good job while the child of poor if he is luck to survive disease and poor
education ends doing menial job. Thus the rich and ruling class children grow into the
rich and ruling class automatically, while the children of the poor struggle to get out of
the proletarian class which is not easy because of the laws that are made to deliberately
make it near impossible for them to break into either of the upper social classes.
3.4 Definition of Morality

Just like law defining morality is not an easy task and also considering the rate of
modernity and the pressure on the need for the respect of fundamental or basic human
rights. As Mandal (2004) rightly states ―law and morality are too vague to understand.
It must be added here that the notion of law and justice cannot be captured and
presented before us within a few sentence‖. Kawashima (1971) on his part points out
that the word morality or moral is ambiguous therefore cannot be given a precise
definition.
However, this does not mean that there are no accepted definitions of morality. We
shall now attempt to consider some definitions of morality. According Oxford
Advanced Learner‟s English Dictionary ―morality is principle concerning right and
wrong or good and bad behaviour‖. The Online Dictionary defined morality as code
of conduct in matter of right and wrong. Morals may be created by and defined by
one society, philosophy, religion or individual conscience‖. While Mandal (2004)
states that ―morals are actually certain yardsticks in our which work as prescription to
human behaviour‖. William (1906) argues that ―morality refers to norms of conduct
whose legitimacy is justified on the ground that they are good or right or necessary
for social welfare or social life‖.
From the definitions we have considered so far have you been able to notice some key
issue about morality? Can you see that when discussing morality we are actually
referring to:
 What is good and bad
 What is right and wrong
 What is not prescribed by the sovereignty that is the government
 It is based on what the society considers or what their religion or they as
individuals consider reasonable.
Therefore, we can say that morality deals with what one consider as standard
behaviour which makes it vary from one person to another and from one society to
another society.
46
3.5 Difference Between Morality and Law
The next issue we shall be considering in this unit is the difference between law and
morality; and it is more challenging to make watertight compartmentalisation between
law and moral because they are very co- extensive. As Mandal (2004) notes ―law and
morality have always been at loggerhead with each othe r‖.
From the above you can see that although the two concepts are co-extensive, they are
not co-terminus which means there is some difference between the two of them. There
are quite a number of differences between law and moral, and we shall be discussing a
few of them.
One of the differences between law and morality is that law does not punish every
omission except where there is a legal duty imposed which was not or neglected to be
undertaken. While morality punish every act of omission whether a legal duty exist or
not. What the above means is that the law will not be activated except someone is
under a legal duty to do something and has failed, omitted or refused or neglected to
carry out that duty. For example, there is no legal duty on a Community Health
Practitioner to render health care services to any mental patient he sees on the road.
And so, if he fails to render services to a person whose relation has mental illness on
the street that other cannot complain of professional negligence and succeed in the
law Court because there is no law stating that and no duty is imposed. But in the court
of morality he would be judge as guilty because morally it is proper for him to have
render services to a fellow man having a health challenge.
Another difference between law and morality is that law is a continuously evolving
norm, while morality is constant or fix. What this simply means is that law changes
very often as the society change from time to time based on demand of modernity.
However, morality does not change easily with time it tends to remain constant as it
has been observed in that particular society in the past. For example, the Osu cast
system in Igboland has not changed despite the several laws and court judgments that
have declared it as discriminatory especially section 42 of the 1999 Constitution.
One other difference between law and morality is that law can be legislated but it is
impossible for morality to be legislated. What we are trying to say here is that you make
a law and compel people to obey it through its enforcement. Conversely, you cannot
pass morality into law. As Elegido (2006) illustrates ―it is true that if a law clashes with
many people behave that the law is impotent in influencing the moral ideas of people.
This has been illustrated in Nigeria by the unsuccessful efforts to abolish the Osu cast
system and to control the payment of bride price by means of law‖.
Furthermore, law is coercive by nature while morality is persuasive as people are at
liberty not to obey a particular moral injunction. According Mandal (2004) ―the only
difference between law and morality is that law is coercive and morality is not. Law
is enforced by coercion and its constant application on a society leads to the
internalisation of law in human soul. The point been made here is that one is under
compulsion to obey the law and failure to do so could lead to some consequences. But
there is no compulsion in morality. Nevertheless, there are some unpublished
consequences such as scorn, self-belittling and public odium.
47
A further difference between law and morality is that morality can easily be enforced,
but law is more difficult to enforce. What this simply means is that members of a
given society can easily see the accepted standard of behaviour held by the society and
abide by it without any use of force. But in law it is always enforced for people to see
it. For instance, in Nigeria as well as in most African society men are seen or
perceived as superior to women and this is held by all as they grow up without any
force applied. Yet the law says there is equality of all sex and there should be no
discrimination on the basis of sex. But it has been difficult to erase the mentality of
men superiority over the years despite the law. From the above discussion you can see
that there is difference between law and morality.
3.6 Similarities Between Morality and Law

We shall now examine the similarities between law and morality. One of the similarities
between law and morality is that they both prescribe and proscribe certain conducts in a
given society. That is both law and morality stipulates certain conducts that are
acceptable and allowed in a given society and those that are not allowed and acceptable.
For example, it is legally and also morally wrong to kill another person or tell lies.
Another similarity between law and morality is that they supplement and reinforce
each other. And what this means is that law helps morality to be sustained and
maintained. While morality also helps to make people obey the law and maintain it.
For instance, the principle of the duty of care for neighbour lay down in the case of
Stevenson v. Donoghue is based both on law and morality because it is morally right
to care for our neighbours and it also against the law to willfully harm your
neighbour.
Again law and morality operates within the same framework. As Elegido explains ―law
creates real obligation in the citizen only because it operates within the framework of
morality. For example, morality exposes us to some basic norms which prescribes that
we must do to foster the common good of the community and that in order to do that
effectively we must obey certain rules established by custom or laid down by the
authority. Furthermore, both law and morality have some form of sanction. For instance,
sanctions in law take the form of coercion while in morality the sanction takes the form
of reprobation, repulsion and ostracism.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you will recall we discussed the origin of the concept of law, the definition
of law and some theories of law. And you will remember we said there are several
arguments about the origin of law, however, we agreed that law is as old as man. We
equally defined law as rules made to regulate peoples relationship in given society
including institutions found in that society. Finally, we consider some theories of law
which included: the natural school, the positivist school, the utilitarian theory and the
Marxist theory. We also mentioned other theories of law. It is hoped that you can
describe the origin of law, define law in your own words and be able to mention some
theories of law. In the unit we also focus on the definition of morality and what is
socially morally accepted standard. We equally discussed the differences and
similarities between law and morality. It is hoped that you should be able to now define
morality and enumerate some difference and similarities between law and morality.
48
5. 0 S UM M AR Y
In this unit our discussion was focused on the origin of law in which we attempted to
trace the beginning of law which we agreed is from the beginning of creation. We also
defined law and mentioned several theories of law and briefly discussed four of the
theories. Our discussion was also focused on the definition of morality which is referred
to as a code of conduct in matter of right and wrong. We also enumerated the difference
and similarities between law and morality.

1. Explain Morality and law
2. Briefly define the term morality in your own words
(a) Enumerate and explain three difference between law and morality in your
own words
(b) Enumerate and explain two similarities between law and morality in your
own words.
1. Define the term law in own words.
2. (a). Mention at least four theories of law you have learnt
(b). Describe at least two of the theories of law you have mentioned in your
own words.
8.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
1. Law Student ()2019 'Relationship Between Morality and the Law' (Lawteacher.net,
August 2019) <https://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-essays/medical-
law/relationship-between-morality-and-the-law-medical-law-essay.php?vref=1>
accessed 14 August 2019
2. Elegido, J.M (2006): Jurisprudence. A Textbook for Nigerian Students: Spectrum
Books Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria.
3. Ogbu, O.N (2002): Modern Nigerian Legal System: CIDJAP Press, Enugu,
Nigeria.
Nigeria.
49
CHAPTER TWELVE UNIT TWELVE
CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTION OF LAW
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be considering the various classification of law and the functions of
law in a given society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. State the various classifications of law
2. Describe some classification of law
3. State some functions of law.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classifications of Law
There are several classifications of law and this depends on the nature of the aspect of
society the particular law is concerned, because as you know law deals with a variety of
situation in a given society and can also be applied in different circumstances (Harris,
1997). However, law can either be classified as Criminal or Civil law, Public or Private
law, Domestic (also referred to as municipal law) and International law, Received
English and Customary law, Statute and Case law (Ogbu, 2002). We shall now consider
each of these classes of law briefly.
3.3.1 Criminal Law
The first class of law we shall be discussing is criminal law which can also be called
criminal litigation is that branch of law which deals with what is considered as an
offence, how the violators of such offence are prosecuted and punished. Criminal
proceedings are always at the instance of the state and not the victim of the offence
because the act or omission is considered to be a breach of state laws. In criminal
law the offence or the wrong must be defined and the punishment for breaching it
also written or stated in document often referred to as the criminal code. In Nigeria
in particular by virtue of section 36(12) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria a person cannot be punished or proceeded against in criminal
prosecution if the offence for which is being prosecuted is not defined or written in
law and the punishment stated. This was the position of the Court in the case of Aoko v.
Fagbemi (1963) All NLR 400 where the accused who charged and convicted for
adultery in Southern Nigerian had his conviction quashed on appeal because adultery is
defined as a crime in any written law in South but it is an offence in the North.
Furthermore, a person cannot be given a punishment that is greater than what is

prescribed for the offence he has committed and a law cannot be enacted to have a
retrospective or retroactive effect to make an offence which was committed before
the law made punishable. Simply put a person cannot be convicted or punished for
an offence or omission which did not constitute a crime as at the time the accused
committed the act or omission. This is based on section 36(8) of the 1999
Constitution. If considered within public health laws, it means that are person cannot
be convicted for any public health offence if the offence for which he is being charge
50
is not an offence as at the time he committed. Even where the offence is defined and
the punishment is not stated the accused cannot be punished or convicted of that
offence. See the case of Attorney-General of the Federation v, Clement Isong (1986)
1. Q.L.R.N p.75 Where the Supreme Court held that the accused cannot be convicted
for unlawful possession of firearms because the law did not state punishment in the
Firearms Act, 1966. Equally, it will be important for you to know that Nigeria unlike
most jurisdictions operate a dual criminal law system as different criminal law applies
in the north and in the south. While, the north operates the Criminal Procedure Code
with the penal code, the south operates the Criminal Procedure Act with the criminal
code. Based on this duality principle some acts that constitute offence in the north do
not constitute offence in the south vice versa.
3.3.2 Civil Law

Civil law or civil proceeding or litigation deals with the process of seeking redress for a
wrong committed against a person at the instance of the victim with the objective of
obtaining a remedy mostly in form of compensation or to determine a right which is not
of a criminal nature. According to Ogbu (2002) ―all legal situations outside the ambits
of criminal law are within the ambit of civil law. While Afolayan and Okorie (2007)
argues that ―civil procedure as a subject deal with law, rules, practice and procedure
guiding and regulating the conduct of civil actions. ‖ It is sometimes difficult to make a
watertight compartmentalisation between civil law and criminal law because criminal
proceeding can also lead to civil proceedings and civil proceeding leading to criminal
proceeding. For example, defamation is some cases are both a civil wrong and a crime
especially, where there is an imputation of crime. Although, in the past the
commencement of criminal proceedings has acted as a bar to civil proceeding over the
same matter as was the case in Smith v. Selwyn (1914) 3 K.B. 98. However, this rule no
longer applies in Nigeria as was stated by Niki Tobi (J.C.A as he then was) in the case
of Veritas Insurance Company Ltd v. City Trust Investment (1993) 2 NWLR (pt.28) 349.
Where he held that:
―... It does not even seem to be sensible thing to stop a plaintiff from instituting
an action merely because the criminal action in the same matter has not been
prosecuted‖.
Basically civil law tries to regulate the private affairs of people and gives a person who
has been wronged in the process of their private relationship an opportunity to bring an
action to either stop the wrong if it is of a continuing nature, for example, trespass to
land or owing of debt; or claim a remedy or compensation for injuries caused by the
other party. Some ready example and often witness civil litigations include: action for
breach of contract, tortuous act; breach of trust and recovery of property.
3.3.3 Public Law
The next class of law we shall be discussing is public law which is that branch of law
that deals with the regulation of public institutions such as the educational institutions,
health institutions, utility institutions and their relationship with the members of the
society and with each other. It is intend to ensure that public actors and actions are
carried out judiciously and judicially. That is to say people must exercise the duty of the
51
office in fairness and in firmness to ensure that their actions do not impinge negatively
on members of the public or other organs of government. Some example of public law
include: Constitutional law, Administrative law, Criminal law, International law,
Human Rights law and Public health laws.
This branch of law provide avenue for individuals or even the government itself to hold
public institutions accountable, monitor, regulate and supervise their activities. In order
to ensure that they not only conform to the framework setting them up but also to ensure
that the general public have satisfactory services.
3.3.4 Private Law
Conversely, private law is that branch of law which regulate the private relationship
between individuals and organisation which are not public in nature but provide services
to the public. It would be necessary to give some example to make a clearly distinction
here. For example, the telecommunication companies like MTN is a private organisation
though it provides services to the public what regulates its relationship with other
organisation or the individual customer is not public law, but private law. But the
Nigerian Communication Commission which regulates the telecommunication industry
is a public organisation, and what regulates its relationship with individual is largely
public law and to some extent private law especially, where issues of contract are
involved. Some examples of private law include: Commercial law, Property law, family
law including Wills and Probate, Banking and Insurance laws, Intellectual and Industrial
Property law, Law of Tort and Trust and Company law.
3.3.5 Municipal Law
Municipal or domestic law are those laws made by a given country which have legal
force only within its jurisdiction and applicable to its citizens wherever they go. They
are laws which have no force once they leave the shores of the country in which they are
legislated or made. For example, the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria only has application within Nigeria and has no application to her closest
neighbours like Benin Republic or Ghana or Togo despite the fact that they all members
of ECOWAS. However, a Nigerian law applies to a Nigerian citizen wherever he goes,
therefore, if a Nigerian citizen commits an act which is known as an offence in Nigeria
in a foreign country where such an act is not an offence. He would be said to have
breach Nigerian laws and Nigeria can apply for his extradition if she already has an
extradition treaty with that particular country. Some example of domestic or municipal
laws in addition to the constitution already mentioned include the Economic and
Financial Crime Commission Act, National Drug Law Act, Trafficking in Children and
Persons Act.
3.3.6 International Law

International law is that branch of law or body of rules which regulates the relation of
states and other entities recognised as possessing international personality as well as
how states treat and recognises the rights of their citizens (Wallace, 2009). This
definition was affirmed in the case of Trendtex Trading Corporation v. Central Bank of
52
Nigeria (1977) 1 All ER 881, 901 & 2, where the English Judge stated that I know no
better definition of international law than that it is the sum rules or usage which civilised
states have agreed shall be binding upon them in their dealing with one another.
Basically, international law is aimed at ensuring international peace and security; and to
encourage members of the international community especially, nations to seek peaceful
means in the resolution of their dispute. Also, international law entails how states and
individual who breach international norms can be brought to justice or compelled to
stop further breach of international law. Some ways of enforcing international include:
the use of military force against a delinquent state based on the authorisation of the
United Nations Security Council like in the case of Iraq 1990 when military force was
ordered to ensure Iraq pulled out of Kuwait for the illegal invasion of the country.
Equally, disputes and perpetuators of international crimes could be brought before the
International Court of Justice, or the International Criminal Court both at The Hague
or other Ad-hoc International Criminal Tribunal like the one for Former Yugoslavia
and Rwanda in 1993 and 1994 respectively.
It is necessary for you to also know that there is public and private international law.
While public international seeks to regulate the relationship between states, however, in
recent times its scope has been expanded to be concerned with individuals especially,
with regards to the most serious crimes such as genocide, crime against humanity, war
crimes, piracy and other crimes considered as crime by the international community as a
whole (Dixon, 2007). Conversely, private international law regulates the relationship
between multi and transnational corporations and individual citizens of different
nations.
3.3.7 Received English Law
The next class of law we shall consider is the Received English law which refers to
those laws which were introduced in the Nigerian legal system as a result of British
colonial rule. They are largely English laws some of which are still operational in
England, they have form part of our legal system and regulate certain relationship.
These include the Statute of General Application, the Common Law doctrine and the
principle of Equity which is seeks to ensure good conscience, fairness and natural
justice. The aim of the principle of equity is to mitigate the hardship pose by Common
law decision of the Common Law Courts in England which were based on customary
English laws.
3.3.8 Customary Laws
Customary law are those laws which are regarded as indigenous to members of a given
community based on their customs and tradition which regulate affairs of the members
since time immemorial. For them to acquire the force of law they must have acquired
long usage, recognised by the people and can be proven as consistently applied over a
long period of time. However, with the advent of English law and enactment of modern
laws most provisions of customary law which offend good conscience or are
incompatible with public policy or inconsistent with natural justice or repugnant is
declared null and void.
53
See the case of Mojekwu v. Mojekwu (1997) 7 NWLR (pt.512 at 283 Where the Court
of Appeal held that the Nnewi custom which allows a deceased brother who died
intestate without a male child to inherit his estate instead of the biological female
children and the wife was repugnant and against natural justice. However, some
examples of customary include: the Sharia law; and Customary laws that are enforced
by the various Sharia Courts in the North and Customary Courts in the South.
3.3.9 Statute Law
The next branch of law we shall be examining is statute law. These are laws contained
in a legislation which are enacted by the legislature at any level or the recognised law
making body, because some bodies which are not legislative can make laws especially
at the international level where there is no legislative body and among social groups or
association which have constitution which are deemed as laws but not made by a
legislative body. Statute is a major source of law because it defines and contains all the
intent and provisions as well as the limitation of the law. Example of Statute laws
include: the Constitution, Acts of the National Assembly, Laws of a State and Bye-laws
of a Local Government under a democratic setting. Others include: Decrees and Edict of
the Federal Military Government and State Governments during Military rule. Statute
general take effect from the date they are signed into law and rarely have retrospective
effect except the law-making body expressly states so in the law.
3.3.10 Case Law

The next class of law we shall be discussing is case law which is not very popular as
most people do not regard it as a major class of law especially, in Nigeria. Case law
are Judges made laws, although, ordinarily the duty of the judiciary is to interpret the
law as made by the legislature. However, where there is a lacuna or what is regarded
as a vacuum in the law made by the legislature and it is likely to cause hardship the
judiciary while examining the legislation can make pronouncement which has the
force law and becomes the law until the legislature makes another law remedying the
lacuna. For example, in the case of A.G Abia State & 35 Ors v. Attorney-General of the
Federation (2001) where there was dispute as to the boundary of the littoral States the
Supreme Court in that case determine the coastal boundary of the littoral states.
Similarly, in the case of Ameachi v. PDP (2007) the Supreme Court again laid a new
rule of law which states it is political parties that contest election and not individuals and
whosoever that is valid candidate of party takes office if the party wins the election.
Also, that the Independent National Electoral Commission has no powers to
disqualify a candidate except the political party or a Court of competent jurisdiction.
54
3.2 Functions of Law
We shall now consider some of the functions of law. There are several functions law
perform in a given society and the list in inexhaustive; however, we shall enumerate
some that are considered very relevant in this course.
One of the primary functions of law is that is acts as the denominator of all social order.
That is it is foundation of all social relationship and regulation, and anything or action
that is inconsistent with the law is regarded as illegal or unlawful.
Another function of law is that it promotes human health and healthy environment.
This is very important with regards this course because public health law is targeted at
protecting and promoting human health and a healthy environment, but unfortunately
very little attention is paid to this function of law. Hence the high morbidity and
mortality rate in Nigeria. We need to realise that a threat to life is not as dangerous to a
threat to the environment. This is because a threat to life will have no effect on the
environment, but every threat to the environment has the capacity to impair our life or
make it become meaningless. For example, if water is polluted with mercury it can
lead to a lot of death, even air pollution cause death, but threaten one individual with a
knife would not endanger many lives like air or water pollution. Can you therefore, see
why public health law is important? Also law is used to regulate private relationship
and protect the family. This is because nobody can invade the privacy of another.
Furthermore, law is used to protect the basic freedom of individuals. For example,
nobody can be detained unlawfully without committing any offence and in most case
it has to be at instances of a court of competent jurisdiction. Also the law guarantees
us the freedom speech, association, religion and movement. One other function of law
is that it regulates the major organs and institutions of government. For example, the
relationship between the executive and the legislature on the one hand and between the
judiciary is regulated or based on the law. Anything done between them that is not in
conformity with the law is illegal and void ab initio. Law also help keep individuals,
communities, states and nations at peace. This is because the basic function of law is to
ensure peaceful co-existence and security of all. Therefore, any person that breaches the
peace or threatens the security of other people is regarded as a criminal or is said to have
breached law and is accordingly prosecuted and punished. Equally, law is used as an
instrument of promoting political, economic and social change. Like we said earlier
the list of the functions of law is inexhaustive.
55
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the classes of law and the functions of law. It is believed
you have learnt about the various classes of law and the functions of law. You will
recall we classified law into ten categories which include: criminal, civil, private,
public, municipal, international, customary, received English, statutory and case law.
We also listed several functions of law. It is hoped that you can now classify law and
would be able to list some functions of law in a society.
5.0 SUMMARY
The focus of this unit was on the classification of law and the functions of law. We
have classified law into various categories and also listed some functions of law.

1. What are major different between private and public law
2. Explain case law, customary law and received English law

1. (a). List four classes of law you have learnt in this unit
(b) Briefly, explain three of the classes of law you have listed in your own
words.
2. List five functions of law

1. Elegido, J.M (2006): Jurisprudence. A Textbook for Nigerian Students:
Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria.
2. Alison. (2019). Classification of Law.
https://alison.com/course/1244/.../resource_39-14896842101674421262.p.
Accessed 12 August 2019
3. Blog Nature and Classification of law. (2019). Accessed in 13th August 2019
http://law-shortened.blogspot.com/2012/07/nature-and-classification-of-law-
term_2119.html
Nigeria.
5. Oluyede, P.A.O (2001): Constitutional Law in Nigeria. Evans Brothers
Publishing Limited, Nigeria.
6. Osamor, B (2004): Fundamentals of Criminal Procedure Law in Nigeria: Dee-
Sage, Nigeria Limited
56
CHAPTER THIRTEEN UNIT THIRTEEN
SOURCES OF LAW IN RELATION TO PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICES IN
NIGERIA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing the definition of sources of law and the main sources
of law in Nigeria. This is because the sources of law vary from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction that is from one country legal system to another country‟s legal system.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define what is meant by sources of law
2. Mention at least four sources of law in Nigeria
3. Describe some of the sources of law in Nigeria in his/her own words
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Sources of Law
The definition of sources of law is as contentious as the definition of law itself because
source of law connotes different thing to different legal scholars, practitioners, activists,
jurist and social as well as legal anthropologists. First, the source of law could denote
the origin of law that is information relating to the existence of law. In a second sense it
could mean where you can find the law which include books, law reports and legislation
including writings of legal scholar. In a third sense it could mean where law derives
their validity or legality from as a rule of law (Cross, 1961). That is what makes the law
have a binding force and makes it to be regarded as rule that must be obeyed a failure of
which attracts sanction or unpleasant consequences. Although, the three senses make
good for a discussion of the sources of law, however, for the purpose of this unit and
this course we shall concern ourselves with the third meaning of the source law. That is
the main area from which a law can acquire its validity in Nigeria.
3.2 Main Sources of Law in Nigeria

There are several sources of law in Nigeria as you will see from the discussion below.
Some of them include: Received English laws including those English enactment
extended to Nigeria from Britain because Nigeria was her former colony and the
Common law doctrine and principles of equity. The others include: Nigerian
legislations, Judicial Precedent or case law, Customary Law, Law reform and legal
writings. We shall now consider each of these sources of law briefly.
3.2.1 English Law
One of the main sources of laws in Nigeria is English laws. As mentioned ea rlier
above by virtue of Nigeria been a former colony of Britain the laws enacted in
England were made applicable to Nigeria at that time and this became a major source
of law in Nigeria. For example, the Nigerian law of Evidence is largely the same
with England even in some cases the High Court rules of England still apply today in
57
Nigeria where the current High Court Rules operating in Nigeria do not make
provision for that particular procedure of Court. For instance, in the case of Ibidapo
v. Lufthansa Airlines (1997) 4 NWLR (pt.498 at 124) the Supreme Court of Nigeria
held that from Independence that is 1960 to date all English laws and other
legislation domesticated in Nigeria which have not been expressly repealed by an
Act of Parliament or declared null and void by a Court of competent jurisdiction
remains in force in Nigeria and all courts and tribunal are to give effect to their
provision. This shows that English law still remain a source of law in Nigeria
especially, those laws that have not been repealed or declared a nullity by our courts.
Equally, apart from the enacted English law the doctrine of Common law and principle
of equity still form part of the Nigerian legal system and therefore, sources of law in
Nigeria. However, you need to know that while the Common law doctrine and principle
of equity still applies in Nigeria, the Statute of General Application which are laws
existing in England before 1900 no longer applies in Nigeria from January, 1900. See
the case of Aro v. Lagos Island Local Government Council (2001) 32 WRN 72 where
Onnoghen (JCA as he then was) stated that 1900 is the cut off date for application of the
Statute of General Application.
Common law rules have divergent meaning but generally speaking it is rules based on
custom generally commonly practiced by the people of England at that time and
decisions of the common law court judges and not necessarily based on legislation.
Some of them imposed hardship on the citizens especially, the poor hence the
principle of equity was developed by the Chancery Courts to mitigate the hardship
pose by the Common law courts decisions. Basically, the principle of equity seeks to
ensure natural justice, equality, fairness and good conscience in the interpretation and
application of the law.
3.2.2 Nigerian Legislation

The next source of law we shall be examining is the Nigerian legislation ordinarily this
is supposed to be listed as the first source of law in Nigeria, but some will argue that
customary law is the first source of law in Nigeria because they existed even before
English law was received which lead to Nigerian legislation especially, after
Independence. However, that discussion would serve no purpose in this unit and course;
therefore, we shall abandon it and concentrate on Nigerian legislation as a source of law.
Precisely speaking what is meant by Nigerian legislation as a source of law refers to

all those laws enacted by law making bodies in Nigeria especially, since
Independence in 1960 to date which provision have binding force. These include: the
various Constitutions Nigeria has had since Independence, Ordinances during the
colonial rule, Act of the National Assembly, Decrees made by the Federal Military
Government, Laws of the State Houses of Assembly, Edict of State Military Governor
and Bye-laws of the Local Governments. It is important for you to know that during
Military Government there is no formal legislative body as there is no absolute
58
separation of power at the both the federal and state level between the legislature and
the executive. Although, the Supreme Military Council or Provisional Ruling Council
have been regarded as legislative bodies at the federal level they are strictly not
legislative body because they were large made up of the executive. While at the state
level nobody as such existed so it is whatever the Military Governor chooses as the
law that is enacted and called an Edict. This is why some critics have referred to
military rule as an aberration of democracy, rule of law and the doctrine of separation
of power.
3.2.3 Case Law and Judicial Precedent

Another source of law in Nigeria is case law and judicial precedent. They are also
referred to as judges made law. Ordinarily, it is not the duty of the judiciary to make
laws and so some have argued that case law should not be regarded as a source of
law. However, those arguments are lacking force in contemporary society especially,
where there is an active judiciary which can give an expansive interpretation to a
piece of legislation when it considers the legislation inadequate to address present
day challenges of society. Some legislation were made without anticipating the level
of development in present day society, for example, the Evidence Act did not
envisage cyber crime or video technology and it will absurd or miscarriage of justice
if the law has not being amended and the judiciary continue to hold that evidence
obtain from such sources are inadmissible because the Evidence Act did not mention
them. It is in such situation that the judiciary is compel to make a judgment to cure
this apparent lacuna and in the process makes a law which must be followed by other
courts especially, lower courts and the court itself in subsequent proceeding of similar
nature.
Basically, judicial precedent and case law requires that where a Court of superior
jurisdiction especially, the Supreme Court in the case of Nigeria has made judgment
on a particular point of law all the Courts in Nigeria including the Supreme Court
itself should follow and apply that decision in subsequent cases of similar facts until
the Court overrule itself. There is no doubt some difference exist between judicial
precedent and case law. Because the former command the lower courts to follow a
decision of the superior court, while the latter deals with making a decision to fill a
vacuum in law which is also to be followed by the lower courts. We have given some
examples in Unit 2 which include the case of A.G Abia State & 35 Ors v. Attorney-
General of the Federation (2001) where there was dispute as to the boundary of the
littoral States the Supreme Court in that case determine the coastal boundary of the
littoral states. Similarly, in the case of Ameachi v. PDP (2007) the Supreme Court
again laid a new rule of law which states it is political parties that contest election
and not individuals and whosoever that is valid candidate of party takes office if the
party wins the election. Also, that the Independent National Electoral Commission
has no powers to disqualify a candidate except the political party or a Court of
competent jurisdiction.
59
3.3.4 Customary Law
Customary law are those laws which are regarded as indigenous to members of a
given community based on their customs and tradition which regulate affairs of the
members since time immemorial. For them to acquire the force of law they must
have acquired long usage, recognised by the people and can be proven as
consistently applied over a long period of time. However, with the advent of English
law and enactment of modern laws most provision of customary law which offend
good conscience or incompatible with public policy or inconsistent with natural
justice or repugnant is declared null and void. See the case of Mojekwu v. Mojekwu
(1997) 7 NWLR (pt.512 at 283 Where the Court of Appeal held that the Nnewi
custom which allows a deceased brother who died intestate without a male child to
inherit his estate instead of the biological female children and the wife was repugnant
and against natural justice. However, some examples of customary include: the Sharia
law; and Customary laws that are enforced by the various Sharia Courts in the North and
Customary Courts in the South.
3.2.5 Other Sources of Law

There are other sources of law which are not very popular and no longer often relied
upon again as source of law but they are worthy of mention. Although, it is highly
debatable whether Law Reform is not still a veritable source of law because law reform
is the process of recodifying existing law to keep the law abreast with changing
circumstance, to reflect present day legislative forms and also proposes amendments
(Elegido, 2006). For example, all the laws enacted during the military regime before
1999 have been recodified by the Law Reform Commission to make them Acts of the
National Assembly and they cited as binding authorities in court. This makes it
doubtful whether it should be disregarded. The other source of law in Nigerian which is
no longer referred to as a source of law by both the courts and even legal scholars are
opinion of writers which in the past formed a major source of law in both international
and domestic jurisprudence. Equally, international law is a source of law in Nigeria to
the extent that they have been domesticated by an Act of the National Assembly
because Nigeria operates the dualist system of international law implementation.
Basically, there are two ways of implementing an international law such as treaties,
conventions, charters, covenants and declarations of international and regional
bodies. These include the monist and the dualist system. The monist system which is
common with civil law countries such as Netherlands, Germany presupposes that
there is single system of law so when the Head of Government of the country signs
any international law it has immediate and direct application as a municipal or
domestic law and does not require an Act of parliament for it to assume the force of
law within domestic jurisdiction (Enabulele, 2009). Conversely, the dualist system
which is common to Common law countries especially all members of the
Commonwealth Countries of which Nigeria is one presupposes that there are separate
system of law and an international law when signed by the Head of Government has no
legal force in domestic jurisdiction until it has domesticated by an Act of parliament
especially by virtue of section 12(1) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
60
Nigeria. Thus, if Nigeria signs an international law until National Assembly enacts a
similar domesticating it, it will not have force in Nigeria. This was the situation in the
case of the Registered Trustees of the National Association of Community Health
Practitioners of Nigeria & Ors v. the Medical & Health Workers Union of Nigeria
(2008) 2 NWLR (pt.1072) 575, 623 where the Supreme Court held that the provision of
the International Labour Organization Convention is not applicable in Nigeria because it
has not been domesticated by the National Assembly.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the definition of the sources of law and the sources of law
in Nigeria. It is believed you have learnt about the various definitions of the sources of
law and the various sources of law in Nigeria. You will recall we defined sources of law
in three ways and discussed four major sources and other sources of law in Nigeria. It is
hoped that you can now define the sources of law and would be able to list some sources
of law in Nigeria.
5.0 SUMMARY
The focus of this unit was on the definition of the sources of law and the sources of law
in Nigeria. We have defined what we mean by source of law and listed and briefly
discussed several sources of law in Nigeria.

1. Define what is meant by sources of law
2. Mention at least four sources of law in Nigeria
3. Describe some of the sources of law in Nigeria in his/her own words
1. Define sources of law in your own words.
2. (a) List four sources of law in Nigeria
(b) Explain three of the sources you have listed in your own words
8.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READING
1. Afolayan, A.F and Okorie P.C (2007): Modern Civil Procdure Law. Dee-Sage
Nigeria Limited, Lagos.
2. Cross, R (1961): Precedent in English Law. Oxford: Clarendon
3. Press Dixom, M (2007): International Law. Oxford: University Press
5. Enabulele, A.O (2009): Implementation of treaties in Nigeria and the Status Question:
Whither Nigerian Court? African Journal of International & Comparative Law, 17(2) p.
326 - 341 at p.335
6. Harris, J.W (1997): Legal Philosophies. 2nd ed. Butterworths, London, Edinburg,
7. Jegede, M.I (1993): What‟s wrong with the Law? Lagos: Nigerian Institute of
Advanced Legal Studies.
8. Ogbu, O.N (2002): Modern Nigerian Legal System: CIDJAP Press, Enugu, Nigeria.
9. Oluyede, P.A.O (2001): Constitutional Law in Nigeria. Evans Brothers Publishing
Limited, Nigeria.
61
CHAPTER FOURTEEN UNIT FOURTEEN
SOURCES OF PUBLIC HEALTH LAW IN NIGERIA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing the definition of sources of law and the main sources
of law in Nigeria. This is because the sources of law vary from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction that is from one country legal system to another country‟s legal system.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define what is meant by cross cutting in the sources of public health
law
2. Mention at least four sources of public health law in Nigeria
3. Describe some of the sources of public health law in Nigeria in your own
words
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cross Cutting in the Sources of Public Health Law

We shall now consider the sources of public health laws. There are several sources of
public health laws because public health cut across several fields of human
endeavour. They include; the Constitution, Federal, States and Local Government
environmental protection laws, law of torts dealing with nuisance, trespass and
negligence, criminal law, town and country planning laws, labour laws, land law,
consumer protection laws, drug laws, human rights laws and international laws (Bell
and McGillivray, 2008).
3.2 Nigeria Constitution

First source is the Constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria is a source of public
health laws because in section 20 it provides that ―the state shall protect and improve
the environment and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wild life of Nigeria.
Since water, air and the land because food is derived from land and the forest have
direct bearing the public health of the citizens, it then follows that the constitution is a
source of public health.
3.3 African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Rights

Although, this provision is non-justiciable, however, by the section 24 of the Act
domesticating the African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Rights it is actionable if
anybody pollutes the water, air or land or threatens the wild life. Also, section 33
guarantees right to life which can be interpreted to include right to clean environment
because an unhealthy environment can lead to death.
62
3.4 Federal Government, States and Local Government legislation
Another source of environmental or public health laws is Federal Government, States
and Local Government legislation dealing with the environment such environmental
protection laws, sanitation laws and industrial laws. They are sources of public health
laws because they prescribe pollution levels that are allowed, defines environmental
offence and processes of prosecution as well as punishment, refuse collection and
disposal procedures among other. And these no doubt have direct consequences on the
health of the citizens.
3.5 Town and Country Planning Laws

The other source of public health laws is town and country planning laws. Town
planning and country planning laws stipulate how and where buildings should be
erected to ensure they are suitable for human habitation, avoid overcrowding, adequate
ventilation, proper drainages, preservation of green areas and general maintenance of
clean towns and country. Since housing is a key determinant of health status and good
drainages can reduce the incidence of mosquitoes breeding and by extension malaria,
then it is a source of public health laws. This is because wrong erection of building, poor
housing conditions and non- maintenance of drainages are regarded as public health
offences.
3.6 The Law of Torts Dealing with Nuisance, Trespass and Negligence
Equally, the law of torts dealing with nuisance, trespass and negligence are sources of
public health laws because nuisance can cause public problems. And nuisance is
actionable both as a private and public wrong. While the Attorney General is
responsible of commencing action against public nuisance, private individuals can also
commence action in case of nuisance, trespass and negligence which result in health
hazards or threaten health.
3.7 All Laws Related to Drugs

regulate foods and other substances, especially narcotic drugs which are of public health
interest. Hence the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control
(NAFDAC) was set up to ensure public health and has been prosecuting those who
contravene the provision of its laws with regards food and drugs manufacture,
distribution, sale and consumption.
3.8 Human Rights

Human rights are also sources of public health laws because human rights guarantee the
right to life, health and healthy environment. Therefore, if any action threatens the life
of an individual or the society at large it is action. For example, the oil pollution in the
Niger Delta is both a breach of human rights and environmental laws.
63
3.9 International Law
The last source of public health laws we shall be discussing is international law.
International law is a major source of public and environmental law because it provides
a lot of laws and policies that are aimed at protecting the environment and by extension
public health. For example, the S.24 of the Africa Charter, the 1972 Stockholm
Declaration and the 1992 Rio Declaration which is also called Agenda 21 these
declarations provide quite a number of principles and policies. Like the polluter pay
principles, precautionary principle and the sustainable development principle among
others which help to ensure public health.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this chapter unit our focus was on the main sources of public health law in Nigeria.
other sources of laws can also be sources of public health law in relation to issues of
public health interest in Nigeria. It is hoped that you can now define the sources of law
and would be able to list some sources of law in Nigeria.
5.0 SUMMARY
The sources of public health laws are cross cutting, which range from constitution of
federal republic of Nigeria. English law, case law and Judicial precedent, customary
law, law of reform and International law.

1. Define what is meant by cross cutting in the sources of public health
law
2. Mention at least four sources of public health law in Nigeria
3. Describe some of the sources of public health law in Nigeria in your own
words
1. What do you understand by the cross cutting in relation to sources of public health law
2. List different sources of public health law.
8.0 References/Book for further reading

1.Saka M.J. (2017). Source of Public Health law, In Nigeria Public Health Law
2. Enabulele, A.O. (2016). Nigeria's National Health Act: An assessment of health
professionals' knowledge and perception. Niger Med J. 2016 Sep-Oct; 57(5): 260–265.
4. Enabulele, A.O (2009): Implementation of treaties in Nigeria and the Status Question:
Whither Nigerian Court? African Journal of International & Comparative Law, 17(2) p.
326 - 341 at p.335
5. Afolayan, A.F and Okorie P.C (2007): Modern Civil Procdure Law. Dee-Sage
Nigeria Limited, Lagos.
64
CHAPTER FIVE TEEN UNIT FIVE TEEN
LAW MAKING PROCESS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be considering the law-making process in Nigeria and the types of
laws made during different types of administration. Nigeria unlike most other countries
has witnessed two systems of government since Independence. These include
democratic governance and military government which unfortunately has lasted longer
in Nigerian history.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
1. Define what is meant by law making process

2. Describe the law-making process in a Military administration
3. List some examples of military laws
4. Describe the law-making process in a democracy
5. List some examples of laws during a democratic government
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Law Making Process in Military Regime
Before considering the law making process in a military regime it would be important
to define what is law making? Law making or law making process is the process by
which a law is made by a legislative body or a body empowered by law to make laws.
What we are simply trying to say is that is law making is how law is processed for it
to be regarded as a law which has a binding force. For a law to be said to be binding it
must be made by a body empowered to make law otherwise it will be declared null
and void ab initio. For example, in the case of A.G Lagos State v. A.G. Federation
where there was a dispute as to whether the Lagos State Government acting through
the Lagos State House of Assembly can create new Local Government without
approval by the National Assembly. The Supreme Court in that case stated that the
Lagos State cannot effectively create Local Governments with the approval of the
National Assembly.
Ordinarily, law making is the function of legislative body duly elected for the purposes
of law making and which is also referred to as parliament, for example, in Nigeria the
legally recognised bodies to make laws are the National Assembly which consist of the
Senate and the House of Representatives, the 36 States Houses of Assembly, the
Legislative Arms of the 774 Local Government
65
and Area Councils. Thus, in total currently in Nigeria there are 812 bodies that can
make laws at different levels. See section 4 of the 1999 Constitution. However,
because Nigeria has been so unfortunate to have being forcefully ruled by military,
they too have arrogated to themselves the power to make laws during their tenure of
office. And because the military has ruled Nigeria for 26 years of her Independence
the military appears to have made more laws and it is on this note that it is important,
we examine the process of law making during military rule.
The Military ordinarily do not have powers to make laws, but whenever there is a
military takeover of government it always creates a body that would make laws. For
example, during the first military coup of 1966 Decree No. 1 1966 was enacted and it
suspended major provisions of the 1963 Constitution which recognized the Federal and
Regional Parliament, dissolved the Council of Ministers and ousted the jurisdiction of
the courts to question the validity otherwise of Decree or Edict that would be made by
the Federal Military Government or the State Military Governor. It created the Supreme
Military Council (often referred to as SMC) by virtue of section 8 of Decree 1 of 1966
and vested it with the legislative powers of the country to make laws for the federation,
while the State Military Governors were to make laws which are referred to Edicts for
the state.
In 1967 Decrees Nos 16 and 20 were promulgated to include the State Military
Governors in the Supreme Military Council and also empower the Head of State to
include any person he might deem fit into the Council from time to time (Oluyede,
2001). While we can assume to some extent that there was legislative body at the
federal level in form of the Supreme Military Council which is largely a rubber stamp
of the Head of State, because it has no powers to reject any law the Head of State
want to make. The same cannot be said of the State where only one man decide the
law and promulgate it as an Edict. This is why most scholars of law argue that
military government are aberration because the rights of the citizens to participate in
the debate that would lead to the passage of law is completely trampled upon and
suffocated. Nobody can protest the illegality of their law and succeeded. Although, in
the case of Adamolekum v. The Council of University of Ibadan (1968) NMLR 253
the Supreme Court initially acknowledge the ouster powers of Decree No 1 1966 in
the subsequent case of Lakanmi v. A.G. Western State it reversed itself and ruled that
its jurisdiction cannot be ousted, however, this led to the promulgation of Decree No.
28 of 1970 which appears to be the death kernel passed on the judiciary during the
Military. From the above you have seen that the process of law making during
military administration is by fiat, the laws are not debated, the public is not
involved in the process and nobody can question the validity of the laws made by them.
In fact you can go to bed by 5.30am and by the time you wake up by 7.00am news a
new law has be made. Sometimes they also make their laws to take retrospective effect
like Decree No 4 of 1984.
66
3.2 Types of Laws in Military Regimes
Basically, there are only two types of law during a military regime. This is because the
third level or tier of government which is the Local Government is
almost always non-existent during military rule and whoever that is appointed as the
administrator has no powers to make laws. Although, during the transition
programmes of General Babaginda and Abacha between 1989 and 1998 the Local
Government legislative arms existed, it is doubtful if they were engaged in any real
business of bye-law making. The major laws during military regimes are Decrees
which is a Federal Government law which have binding force through the country and
also superior to the Constitution based on the way the Decree bringing the military to
power is couched. And the Edict which is state government law which only have
application within the state in which they were made. However, in order to check the
powers of the State Military Governors with regards law making the Federal Military
Government under section 3(4) prohibited the States Governors from making laws on
any item that falls within the exclusive legislative list and obtain consent before
making laws on matters within the concurrent legislative list of the suspended 1963
Constitution (Oluyede, 2001).
3.3 Law Making Process in Democracy
We shall now discuss the law-making process in democracy. Unlike military

administration, the law-making process and bodies are always clearly mentioned and
provided for in the Constitution in this case of Nigeria the 1999 Constitution. It is
important to remind you that even in the previous Constitutions during the colonial
period and after Independence especially the 1960, 1963, 1979 and 1989 Constitution
the law-making bodies at the various level of government were well stated.
As earlier mentioned above under the 1999 Constitution the law-making powers of
government is divided between the three tiers of government. That is the Federal
Government, the State Government and the Local Government Councils. The
National Assembly has exclusive powers to make laws on matters contained in the
Exclusive Legislative list, while both the National Assembly and the State Houses of
Assembly have powers to make laws on matters contained in the Concurrent
legislative list. The State Houses of Assembly have exclusive responsibility to make
laws on matters contained in the Residual legislative list which are matters not
included in either the exclusive or the concurrent legislative list; while the Local
Government Legislative Arms have powers to make byelaws. See Second Schedule
Part I & II, 1999 CFRN as amended. Nevertheless, where there is conflict between a
law made by a State House of Assembly and that made by the National Assembly,
the law of the National Assembly prevails over that of the state. See S.4 (5) 1999
67
CFRN. In addition, the 1999 Constitution provides for a bi-camera legislature at the
federal level that is the Senate and the House of Representatives which constitut es
the National Assembly. For any law made by the National Assembly to be valid, it
must be passed by both chambers and the bill forwarded to the President for his
assent. See S. 47 and S.58. However, if for any reason the President withholds his
assent to a bill, after thirty days the National Assembly can override the President ‟s
assent by passing it into law by a two third majority. See S.58 (3) – (5). Similar
procedure obtains between a State House of Assembly and the Governor; and
between the Local Government Legislative Arm and the Chairman. The only
difference is that at the state and local government level there is a single legislative
chamber. See S.4 (6), S.90 & S.100 (1) – (5). However, the power of legislative veto
appears to be seldom used in Nigeria. Equally, the National Assembly also have
power to domesticate treaties that is any International law signed by the Federal
Government especially, the President for it to become a binding law in Nigeria by
virtue of s.12(1) of the 1999 Constitution. However, it appears the State Houses of
Assembly also have powers to make treaties by virtue of s.12 (3) of the Constitution.
This provision is not only inconsistent but a precursor to legal conflict and
succession.
As Nwapi (2011) rightly notes apart from being unclear, section 12(2) is contradictory,
for example if the subject matter of the treaty falls within the Residual legislative list. Is
it been suggested that the legislative powers of the states will be interfered with because
a treaty obligation of the federal government is to be implemented?
Furthermore, it will be important for you to know that before a law is passed by the
either the National Assembly or a State House of Assembly or a Local Government
Legislative Arm it has to pass through three readings on the floor of the particular
legislative body. And subjected to the particular House Committee in the area which the
law is related, the Committee will organize a public hearing where members of the
public who have views either against or in support of the law would make presentation
which are further debated at the Committee level. A Report of the public hearing and the
Committee recommendations are presented on the floor of the House at plenary and
debated by the Committee of the Whole before the law is finally passed and forwarded
to either the President or Governor or Local Government Council Chairman for assent.
In the case of the National Assembly in case there is any difference between the version
of the law passed by the Senate and the House of Representatives a conference
committee has to be constituted comprising of members of both Chambers to harmonise
the difference before it forwarded to the President for assent. From the above
discussion you can see that there is a great difference between the law-making
process during military administration and civilian administration. You can also
observe that during a democracy the citizens participate very actively in the law-
68
making process and it goes through several stages. But during military administration
the public is never involved and no procedure is followed all that is need is for the
Head of State or State Governor to call the Attorney General to draft a law even in his
bedroom and it becomes a law. A good example would be the Decree annulling the
June 12 election won by Abiola.
3.4 Types of Laws in A Democratic Government

We shall be concluding our discussion in this unit a brief examination of the various
types of laws that are made during democracy. There are basically three types of laws
that can be found during a democratic government in Nigeria. These are Acts of the
National Assembly, Laws of the State House of Assembly and the Bye-Laws of a Local
Government Council. Acts of the National Assembly are the laws made by the National
Assembly (the Senate and the House of Representatives) and they have national effect if
they border on matters within the exclusive and concurrent legislative list. This is
because matters on the exclusive are within the exclusive competence of the National
Assembly to legislate on. While though both the National Assembly and the State
Houses of Assembly can legislate on matters on the concurrent legislative list since in
the case of any conflict between a law made by the two bodies that of the National
Assembly prevails it then follows that the National Assembly has powers to legislate
across the country on both the exclusive and concurrent legislative list.
Laws are legislative pronouncements of a State House of Assembly and they have only
binding force within the State in which they are made. They cannot be extended to even
the closest State. For example, the Zamfara State Sharia Law of 2000 has no legal effect
in Sokoto State because the Zamfara State House of Assembly cannot make a law that
would be binding on Sokoto State. The Law must be within the remits of the residual list
or concurrent legislative list if the National Assembly is yet to legislate on that item in
the concurrent list. While Bye-Law are laws made by a Local Government Legislative
Arm. They only have legally binding force within the Local Government Area in which
it was made and cannot be applied in another Local Government Area.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the law-making process in Nigeria, the various law making
bodies and the types of law they make. It is believed you have learnt about the definition
of law-making process, the various law making processes in Nigeria, the law making
bodies and the types of laws made by the various law making bodies. It is hoped that
you can now define law making process, describe the various law making processes in
Nigeria, mention the law making bodies in Nigeria and list the various types of laws
made in Nigeria.
69
5.0 SUMMARY
The focus of this unit was on the definition of the law-making process, the various law-
making process and bodies, and the various types of laws made in Nigeria. We defined
what we mean by law making process, describe the law- making process during
military and a democracy, and listed the types of law made in Nigeria.
1. Define what is meant by law making process

2. Describe the law-making process in a Military administration
3. List some examples of military laws
4. Describe the law-making process in a democracy
5. List some examples of laws during a democratic government
1. Describe the law-making process during military regime in your own words.
2. (a) Describe the law-making process in a democracy
(b). List two law making bodies in a democracy and briefly explain the types
of laws they make.
8.0 R EFERENCE/FURTHER READING

2. Enabulele, A.O (2009): Implementation of treaties in Nigeria and the Status
Question: Whither Nigerian Court? African Journal of International &
Comparative Law, 17(2) p. 326 - 341 at p.335
3. Nwapi, C (2011): International Treaties in Nigerian and Canadian Courts.
African Journal of International & Comparative Law, 19(1) p.38 - 65 at p.43
Nigeria.
5. Oluyede, P.A.O (2001): Constitutional Law in Nigeria. Evans Brothers
Publishing Limited, Nigeria
70
CHAPTER SIXTEEN UNIT SIXTEEN
PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS PRINCIPLES AND TYPES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the is unit we shall be considering some types of public health laws and principles
which guide the relationship between the individual, organisations and the government
and between the various levels of government with regards to provision of public health
services and environmental protection.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. List and describe some public health and environmental laws
2. List and describe some environmental law principles
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Public Health Laws and Principles
Public health or environmental health laws as we have discussed in unit six are laws
made to regulate public health services and ensure environmental protection a breach
of which attracts sanction or punishment. In this unit we shall now try to discuss some
types of public health laws and environmental law principles. There are several types
of public health and environmental laws and principle and they intend to regulate
different aspects of public health and the environment in order to ensure a healthy
society. They cover issues such as refuse collection and disposal, notification of
epidemic and quarantine services, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution,
building erection, sales of food, disposal of corpse and other carcasses, land pollution,
industrial waste disposal, toxic waste disposal, drug testing and immunization or
vaccination, environmental impact assessment, petroleum exploration and
exploitation, the polluter pay principle, the precautionary principle and the principle
of sustainable development. The list is endless but for the purpose of this course and
unit we shall examine the laws covering these aspects of public health and
environmental laws.
First types of public health law we shall be discussing is the solid waste and refuse
disposal law which regulates the collection, treatment and disposal of all solid and
hazardous refuse and waste from households, industries and other sources. It also
includes maintenance of the aesthetic beauty of dwelling places, the environment
through provision of green areas, pest and vector control, safe water supply, maintenance
of drainage, good refuse bins and gutters. This is provided under section 15 of the
Federal of Environmental Protection Agency Decree No. 58 of 1988 and 59 of 1992
which amended the principal Decree now Act of the National Assembly. The National
Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution control in Nigeria, 1991 and the
Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Waste of 1991. And the
various State Environmental Protection Agency laws especially the State Environmental
Sanitation laws.
71
Another type of public health law is disease notification and quarantine service law.
This is law prescribes that government at levels including the international community
should notify the general public of the occurrence of certain diseases which are
referred to as the International notifiable diseases. The World Health Organization
International Health Regulations 1969 requires the reporting of some diseases to the
organization in order to help with its global surveillance and advisory role. The
current (1969) regulations are rather limited with a focus on reporting of three main
diseases: cholera, yellow fever and plague. The revised International Health
Regulations 2005 (which to entered into force in June 2007) has broaden the scope to
include other emerging diseases such as Avian Influenza, SARS, Ebola virus, Mad
cow disease among others and is no longer limited to the notification of specific
diseases. Whilst it does identify a number of specific diseases, it also defines a limited
set of criteria to assist in deciding whether an event is notifiable to WHO.
Similarly, persons suffering from such disease are expected to be isolated, while those
who are suspected to have been exposed to the disease and are likely to suffer it are
quarantine to ensure they are not in position to spread the disease to other members of the
public (Wings et al, 2007). Although, the two terms are sometimes used interchangeable,
they mean different things and process. In the case of isolation it entails keeping a patient
known to have a contagious disease separate from other people. While quarantine means
steps that restricts the movement of a well person who may have been exposed to a
contagious disease and may present the risk of transmitting it to other people. It may
involve sealing off a ship, house or an areas thought to harbour the disease (Wings et al,
2007). It is one of the rare instances when a person ‟s freedom of movement or liberty
may be derogated. In fact in some countries like Kenya you must possess a valid yellow
fever vaccination card in order to gain entry. However, the law also requires the various
government to take immediate measures to combat the spread of such diseases and
where unable should seek assistance.
The next type of public and environmental law we shall be examining is the air pollution
law which prohibit the emission into the atmosphere chemical substances that are
injurious to human health and limit the emission of carbon dioxide and greenhouse
gases. These substances do not only have harmful effect on human health but also
deplete the ozone layer which has led to acid rains in the United Kingdom, global
warming, rise in level of sea water, deforestation and desertification which is put at
100,000km2 and 48km each year (Bell and McGillivray, 2008). Air pollution is
regulated by the Factories Act. Cap. 126 LFN, 1990, the Federal Environmental
Protection Agency Act Cap 131 LFN 1990, 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer and the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change among others.
One other type of public health law is water pollution law which prohibit the dumping
into water any hazardous waste that is capable of causing harm to human and marine
life. Water pollution is one of the most common sources of pollution because
industries, especially petroleum exploring areas like the Nigerian Niger Delta area
often discharge their waste into water or inadvertently cause pollution. Water
pollutant, especially mercury can be very harmful to human when consumed at the
secondary stage from sea foods. The first major incidence of water pollution resulting
from mercury poison was the Minimata Bay pollution disaster in Japan in the year
72
1959. This resulted in death of domestic animals like cats, fishes and humans based on
the level of pollution and the danger pose by the mercury fishing and other marine life
would resume there until the next 1000 years. This show how dangerous mercury
could be when discharged into water. Water pollution is regulated by several laws
including the Water Workers Act, 1915, the Mineral Act, 1917, Public Health Act,
1917, the Petroleum Act, 1969, Sea Fisheries Act, Cap 401 LFN 1990, the River
Basin Development Authority Act, Cap 396 LFN 1990, Oil in Navigational Water
Act, Cap 339 LFN, 1990, Exclusive Economic Zone Act, Cap 16 LFN 1990, the Law
of the Sea Convention, 1982 and the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act
among others.
We shall now consider the law relating to drugs trial and vaccination. This is a public
health law which requires that the consent of volunteer must be obtained and the
implication of the drug and vaccine trial be made known to them before the drug or
vaccine trial is conducted. A breach of this law could lead to serious civil litigation that
would result in payment of damages. An example, which is handy here, is the case of
meningitis vaccine trial by Pfizer in Kano which resulted in some death and has become
a subject of protracted litigation between the victims and Pfizer on the one hand and the
Kano State Government and Pfizer on the other hand. Usually drugs and vaccines though
mostly tried on animals are also sometimes tried on humans provided proper procedure
for the trial has been followed.
Noise pollution law is also another type of public health law. Although, in its early
stage it was targeted at factories to ensure that the noise they generate does not cause
hearing problems to their staff. However, this has change noise pollution law is now
wider and covers generation of noise from industries, other commercial outfits,
households, sporting areas, recreational facilities, generating sets, vehicles and even
construction sites. It is regulated by the Factory Decree of 1987, Federal
Environmental Protection Agency Decree of 1992 and the National Environmental
Protection (Pollution Abatement Industries and Facilities Generating Waste
Regulation of 1991 especially section 2 of the regulation is of particular relevance in
this case. It empowers both government agency involved environmental regulation,
individual and communities to monitor and report any noise level that has exceed 30%
decibel. The law also requires industries to have and install pollution control
monitoring and control unit, and where possible outsource these services to ensure
compliance. Another very important public health law is the law that regulates the
manufacture, production, distribution and sale of drugs, food and food products. It
would be necessary to briefly differentiate between food and food product. Foods are
substances that are already in state of consumption, for example, yogurt, beans cake,
bread and margarines. While food products are semi-finished products which need to be
further processed before they can be consumed, for instance, cow milk for the
production of yogurt, flour for bread, beans for beans cake among others. The law
requires that these products must be wholesome and safe for human consumption from
the point of production to the point of retail and consumption. Thus, ordinarily it is an
offence to expose food and food products that human beings would consume on the
street, but unfortunately the law enforcement process is so weak that food are exposed
with flies perching on them even in some cases Environmental Health Officers who are
supposed to enforce the law, buy and eat such product without complain. Also drugs
must be manufactured to ensure compliance with set standards.
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The laws regulating food and drugs in Nigeria include the NAFDAC Decree No 15 of
1993 which expanded the 1974 Food and Drugs Decree No 35 and the Standard
Organization of Nigeria (SON) Act, 1971 amended 1984. It is the duty of the agencies set
up by these laws to monitor food, food product and drugs manufacturing, distribution and
sale. Hence in recent past NAFDAC has ban the use of potassium bromate in the
production of bread and withdraw from circulation several fake and counterfeit drugs.
3.2 The Principles of Public Health Law

However, because of space we shall not be discussing the other public laws listed, but
will begin the consideration of some environmental or public health law principles. The
first principle we shall consider is the polluter pay principle which is stated that the
polluter who is responsible for the pollution should meet the costs of its consequences or
the remedying of the effect of the pollution (Bell and McGillivray, 2008). What this
principle simply means is that whoever that causes the pollution of either the air or water
or land should pay for the cost of removing the pollutant from the environment.
Unfortunately, everybody is a polluter and so we all pay for the cost of removing the
pollutant indirect, this is charged by producers as part of the cost of goods and services
they provide. However, the cost of major pollutions such as oil spill or discharge of
hazardous waste into water or emission of harmful gas into the air which exceed
permissible limit is always borne by the polluter the consumer is not involved.
The next principle we shall be discussing is the precautionary principle which states
that since science cannot predict precisely and absolutely how, when, or why adverse
impacts will occur, or what their effect may be on human or the ecosystem. The
absence of such proof should not prevent or lead to the postponement of any cost-
effective measure that will prevent environmental degradation (Bell and McGillivray,
2008). This is principle is about prevention is better than cure or what some scholars
will refer to as is better being „safe rather than sorry‟. Basically, it encourages
stakeholders not to postpone any measure that could save the environment even when
there is no proof or evidence that this is the likely consequences of a particular
environmental action or decision.
The other principle is the sustainable development principle which is based on the
concept that development should be carried in such a way that it meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet
their own needs. This principle is the basis of most international, regional and national
laws on environmental protection. The concept is predicated on the assumption that
there is an intergenerational relationship and each generation must behave in manner not
to compromise the survival of the next the generation.
There are yet other principles of environmental law which include: the substitution
principle which is an emerging principle it basically seeks to stipulate that dangerous or
harmful procedure or substances including production, consumption and recreational
system should be replaced with less dangerous processes. This principle is associated
with the Best Available Technologies Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
principle. The other is the public participation principle which seeks to encourage wide
consultation and adequate involvement of the public and dissemination of information
before environmental related decisions are taken and the likely effect of such actions
should be made public.
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The next principle which you might want to know is the integration principle which
seeks to encourage the integration of environmentally friendly policy in areas of the
society (Bell and McGillivray, 2008). From the above discussion you can see that there
are several types of public health laws and environmental law principles which regulate
peoples conduct regarding the environment and public health issues.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the various types of public health laws and public health
principles. It is believed you have learnt about some public health laws and
environmental health principles. It is hoped that you can now mention and describe some
types of public health law and environmental law principles in Nigeria.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit our focus was on the various types of public health laws and public health
principles. We have mentioned and described several public health laws and
environmental law principles in Nigeria.

1. List and describe some public health and environmental laws
2. List and describe some environmental law principles

1. List four types of public health law you have learnt
2. Briefly describe three of the types of laws you have listed in your own words.
3. (a) What do you understand by the principle of polluter pay? (b). List two
other environmental principles you have learnt in this unit.
8.0 Reference /Further reading

1. Acheson, D (2018): Public Health in England. Cmnd 289. London: HMSO
(Acheson Report)
2. Bell, S and McGillivray, D (2008): Environmental Law. Oxford University Press
3. Hunter, D.J (2003): Public Health Policy: Polity Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom
4. Ibet-Iragunima, M.W (2016): Fundamentals of Primary Health Care: Paulimaly
Printers, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
5. Wing, K.R, Mariner, W.K, Annas, G.J and Strouse, D.S (2017): Public Health
Law: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
75
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN UNIT SEVENTEEN
PUBLIC HEALTH LAW OFFENCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing public health offices and defenses available to an
offender or accused. However, before we examine the two main issues, we shall define
what we mean by the term offence.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define an offence
2. List and describe some public health offence
3. Mention and explain some defenses available to public health law offender.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Offence
The term offence and crime are often used interchangeably, especially in Nigeria
where the criminal code did not clearly define offence. However, according to
Okonkwo and Nash (2003) ―an offence is an act or omission which is rendered
punishable by some legislative enactment‖. Basically, what they are trying to say is
that when a person or group of persons fail to undertake an act which is an omission or
undertake an act which is wrong the omission or wrongful act attracts punishment
based on the law the person or group of persons would be said to have committed an
offence.
We can also define an offence as any attempt or act or omission which is wrong in the
eyes of law for which there is a prescribed punishment or sanction. What we are trying
to say here is that if one attempt to carry out a wrongful act or carry out wrongful or
omit to carry out a rightful act that has a punishment or sanction attached to it, the
person would be said to have committed an offence. We added sanction because some
offence may not require punishment. However, for a person to be said to be guilty of an
offence there are two essential elements that must be established or proven by the
prosecutor. First, the physical element of the offence must be established or proven
which is often referred to as the actus reus (guilty or wrong act) and the mental element
or intention which is referred to as the mense rea (guilty mind) these must be
established and both must meet before a crime can be said to have been committed and
for a conviction can be successful (Okonkwo and Nash, 2003). What the above simply
means is that one cannot be said to have committed an offence if his physical action
and intention do not meet and cannot be proven. For instance, let take dumping of
refuse on the street. For a person to be guilty of dumping refuse on the street, it has to
76
be established that he intended to dump the refuse on the street and he actually did
dump the refuse on the street. But if for example, he was just walking on the street and
something fell of his bag unknown to him. He cannot be said to have committed an
offence because his intention was not to dump the refuse on the street although the
refuse has been dumped. This is necessary so that we know when to say somebody has
breached public health laws or committed public health offence. Equally, it will be
important for you to know that there are basically three types of offence: felony which
is defined by the law creating it and punishable with death or imprisonment of not less
than three years; misdemeanors which are offences punishable with a prison term of
not less than six months and not up to three years; while simple offences are those that
are neither felony nor misdemeanor. Most public health offences are simple and
misdemeanors.
3.2 Types of Public Health Offences
Just as there are several public health and environmental laws so there are public health
offences but for the purpose of this unit and course, we shall examine a few which we
consider very important and then provide a list of some public health offences listed in
the Lagos State Environmental Sanitation Edict Now Law of 1998. Some common public
health offence includes but not limited to: nuisance, trespass, negligence, poor housing,
overcrowding, sale and distribution of unwholesome food among other which you will
find in the list that would be provided later in this unit based on the Lagos State Law.
3.2.1 Nuisances
One of the commonest and possible the oldest know public health offence is nuisance.
Nuisance can be defined as the presence of any matter whether solid, liquid or gas that is
capable of affecting the enjoyment of a healthy environment and can cause injury or
threat to public health. Nuisance include; poor or lack of sanitary conveniences in a home
or other public place, accumulation of rubbish and other decaying or decomposing
materials (corpse and carcases or foodstuffs), improper disposal of industrial waste,
presence of rodents and their holes, overcrowding, poor ventilation, structural defects to a
building and noise. Noise that amounts to a nuisance can either be continuous or
intermittent, but in either case it must affect the comfort or quality of life of a reasonable
person. It is the statutory duty of the Local Government authority using Environmental
Health and Other Health Officers to inspect and remove all nuisances (Ormandy and
Burridge, 1988).
Furthermore, nuisance could be public or private nuisance. Public nuisance is that which
affect or that is capable of affecting the general public which is actionable at the instance
of the Attorney General of the State. According to The Free Dictionary by Farlex, (2011)
Private nuisance affects an individual more particularly and is actionable in tort by that
individual. A private nuisance is a civil wrong; it is the unreasonable, unwarranted, or
unlawful use of one's property in a manner that substantially interferes with the
enjoyment or use of another individual's property, without an actual Trespass or physical
invasion to the land. In the case of Reads v. Ltons & Co. Limited the English Court
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defined private nuisance as any unlawful interference with a person use or enjoyment of
their land or some rights over, or in connection with it. A public nuisance is a criminal
wrong; it is an act or omission that obstructs, damages, or inconveniences the rights of
the community. Conversely, public nuisance was defined in case of Attorney General v,
P.Y.A Quarris as an act which materially affects the reasonable comfort and
conveniences of a life of a class of Her Majesty subjects (people) who come within the
sphere or neighbourhood of its operation (or existence). We shall consider the remedies
available to victim(s) of nuisances when considering the enforcement of public health
laws. Public nuisances appears wider in scope as it covers a wide variety of minor
crimes that threaten the health, morals, safety, comfort, convenience, or welfare of a
community. This makes nuisance both a civil and criminal wrong.
3.2.2 Trespass
Trespass like nuisance constitute a wrong both as civil and criminal wrong.
Trespassing is the act of illegally intruding on another person ‟s property that you do
not have permission to be on. Initially trespass was any wrongful conduct directly
causing injury or loss; in modern law trespass is an unauthorized entry upon land (The
Free Dictionary by Farlex, 2011). It has also extended to non-personal entry on the
land of another. For example, if a tree or a crop in ones compound extends to the air
space or land or some liquid escape from one compound to that of other it is trespass.
Trespass can also include mere resting on the fence or gate of another without his
consent, even government agents could be liable for trespass if they gain entry into
any compound without first obtaining consent to enter.
Furthermore, trespass could either be direct or indirect. It is direct where the trespasser is
actually on the land and it is indirect when it he is not actually on the land but his act of
negligence has caused an object to interfere with land of another just as in the example
given above of the trees, crops and liquid escaping. However, to succeed in trespass it
must be proven that there was direct entry or contact with the land, there was intention
to enter or negligence and there is a link. In terms of public health somebody will be
said to be guilty of trespass if trees in his compound protrude into the compound of
another or liquid or other wastes escape from his compound into the compound of
another thereby affect the enjoyment of their land.
3.2.3 Negligence
Negligence is another public health offence. It is very similar to the two earlier
discussed concepts, especially nuisance because it is actionable both in tort (civil) and
in crime (criminal) law. However, there is not much distinction between negligence in
civil and criminal proceeding, a distinction only arises when the negligence is gross as
it relates to offences that may require the imposition of a sentence of life
imprisonment (Okonkwo and Nash, 2003). Negligence can be defined as any failure
of the accused to exercise reasonable care that has resulted in the injury of another or
has caused or capable of causing threat to the health and safety of another. Negligence
can also be defined as any conduct that falls below the standards of behaviour
established by law for the protection of others against unreasonable risk of harm.
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A person would be said to have acted negligently if he or she has departed from the
conduct expected of a reasonably prudent person acting under similar circumstances
(The Free Dictionary by Farlex, 2011).
However, for proceeding in negligence to be successful, the plaintiff in the case of

civil proceedings or the prosecution in the case of criminal proceedings must establish
some essential elements which are sometimes referred to as the ingredients of the
offence. They include: the fact that a duty of care was owed by the defendant to the
victim; there was or has been a breached of this duty of care; that damage has resulted
from the breach of the duty of care; and that the damage was foreseeable at the least by
a reasonable man. See the case of Lochcelly Iron & Coal Co. V. Michelin.
It will be important for you to know that in some countries because of the close similarity
and inseparable nature of negligence and nuisance as every act of negligence lead to
nuisance and every nuisance is as a result of negligent act. The law of negligence and
nuisance has been amalgamated, for example, in the United Kingdom they were
amalgamated in 2005 (Buckely, 2011).
3.2.4 Poor Housing

The next public health offence we shall be considering is poor housing which includes
poor erection of a house, defects on the building, poor ventilation and overcrowding.
Although some are clearly different public health offence, we have decided to discuss
them under this broad heading because of space and the requirement of the course. A
poor house is that which does not meet the basic physiological and psychological
requirement for human life and comfort has no protection against infectious or
contagious disease and accidents (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). A good house must
meet these requirements. According to Ormandy and Burridge, (1988) some of the
physiological requirements include: protection against excessive noise, adequate
space for exercise and play for children, provision for heating and cooling, adequate
daylight illumination and avoidance of undue daylight, provision for admission of
direct sunlight. Some of the psychological requirements include: provision of privacy
for individuals and normal family life, provision of opportunity for normal community
life, good aesthetic beauty of the house and surrounding, easy to carry out cleaning
without much physical and mental fatigue and conform to the prevailing social
standard within the community. Protection requirements include: adequate supply of
safe and wholesome water and sanitary facilities, toilets must be made to minimize the
danger of transmitting diseases, protection against pollution, sufficient sleeping space
to minimize risk of the disease spreading, proper preservation of food and foodstuffs
to avoid contact with vectors and pest, fire escape routes, protection against road
traffic and home accidents, electric shock, burns, and gas poisoning.
Ordinarily, a room of 10 x 12 feet which is a standard room is supposed to be occupied

by four persons. That is man and the wife and two children. Therefore, any occupation
beyond this is regarded as overcrowding. Although defect is what is often used when
79
describing house that is not suitable for human habitation, however, it advisable to use
specific words to describe the nature of defect or inadequacy in the building, for
instance, cracked walls, leaking roof, sagging ceilings, rotten woods, missing zinc or
roofs, likely to be dangerous (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). It is the duty of the Local
Government Authority to ensure that buildings are safe for human habitation through
regular inspection. Although, in recent past there has been a running battle between
Environmental Health Officers and Town Planners as to who has the responsibility of
inspecting houses.
3.2.5 Sale and Distribution of Unwholesome Food
The last public health offence we shall discus for the purpose of space as earlier
mentioned is the distribution and sale of unwholesome. It is a public health offence to
distribute and sell food that is not good for human consumption. For example, meat
containing tapeworm, fish killed using chemicals or food containing other contaminants.
This include sale of grains treated with chemical as this can result in public health
diseases and fatality as was the case during the beans poison in 2002 where bean meant
for planting treated with chemical were sold for consumption resulting in a lot of deaths,
especially in the northern part.
Also, it includes proper display of foods, for example, meat, buns, meat-pie, moi- moi
and other already made foods (fast food) must be displayed in a showcase and not
exposed to dust or flies which unfortunately is the case. Most food vendors do not
display their food complying with the law. It is the duty of health officers to ensure
that food for public consumption is wholesome and properly displayed.
Some other very common public health offences include obstructing a health offence
from performing their duties and assaulting them during the performance of their
duties. It is an offence for any person(s) to prevent a public health officer or any
person having relevant authority from either serving a notice or an order or enter a
premise for the purposes of inspection after obtaining relevant consent or authority to
do so.
Equally, it is a public health offence to disobey or ignore a valid notice to abate any
nuisances. Once a notice of abatement has been served on the appropriate person whether
it is a prohibition or statutory abatement notice the occupiers of the premises or the
person(s) responsible for causing the nuisance must abate the nuisance otherwise they
would be guilty of a public health offence (Wolf, White and Stanley, 2002). You still
need to know that both the prohibition and statutory abatement notices can be served
together depending on the prevailing circumstances. For example, where there is
evidence of the likelihood that the nuisance would reoccur or has been reoccurring. See
the case of Peaty v. Field (1971) 1 W.L.R 387. 3.2.6
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List of Offences Under the Lagos State Environmental Sanitation Edict 1998
Below is a table showing some public health offence and their penalty under the
Lagos State Environmental Sanitation Edict, 1998.
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
S/NO TYPE OF OFFENCE
FINE FINE
1. Failure to clean sidewalk N1,000.00 N3,500.00
2. Failure to clean 18‖ from curb into street. N1,000.00 N3,500.00
3. Littering/throwing out N2, 000.00 N5,000.00
4. Sweep out N1,000.00 N3,500.00
5. Improper use of litter (dust) bin N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
6. Failure to use dust bin N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
7. Failure to cover dust bin N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
8. Improper placement of dust bin N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
9. Loose rubbish N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
10. Exposure of materials N2, 000.00 N20, 000.00
11. Failure to separate waste N2, 000.00 N20, 000.00
12. Sidewalk obstruction N10, 000.00 N20, 000.00
13. Street obstruction N15, 000.00 N30, 000.00
14. Commercial waste disposal N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
15. Improper disposal of refuse N1, 000.00 N2, 000.00
16. Illegal dumping of refuse N40, 000.00 N75, 000.00
17. Posting of bills N5,000.00 N10,000.00
18. Removal of City Advertisement N7, 000.00 N12, 000.00
19. Erection of structure on road set back N30, 000.00 N60, 000.00
20. Failure to clean drainages N5, 000.00 N10, 000.00
21. Sewage disposal N5, 000.00 N10, 000.00
22. Failure to cover waste trucks N20, 000.00 N30, 000.00
23. Waste burning N5, 000.00 N10, 000.00
24. Storage of trade waste N50, 000.00 N55, 000.00
25. Silt deposit along road side N25, 000.00 N30, 000.00
26. Direct dealing with N5, 000.00 N10, 000.00
unregistered private refuse
contractors
27. Unregistered private refuse N10, 000.00 N50, 000.00
Contractor
28. Cutting road by corporate N10, 000.00 N100, 000.00
bodies without approval
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3.3 Defence To Public Health Offences
The next issue we shall be discussing is defences available to an offender of public
health laws or a person accused of breaching public health or environmental laws. A
defence is a claim by an accused of the existence of certain facts that exonerate him
from criminal liability (Okonkwo and Nash, 2003). What this means is that the person
alleged to have committed an offence can point to the fact that based on certain
prevailing circumstances he is not guilty of the offence. Some the defences available to
a public offender include but limited to the following:
First, lack of notice or notices. For a public health offender to be successfully

prosecuted he must have been given a notice to abate the nuisance or stop the breach of
the offence. If the prosecuting authority fails to give notice to abate then the offender
cannot be guilty of the alleged offence.
The second defence an offender may raise is inadequate or improper notice. The law
requires that the relevant agency of government enforcing public health or
environmental law make reasonable effort to serve an offender with a notice of
finding or the existence of a nuisance or the likely breach or breaching of public
health law (Wing et al, 2007). Also the notice must be adequate and must be signed
by the proper officer entitled by law to sign it or on his behalf by a proper person
entitled to do that on his behalf. See the case of Plymouth Corporation v. Hurrell
(1968) 1 Q.B. 455. If the notice is not adequate and not properly signed by the
designated officer and in the prescribed mode the notice would be said to invalid and
the offender cannot be guilty of failing to comply with a notice. See the case of
Graddage v. Harigey London Borough Council (1975) 1 W.L.R 241
Equally, the notice must be authentic, if the notice served is not an authentic notice, for
example, not being served in the proper format and on the proper person. Where the
notice is not in the proper format and served on the proper person the notice would be
invalid and the subsequent prosecution declared a nullity. See the case of Harris v.
Hickman (1904) 1 K.B. 563. Because often enforcement officials and agencies issue
informal notices and sometimes serve notices on the wrong people. For example, you
cannot serve notice on a tenant it ought to be served on the landlord or his attorney or
proper representative if the nuisance relates to structural defects. Thus, if the notice is
not in the prescribed form and served on a tenant it cannot pass for a valid. Another
defence an offender can raise is existence of a staying order. A person served with a
notice is allowed by law to appeal for the stay of the notice while he takes step to abate
the nuisance or preparing to be heard. While this situation is in existence no prosecution
can take place. If prosecution commences while the order of stay has been made it
would be a nullity and the offender cannot be convicted (Wing et al, 2007).
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Also, an offender can raise the defence of accident. That is the offence complained of
is due to accident. Accident is a defence for most criminal offences under section 24 of
Criminal Code (Okonkwo and Nash, 2003). It simply means that the accused or any
reasonable man could never have anticipated the consequence or that it happened not
through the willful act of the accused it is immaterial whether accidental event resulted
from an unlawful act. See the case of R v. Barimah (1945) 11 W.A.C.A. 49.
Another defence that an offender can raise is that the pollution or the discharge was
made as an emergency in order to avoid danger or risk to life and health (Bell and
McGillivray, 2008). See the case of Express Ltd (t/an Express Dairies Distribution) v.
Environmental Agency (2003) Env. L.R 29 where the driver who had a tyre blowout
and had an accident which led to spilling of milk was not held liable for breach of
public health laws. However, the defendant or the person who did the emergence
pollution or discharge must report immediately to environmental protection agency
otherwise he would be avail of this defence.
Similar, the offender can raise the defence of contributory negligence in that the act of
the plaintiff contributed to the factors that led to pollution. He could also raise the
defence of statutory authority meaning that he had authority to pollute, however, the
pollution must not exceed the limit permitted for him otherwise this defence will fail
where it is established the pollution been complained of has exceeded the limit
permitted.
From the above discussion you can see that there are several public health offences and
a person accused of committing a public health or environmental health offence has
some defence he can raise in order not to be convicted.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the definition of offence and public health offence, the
various types of public health offences and the defences available to a person accused of
a public health offence. It is believed you have learnt about the definition of offence and
public health offences; you have also learnt about the various types of public health
offences and the possible defence an offender can raise in his defence. It is hoped that
you can now define offence and public health offences in your won word. List and
describe some types of public health offence and defences available to public health
offender.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit our focus was on the definition of offence and public health offences, the
various types of public health offence and the defence an offender can avail himself. We
have defined offence and public health offence, mentioned and described several public
health offences and the defence to an offence of public health.
83
1. Define an offence
2. List and describe some public health offence
3. Mention and explain some defenses available to public health law offender.

1. List four types of public health offences you have learnt
2. Briefly describe three of the offences you have listed in your own words.
3. (a) What do you understand by the term defence?
(b). List two defenses available to public health law offender.
8.0 REFERENCES//FURTHER READING

1. Bell, S and McGillivray, D (2018): Environmental Law: Oxford University
Press
Kingdom
4. Okonkwo, C.O (2003): Okonkwo and Nash on Criminal Law in Nigeria:
Law: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication.
6. Wolf, S, White, A and Stanely, N (2002): Principles of Environmental Law:
84
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN UNIT EIGHTEEN
RIGHT OF AN OFFENDER (ACCUSED)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing the definition of rights, we shall also consider the
definition of human rights and some types of human rights. We will equally define an
offender and the rights of an offender.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define rights
2. Define human rights
3. List some different types of human rights
4. List and describe some environmental rights
5. Define an offender or an accused
6. List and explain some rights of an accused
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Rights
A right can be defined an entitlement which is endowed on someone and which is not
subject to the discretion of another. According to Scott (2009) ―Rights are advantageous
positions conferred on some possessor by law, morals, rules, or other norms‖. What this
simply means is that a right is what a person is entitled to because the law or morality
has conferred it on him. It is not subject to the discretion of any person or group person
and so they cannot decide on when to give to the possessor or the person who is entitle
to it. It is different from privilege which is at the instance or discretion of another. A
person's privilege can be withdrawn without reference to him and the law, but a
person's right cannot be withdrawn except the law so provides. Some rights are
conferred based on the person's status as Scott (2009) rightly points out ―one always
possesses any specific right by virtue of possessing some status. Thus, rights are also
classified by status. Civil rights are those one possesses as a citizen; human rights are
possessed by virtue of being human. Presumably women's rights, children's rights,
patients' rights, and the rights of blacks as such are analogous‖. From the above you can
see that certain people are entitle to certain rights while others are not, for example,
women are entitled to maternity leave as of right but men are not. Also, children are
entitled to parental care, but are adults are not, law makers are entitled to legislative
privileges, but non-law makers are not, so your status sometimes determines the rights
you are entitled to. Equally, adults are entitled to vote, drive cars and smoke, but
children are not entitle to vote or drive cars or smoke until they are eighteen years old.
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3.2 Definition of Human Rights
The next definition we shall be considering is the definition of human rights.
According to Kaczorowska (2010) human rights are body of rules guaranteeing certain
rights recognized internationally as inherent in all human beings by virtue of their
humanity. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and apply
equally to all human beings irrespective of race, sex, religion, nationality and colour.
In the case of Odogu v, Attorney General of the Federation (1999) 6 NWLR (pt.450)
508 the Supreme Court of Nigeria stated that a fundamental right (human rights) is a
right guaranteed in the Constitution to every person by virtue of being a human being.
While Akwara et al (2010) argue that ―it is man‟s existence within society that accords
him the status of human being, which ultimately entitles him to some rights as a
consequence of his humanity.
The point you need to note is that human rights are right entitled to every human
being because he or she is a human being and they are universal meaning they are
the same everywhere and every time, they inalienable meaning they cannot be taken
away and they are independent meaning the rights are related and complementary to
each other. It does not matter whether you are a black man or white man, a woman
or a man a child or an adult a Nigerian or a non-Nigerian.
Although, human rights are traceable to the American and French revolution of 1775
and 1789 respectively, however, the modern concept of human rights is post-World
War II event. In fact it was in a bid to find solutions to continued threat to human life,
peace and international security and avoid the atrocities of the first and second world
wars that led to the establishment of United Nation which Charter was adopted in
1945 to replace the League of Nation established in 1919. The United Nations (UN)
subsequently established the International Law Commission in 1947 to codify
International Customary laws which are common practice among civilized nation into
laws that would be adopted to guide the relationship between nations and regulate
some nations treat its citizens. The led to the codification of the first human rights
document called the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which was
adopted in December, 1948. The document was intended to take after the America
Bill of Rights and was to be called International Bill of Rights but because of
disagreement and dissenting views it was made a declaration which ordinarily has no
legal binding force. However, state practices and the twin Covenants adopted after it
in 1966 that is the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and
the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) has
conferred a binding force on it (Kaczorowska, 2010). The UDHR which is the locus
classic of human rights in Article 1 provides as follows: ―All human beings are born
86
free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood‖. Article 2 ―everyone is
entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration without distinction of any
kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or
territory to which a person belongs, whether it is independent, trust, non-self- governing
or under any other limitation of sovereignty‖. The above has confirmed our earlier
definition of human rights and what they stand for.
3.3 Types of Human Rights

Before discussing the various types of human rights, it would be important that you
know that just like the theories of law there are several theories of human rights.
According to Dembour (2010) there are four schools of thought about human rights.
The first is the natural school of rights which argue that human rights are inherent in
human being and given by God. The second is the deliberative school which argue that
human rights are not given by God but are agreed upon by members of the society and
whatever they agree as human rights are the rights people would be entitled. The third is
the protest school of rights whose scholars argue human rights are neither given nor
agreed upon rather they are fought by the oppressed and to assuage the oppression from
the rulers and that one victory does not mean the end of injustice. While the last is the
discourse school which argue that rights are neither given, agreed nor fought for rather
they exist because people talk about them.
Bentham on his part argues that human rights are complete „Nonsense‟, „Mischievous
nonsense‟. „Nonsense on stilt's and there is nothing like human rights. For example, he
argues that human rights talk about right to equality. To him there is nothing like right
to equality because there is always a class, for example, the tenant cannot be equal to
the landlord, the servant equal to the master, the child equal to father, the employee
equal to employers. So why talk about right to equality when human beings are never
equal and can never be treated equally, that is nonsense, tall nonsense on silt to talk
about human rights, rather we should talk about how the law is made to ensure the
utility of the majority. However, we shall stop the discussion of theories of rights here
since that is not the aim focus of this unit and session. Some scholars Vasak (1979)
argued that there are three broad types of human rights. These include: the right to
liberty which are those rights contained in the ICCPR and often referred to as
fundamental human rights in most national Constitutions including the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. And these rights seek to protect the
individual against the arbitrariness and tyranny of the state. They are also called the
first-generation rights because they associated with the American and French revolution
of the 18th century which was the first time the demand for these rights were made and
granted.
Second types of rights according to Vasak are the equality rights which are found in
the ICESCR which are aimed at ensuring the economic and social equality of all
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human beings. They are largely economic, social and cultural rights; associated with
the communist movement of the 19 th century which attempted to obliterate the
exploitative capitalist system to enthrone welfares m and linked with the Mexican and
Russian revolution. They are listed as fundamental objectives and directive principles
of state policy. They are aspirational rights and non-justiciable in most national
constitution including Nigeria and are also referred to as the second-generation rights.
The third types of human rights according to Vasak are the solidarity or group or
collective rights which are aimed at protect the group as a whole and not individual.
They also seek to involve all stakeholders in the society to ensure their achievement.
They were proposed by the third world countries to ensure even development, self-
determination, reduce the gross economic inequality between the developed and the
less developed nation especially, freedom from colonial and oppressive western
policies. They are contained in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
1993. They are post World War I and II rights.
However, some scholars have argued that it is diversionary to divided human rights into
generations because human rights are indivisible, inalienable, interrelated and
interdependent, cumulative and overlapping as we need solidarity and economic rights
to defend our civil and political rights. While others argue that human rights should be
divided because some rights are most important and easily realizable compared to
others, for example, the civil and political rights can be easily guaranteed by all
countries no matter their economic status. But the economic, social and cultural rights
cannot be guaranteed by all countries. For example, most countries cannot provide
housing for all, education for all, health for all and food for all. Therefore, if the
economic, social and cultural rights are made as fundamental like the civil and political
rights countries would be brought to their knee because of litigations arising from
failure to provide these rights. Based on this the economic, social and cultural right
should be made aspirational so that each country can fulfil them according to their
economic status and pace of development. The fundamental human rights in the 1999
Constitution which if breached can lead to a legal action for their enforcement that are
generally listed in Chapter IV of the constitution include:
Section 33 Right to life which seeks to protect against unlawful taking of any citizens
life except as prescribed by law and in fulfilment of a court order as a punishment for
some specific offences like murder.
Section 34 Right to dignity of human person which seeks to prohibit torture or inhuman
or degrading treatment or slavery or servitude or forced labour.
Section 35 Right to personal liberty which seeks to prohibit unlawful detention of any
person even if found to have committed an offence without the lawful orders of court
of competent jurisdiction. Although, the Police and other Security agencies have
powers to arrest and detain someone they are expected to take the person within 24 or
48 hours before a court otherwise would be breaching the fundamental rights of the
person to liberty and a habeas corpus proceeding could be commenced to enforce the
citizen‟s rights.
88
Section 36 Right to fair hearing which seeks to ensure that any person alleged to have
committed any offence should be given a fair trial. This is one of the rights of an
environmental health or public health law offender we shall be considering in detail
later in this unit. This right is one of the widest rights in the constitution.
Section 37 Right to private and family which seek to protect the privacy of the
individual including his correspondence and home against unlawful interference and
entry.
Section 38 Right to freedom thought, conscience and religion which seeks to
allow people hold different opinion and belief as well as freedom of worship.
Section 39 Right to freedom of expression and the press which seeks to allow people
publicly air their view and prohibit the proscription of the media. However, the
freedom of expression is qualified by libel and other defamatory statements.
Section 40 Right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association which seeks to allow
people meet freely and discuss their common problems, form trade unions and political
parties.
Section 41 Right to freedom of movement which seek to allow free movement of people
within the country; and to also move out of the country within the rem it‟s of the law.
Section 42 Right to freedom from discrimination which seek to prohibit all forms of
discrimination against a person.
Section 43 Right to acquire and own immoveable property anywhere in Nigeria.
Section 44 Right to adequate compensation in case of compulsory acquisition of
property which seek to ensure that any person whose property has been taken by
government or any other body is paid adequate compensation.
Section 45 Restrictions on and derogation from fundamental rights which is not a right
per se but seeks to state circumstances under which some rights could be limited.
Section 46 Special jurisdiction of High Court and legal aid this also is not a right per se
but state where a person who feel his right is been or about to be violated should go to
seek redress and assistance.
The above are the fundamental rights of a Nigeria citizen which if breached can be
enforced through the fundamental human rights enforcement procedure.
3.4 Environmental Rights
The next issue we shall be examining in this unit is Environmental rights of an
individual which simply refers to some permanent entitlement of an individual
normally protected by objective rules by virtue of being one of the inhabitants of the
environment (Bell and McGillivray, 2008). These rights could be divided into basic
and general environmental rights. The general rights include: right to pollute or trade
in pollution credits which is right to generate an acceptable of amount of waste or
refuse; right to be heard at an inquiry which entail the right to be given fair trial and to
make complaint against polluters or violators of environmental health laws; right to
bring judicial review action which means ability to ask for a reversal of a government
environmental decision that is capable of causing environmental harm or threat; right of
access to environmental information; right to healthy environment; right to clean air;
right to clean water and right to participate in environmental decision-making.
89
While the basic rights include: private rights which is based on the principle of tort to
action for breach of a person's environmental right such as action against nuisances,
prevention of trespass or unreasonable interference with one's enjoyment of land. The
second is public law right which is a procedural right that entails the right to participate
in environmental decision-making, access to information, the right to be heard at an
inquiry and the right to bring a judicial review action or undertake private prosecution at
the instance of the State Attorney General. The third is substantive legal right which are
the general basic human rights which we have considered above which are found in
extant human rights legislation like the right to life, property and privacy and right to
respect for one's home.
3.5 Definition of An Offender (An Accused)

We shall now briefly define an accused or an offender before discussing some rights
he is entitled even though he may have violated public health laws. An accused
person or an offender is person who is said to have committed an offence punishable
by law either by undertaking a wrongful act or omitting to take the proper act. In the
case of public health, he is person who has committed a public health offence which
is punishable by law. He is regarded as a wrongdoer. However, the fact that
somebody has committed an offence does not deprive him of the protection of the
law, therefore, an offender or accused in public health laws is entitled to some rights
and this is what we shall be examining in the next section.
3.5.1 Rights of An Offender
One of the rights of an accused in public health laws which is similar to rights of any
other person accused of criminal offence is right to personal liberty. The accused is
entitled to his personal liberty he cannot be unlawfully detained by public health laws
enforcement authorities without the orders of a court of competent jurisdiction.
Another right of offender is right to freedom from torture, inhuman and degrading
treatment. A person accused of committing public health offence must not be
subjected to torture either by the police or any law enforcementagents involved in
the enforcement of public health laws it would amount to breach of his fundamental
human rights.
Equally, a public health offender is entitled to right to privacy and family life. The fact
that somebody is breaching a public health law does not empower enforcement agents
to unlawfully enter his compound or house. They must obtain a warrant to enter or issue
relevant notice. If they forcefully enter without the relevant order of court they would be
said to have violated the offender‟s right to privacy which is actionable.
Again a public health offender has a right to fair hearing and trial. This is very
important because if he is not given fair hearing and trial whatever punishment
imposed could be upturned on appeal. In fact the trial would be void ab initio. Fair
trial entails a lot of issues. First, he must be told the offence he has committed and the
offence must be proven by the prosecution, if this is not done and is he tried, the
punishment given would be quashed on appeal. See s.36 (6) (a) of the 1999
Constitution and the case of Nwachukwu v. The State (1986) 4 S.C. p.378.
90
Secondly, the offender must be tried in the public except in the case of juvenile who is
to be tried in juvenile court. See s.36 (4) 1999 Constitution. Thirdly, the offender must
be give adequate time and facilities to prepare his defence including the right to a
defence counsel. See s. 36(6) (c) and (d) 1999 Constitution and the case of Udo v. The
State (1988) 3 N.W.L.R (pt. 82) p.316 Also see Awolowo & Ors v. Minister of Interior
Affairs & Ors (1962) L.L.R 177 Equally, the offender must be given the opportunity
to cross-examine witnesses, call witness and a right to an interpreter if he does not
understand the language of the tribunal or the court. See s. 36(6) (d) and (e) 1999
Constitution and the cases of Tulu v. Bauchi Native Authority (1965) N.M.L.R p.343,
also Idirisu v. The State (1967) 1 All N.L.R p. 32 and the case of Ajayi v. Zaria Native
Authority (1964) N.N.L.R 61.
From the above discussion you can see that there are several types of rights. Also
human rights are entitlements and not privileges. Again, there are some special
environmental rights to which individuals are entitled and finally public law offender
has certain rights which must be guaranteed.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the definition of rights and human rights, the various types
of human rights, the definition of an offender and the rights of an offender. It is believed
you have learnt about the definition of rights and human rights, the various types of
human rights, the definition of an offender and the rights of an offender.
It is hoped that you can now define rights and human rights, mention some types of
human rights, define an offender and list some of the rights of an offender.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit our focus was on the definition of rights, human rights, the various types of
human rights, the definition of an offender and the rights of an offender. We have
defined rights and human rights we also enumerated some types of human rights,
defined an offender and briefly discussed some rights of an offender.
1. Define rights
2. Define human rights
3. List some different types of human rights
4. List and describe some environmental rights
5. Define an offender or an accused
6. List and explain some rights of an accused
91
1. Define the term human rights in your own words.
2. List and briefly describe four types of fundamental human rights in the
Nigeria 1999 Constitution in your own words.
3. (a) What do you understand by the term an offender? (b). List
three rights of an offender you have learnt in this unit.

1. Buckely (2011): The Law of Negligence and Nuisance, 5th ed: Butterworths
Common Law Series, London.
2. Dembour, M (2010) What Are Human Rights? Four Schools of
Thought. Human Rights Quarterly, Volume 32, Number 1, pp. 1-20
Kingdom
5. Kaczorowska, A (2010): Public International Law 4th ed. London and
New York: Routledge
92
CHAPTER NINETEEN UNIT NINETEEN
PROCESS OF ENFORCING PUBLIC HEALTH LAW
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing the processes of enforcing public health law. We
shall consider the definition of enforcement, list and briefly discuss the various
processes in involved or that could be followed to enforce the breach of public health
laws.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Define law enforcement
2. List some processes involved in public health laws enforcement
3. Briefly discuss the processes involved in public health laws enforcement.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Enforcement
Before going to define public health laws enforcement or law enforcement as they
mean the same thing both in ordinary criminal procedure and environmental or
public health law circle. It is important to say that the method of public health laws
enforcement in Nigeria is one of the weakest. And it is more tailored towards
domestic offenders instead of industrial and commercial offenders whose activities
actually pose more threat to life and physical damage to the environment. Most
companies in Nigeria do not have noise monitors or do not even provide respirators
to workers working in very hazardous environment. It is also doubtful whether there
is any pollution level set for the various types of industries and where certain
industry should be sited. In fact the Environmental Sanitation Authorities themselves
do not often comply with these standards, for example, we see road sweepers
sweeping road without respirators or face mask, refuse truck most times carry refuse
across the city without covering them.
However, let us define enforcement since that is the focus of this session.
Enforcement is the process of bringing any person who has committed an offence to
attend or answer the charge against him/her before a competent authority or tribunal
or court for the purpose of determining his/her innocence or guilt and to give
appropriate sanction. According to Webste r‟s Online Dictionary enforcement are
federal or state or local legal actions to obtain
93
compliance with environmental laws, rules, regulations, or agreements and/or obtain
penalties or criminal sanctions for violations. Enforcement procedures may vary,
depending on the requirements of different environmental laws and related
implementing regulations. The point you need to note from the above definitions is
that once we mention enforcement of public health laws, we talking about the
various ways public health rules or regulation are complied with and the sanctions
that could be imposed on an offender if found to have breached a public health
offence. It would also necessary to point out that the process of enforcing public
health laws is slightly different from normal criminal enforcement procedure. While in
normal criminal procedure it entails all those steps that may be required to compel the
accused attendance of the police station or the court and which in most cases begin
with either an arrest or a summons (Osamor, 2004). In public health law the procedure
does not begin with arrest or summons, on the contrary it begins with an inspection,
notice, then a summons and followed by arrest where necessary. We shall now
consider some of these processes in the next session.
3.2 Public Health Laws Enforcement Process
3.2.1 Inspection
The first process in the enforcement of public health laws is inspection. It is the
statutory duty of the Local Government Authority and other Environmental
Protection Agencies to carry out regular inspection of premises, streets and industries
as well as measure the level of either air or water pollution from time to time so as to
determine what action they should take in the performance of their functions under
the relevant law establishing them (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). Although, from
time to time may appear imprecise and vague, however, it not an excuse not to carry
out regular inspection which is to be determined by the nature or level of prevalence
or likelihood of the presence of nuisances. It is would amount to an abandonment of
duty if the Local Government Council or the relevant environmental protection
agency fails to carry out inspection of their local government area from time to time.
See the case of Mead v. Haringey London Borough Council (1979) 1 W.L.R. 637
The main purpose of inspection is to detect the presence of statutory nuisances and to
take steps to remove them, ascertain repairs, areas of improvement, slum that require
clearing, drainages and gutters that require cleaning, over grown weeds, refuse dump
sites, and general housing conditions to ensure they are safe and fit for human
habitation. However, before an inspection is undertake adequate notice has to be given
to the occupiers of the resident or the industry or locality within which the inspection is
to be carried. This is to both serve the requirement of the law and to avoid action for
trespass. And at the end of the inspection there must be a report stating the major
findings which must be available to Chief Health Officer of the Local Government who
is acting on behalf of the Council to take a decision on the nest steps. An ideal
inspection report must contain the following: the address of the premises or area, the
name(s) of the inspector in case of more than one person but the head of the team must
be the person writing and signing the inspection report, the date of inspection, the name
of the tenant(s) or occupant, the name of the landlord if different from the occupant, the
94
date of commencement of the present tenancy if it is rented premises, the rent, the
rates, number of persons staying in the household, the official number of persons
permitted for this type of household, a general description of the premises or the area,
detail report about the conditions of the house like bathroom, kitchen, toilet, living
room, heating and cooling systems, bedroom, roof, the floor, ventilation, conditions of
the wall, the paints. This is followed by comments noting the state of things and at the
end the name and signature of the inspector or head of inspection. There could be a re-
inspection report which is usually done if a notice of abatement has been issued and at
the end of the period given the inspector goes back to assess the conditions. In this case
the report would not be as detail as the first. But it must still contain the address, name
of inspector, date of inspection, name of tenant and landlord. Then the body of the
report is preferably divided in a tabular form with the left side headed Details of
inspection (dated 4th November, 2011) and the right-side headed Details of re-inspection
(dated 4th December, 2011). The entries on the left side would indicate the state of
affairs as at the last inspection, while the right side is just to state whether still present or
no longer present. It is the report of the inspection that set the stage for the next line of
action which is almost always the issuance of an abatement notice.
3.2.2 Abatement Notice
The next step in the enforcement of public health laws is the service of an ―Abatement
Notice‖. Once the inspector has submitted his report and the local government are
satisfied that there is existence of statutory nuisance then an abatement notice must be
served on the persons occupying the premises or living within the vicinity asking them
to remove the nuisance (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). An Abatement notice can be
defined as a notice issued under the authority of the Local Government Council by a
person so authorised to do so informing an occupant of a inspected premises or area of
the existence of some nuisance which needs to be removed, stating details of the
nuisance and the steps required to remove them, and the time within which to remove
the saidnuisance. It is important that the abatement notice contain the necessary details
otherwise it would be invalid. See the case of Whatling v. Rees (1914) 48 L.J.K.B 1122
Also the notice must be served on the appropriate person and depending on the
nature of the nuisance to be abated, but it is usually on the person whose act,
omission or default or sufferance has led to the existence of the nuisance.
However, where such a person cannot be found then the notice is to be served on
the occupier(s) or the owner. In case of nuisances arising from structural defects
the notice is ordinarily to be served on the owner of the premises or his lawful
attorney or agent. That is any person authorised to and/or you collect the rent of
the premises. It is also important you know that a statutory abatement notice can
only serve while the nuisances is still in existence, however, where it has already
occurred and it is likely to occur or has occurred repeatedly in the past then a
prohibition notice would be the best notice to be served. Also, there is no right of
appeal against an abatement or prohibition notice(s).
95
However, there are several forms an abatement notice may take. It may either be
repair notice or improvement notice or slum clearance notice. Whatever may be the
form of notice it must be given 24 hours before a Health Inspector can exercise the
right of entry. It is necessary to issue the proper notice and have the proper
authorization before a Health Inspector exercises the right of entry. Otherwise, if he is
prevented from entering the premises the occupants would not be guilty of
obstruction, rather he may be guilty of unlawful entry and trespass (Ormandy and
Burridge, 1988). See the case of Stroud v. Bradbury (1952) 2 All E.R 76
3.2.3 Court Proceedings

The next process in the enforcement of public health laws is court proceeding which
are always commenced at the Magistrates Court. The court could be a permanent or
mobile court. A mobile court is often used during special sanitation days or occasion
that requires the immediate trial and conviction of several offenders. The court session
is always not held in the regular to court sitting place time. Conversely, the permanent
court holds or sits at its regular place and time to hear the allegation of breach of
public health laws brought against any person.
In most cases the actions in the Magistrates courts is occasioned by the failure to obey
and abatement notice or fully comply with the content of the abatement notice or where
there is recurrence or the likelihood of recurrence of the nuisance after it has been
abated or that the nuisance is not completely abatedby the offender. However, while the
proceedings for the enforcement of an abatement notice still subsist the Local
Government Council or the relevant enforcement agency could still take other measures
to ensure the abatement and prevention of the recurrence of the conditions that have led
to the existence of the nuisance (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). Also see the case of
Nottingham City D.C v. Newton (1974) 1 W.L.R 923
Similarly, the Local Government Health Authority or other enforcement agencies

may commence proceedings at the Magistrate Court where a prohibition notice has
been served or not complied following the recurrence of a statutory nuisance.
Usually all public health offences proceedings at the Magistrates Court are criminal
in nature whether for non-compliance with notice or obstruction of officers on duty
or refusal or neglect to completely abate a nuisance or contravention of other
environmental offence. They are commenced by way of laying and information
before the Magistrate who examine the facts so disclose in the information sheet and
if satisfied that there is a prima facie case against the accused a summons would be
issued against which will be served on him to appear to answer the charge on a
particular day, place and time.
A summons is usually a written order by a magistrate or any judicial officer so

authorised by law notifying an individual that he has been charged with an offence and
requiring him to appear in court or a police station at a particular date and time (being
not less than 48 hours after the service of such summons) to answer to the charge or
96
allegation against him (Osamor, 2004). In the case of public health offences, the
summons is always requiring the person to appear before the court. Summons is usually
issued for misdemeanours and breach of other Local Government Bye-laws and it is
equivalent of an arrest warrant. A breach of summons or disobedience of summons is a
criminal offence as it is regarded as contempt of court and the trial is summary.
However, you need to know that in the case of mobile court a summons is not need
because it is summary trial because the offender was caught committing the offence and
so the proceedings take place immediately.
Furthermore, in public health offence proceedings the prosecution is the Local

Government Authority represented by the Health Officer especially the inspector
and the chief health officer and not the police or a lawyer who has obtained a fiat of
the State Attorney General in other criminal offences or proceedings. The charge is
read out to the accused and his plea taken and then the Local Government Authority
health officer(s) would open the case against the accused by stating the facts of the
offence and the particular section of the environmental health or public health law
that the accused has breached (Ormandy and Burridge, 1988). The defendant would
then have the right to cross examine witnesses if any was called by the prosecution
and state his own case. The prosecution just like in regular criminal proceeding have
no right of final address but may ask questions to clarify facts and argue on the point
of law.
Although, there are order public health laws enforcement procedures such as
injunction obtained from the High Court to prevent a polluter from continuing the
action of pollution or takeover a premise or prevent people from entry a particular
building or premises or area because of the existence of nuisance which is of high
public health threat. Or an order to allow the Local Government take over a property
for the purpose of abating nuisance or action for the recovery of expenses incurred for
abating a nuisance. These would be discussed because of the nature of this course
which is primarily introductory.
From the above discussion you can see that there is difference between the public health
laws enforcement procedures and the ordinary criminal law enforcement process. Also,
you can see that there are several processes involved in the enforcement of public health
laws.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the definition of enforcement and the various processes of
enforcing public health laws. We have defined enforcement and mentioned as well as
briefly discussed some of the processes of enforcing environmental health or public
health laws.
It is hoped you have learnt the definition of enforcement and would be able to define
enforcement, list and discuss some processes of enforcing public health laws.
97
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we focused on the definition of enforcement and the processes of enforcing
public health laws. We defined the term enforcement and also mentioned and discussed
some processes of enforcing environmental laws.

1. Define law enforcement
2. List some processes involved in public health laws enforcement
3. Briefly discuss the processes involved in public health laws enforcement.

1. Define the term law enforcement in your own words.
2. (a) List three processes of enforcing public health laws you have learnt in this
unit.
(b) Briefly discuss two of the processes.


3. Ormandy, D and Burridge, R (1988): Environmental Health Standards in

Housing: London: Sweet & Maxwell
4. Osamor, B (2004): Fundamentals of Criminal Procedure Law in Nigeria. Dee-

Sage Nigeria Limited
98
CHAPTER TWENTY UNIT TWENTY
PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS ENFORCEMENT BODIES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be discussing the various public health laws or environmental
laws enforcement bodies at the various levels of government.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Mention the various public health laws enforcement agencies in the Nigeria.
2. List some environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the federal level
3. List some environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the state level
4. List some of the environmental health enforcement bodies at the local
government level
5. Briefly describe the roles of some public health laws enforcement bodies
6. List and discuss some of the remedies available to a victim of environmental
harm.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Public Health Laws Enforcement Bodies at Federal Level

The first set of public health laws enforcement bodies we shall be considering are
those at the federal level. There are several government bodies which are involved
either directly or indirectly in the enforcement of environmental laws. These include:
the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, the National Environmental Standards
and Regulations Enforcement Agency, the National Agency for Food and Drugs
Administration and Control, the Standard Organization of Nigeria, the National
Agency for Oil Spill Detection and Control, the Federal Ministry of Environment, the
various Federal Courts (Federal High Court, Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court).
We shall now briefly examine the role of these bodies in environmental health laws
enforcement. The Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) is set up initially
by Decree 58 of 1988 and amended by the Decree No 59 of 1992. Its functions include
the following:
a. Protect the biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of Nigeria
natural resources";
b. prepare a comprehensive national policy for the protection of the environment
and conservation of natural resources, including procedure for environmental
impact assessment for all development projects;
c. prepare, in accordance with the National policy on the Environment, periodic
master plans for the development of environmental sciences and technology and
advice the Federal Military Government on the financial requirements for the
implementation of such plans;
99
d. the Federal Military Government on the national environmental policies and
priorities, the conservation of natural resources and sustainable development, and
scientific and technological activities affecting the environment, and natural
resources;
e. the President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces on the utilization of the
l Percent Ecological Fund for the protection of the environment;
f. promote co-operation in environmental science and conservation technology
with similar bodies in other countries and with international bodies connected
with the protection of the environment and the conservation of natural resources;
g. co-operate with Federal and State Ministries, Local Governments, statutory
bodies and research agencies on matters and facilities relating to the protection of
the environment and the conservation of natural resources; and
h. carry out such other activities as are necessary or expedient for full discharge of
the functions of the Agency under this Decree."
Among other functions that the agency is empowered to perform under the Act.
However, FEPA was merged with the Federal Ministry of Environment in 1999 by the
Obasanjo administration. The next body we shall be considering is the National
Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) was
established because in the wisdom of Government, FEPA and other relevant
Departments in other Ministries were merged to form the Federal Ministry of
Environment in 1999, but without an appropriate enabling law on enforcement issues.
This situation, however, created a vacuum in the effective enforcement of
environmental laws, standards and regulations in the country. To address this
situation, the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement
Agency (NESREA) were established as a parastatal of the Federal Ministry of
Environment, Housing and Urban Development. The NESREA Act was accented to
by Mr. President on 30th July, 2007. By the NESREA Act, the FEPA Act Cap F 10
LFN 2004 has been repealed.
NESREA has responsibility for the protection and development of the environment,
biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of Nigeria's natural resources
in general and environmental technology including coordination, and liaison with,
relevant stakeholders within and outside Nigeria on matters of enforcement of
environmental standards, regulations, rules, laws, policies and guidelines. Some
functions of the Agency, amongst others include to:
 enforce compliance with laws, guidelines, policies and standards on
environmental matters;
 coordinate and liaise with, stakeholders, within and outside Nigeria on matters of
environmental standards, regulations and enforcement;
 enforce compliance with the provisions of international agreements, protocols,
conventions and treaties on the environment including climate change,
biodiversity conservation, desertification, forestry, oil and gas, chemicals,
hazardous wastes, ozone depletion, marine and wild life, pollution, sanitation and
such other environmental agreements as may from time to time come into force;
100
 enforce compliance with policies, standards, legislation and guidelines on water
quality, Environmental Health and Sanitation, including pollution abatement;
 enforce compliance with guidelines, and legislation on sustainable management
of the ecosystem, biodiversity conservation and the development of Nigeri a's
natural resources;
 enforce compliance with any legislation on sound chemical management, safe
use of pesticides and disposal of spent packages thereof;
 enforce compliance with regulations on the importation, exportation, production,
distribution, storage, sale, use, handling and disposal of hazardous chemicals and
waste, other than in the oil and gas sector;
 enforce through compliance monitoring, the environmental regulations and
standards on noise, air, land, seas, oceans and other water bodies other than in the
oil and gas sector;
 ensure that environmental projects funded by donor organizations and external
support agencies adhere to regulations in environmental safety and protection;
 enforce environmental control measures through registration, licensing and
permitting Systems other than in the oil and gas sector;
 conduct environmental audit and establish data bank on regulatory and
enforcement mechanisms of environmental standards other than in the oil and
gas sector;
 create public awareness and provide environmental education on sustainable
environmental management, promote private sector compliance with
environmental regulations other than in the oil and gas sector and publish
general scientific or other data resulting from the performance of its functions;
and
 carry out such activities as are necessary or expedient for the performance of its
functions.
NESREA has several powers including: prohibit processes and use of equipment or
technology that undermine environmental quality; conduct field
follow-up of compliance with set standards and take procedures prescribed by
law against any violator; subject to the provision of the Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1999, and in collaboration with relevant judicial
authorities establish mobile courts to expeditiously dispense cases of violation of
environmental regulation; the powers to issue environmental regulation and
in exercise of this powers since its inception in 2007. The agency has issued eleven
regulations which include:
1. National Environmental (Pollution Abatement in Mining and Processing of Coal,
Ores and Industrial Minerals) Regulations, 2009
2. National Environmental (Sanitation and Wastes Control) Regulations, 2009
3. National Environmental (Pollution Abatement in Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals,
Soaps and Detergent Manufacturing Industries) Regulations, 2009
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5. National Environmental (Pollution Abatement in Food, Beverages and Tobacco
Sector) Regulations, 2009National Environmental (Pollution Abatement in Textiles,
Wearing Apparel, Leather and Footwear Industry) Regulations, 2009
6. The National Environmental (Wetlands, River Banks and Lake Shores
Protection) Regulations, 2009
7. The National Environmental (Watershed, Hilly, Mountainous and Catchment
Areas) Regulations, 2009
8. National Environmental (Ozone Layer Protection) Regulations, 2009
9. National Environmental (Noise Standards and Control) Regulations, 2009
10. National Environmental (Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing)
Regulations, 2009
11. National Environmental (Permitting and Licensing Systems) Regulations, 2009.
The next federal enforcement agency we shall be examining is the National Agency for
Food and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC). NAFDAC was established by
Decree No. 15 of 1993 as amended is a Parastatal of the Federal Ministry of Health,
with the mandate to regulate and control quality standards for Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics,
Medical Devices, Chemicals, Detergents and packaged water imported, manufactured
locally and distributed in Nigeria. Although, NAFDAC is not strictly an environmental
law enforcement agency, but it enforces public health laws relating to food and drugs
hence it is listed as an enforcement agency. The mandate of NAFDAC in accordance
with the enabling laws, NAFDAC is authorized to:
 Regulate and control the importation, exportation, manufacture, advertisement,
distribution, sale and use of regulated products.
 Conduct appropriate tests and ensure compliance with standard specifications.
 Undertake appropriate investigation of the production premises and raw
materials of regulated products.
 Compile standard specifications, regulations, and guidelines for the production,
importation, exportation, sale and distribution of regulated products. Control the
exportation and issue quality certification of regulated products intended for
export.
 Establish and maintain relevant laboratories for the performance of its
functions.
 Ensure that the use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are limited to
medical and scientific use only.
 Undertake the registration of food, drugs, medical devices, bottled water and
chemicals.
 Undertake inspection of imported regulated products.
 Pronounce on the quality and safety of regulated products after appropriate
analysis
The other federal body involved in environmental laws enforcement is the
Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). The Standard Organization of Nigeria
(SON) is the sole statutory body that is vested with the responsibility of
standardizing and regulating the quality of all products in Nigeria. It was
102
established by the General Yakubu Gowon military regime through Act 56 in
1971, it was called the Nigerian Standards Organization (NSO). The Act
establishing the body was amended in 1976 by the military regime of General
Olusegun Obasanjo, in 1984 by the short-lived regime of Major General
Muhammadu Buhari and in 1990 by the regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. In
1990, the amendment of the Act conferred partial autonomy on the SON from the
Ministry of Industry. It now has full autonomy. Just like NAFDAC SON is not a
direct environmental law enforcement agency, but it regulates the standard of
products. The statutory functions of the SON are as follows:
1. To investigate the quality of facilities, materials and products in Nigeria, and
establish a quality assurance system, including certification of factories, products and
laboratories
2. To ensure reference standards for calibration and verification of measures and
measuring instruments
3. To c o mp il e an i nv en to r y of pr o du ct s re qu ir in g st a nd ar di za ti on
4. To foster interest in the recommendation and maintenance of acceptable standards by
industry and the general public.
5. To develop methods for testing materials, supplies and equipment, including items
purchased for use by State and Federal departments and private establishments
6. To register and regulate standard marks and specifications
7. To undertake preparation and distribution of standard samples
8. To establish and maintain laboratories or other institutions, as may be necessary for
the performance of its functions
9. To advise State and Federal departments of Government on specific problems
relating to standards
10. To sponsor appropriate national and international conferences
11. To undertake research as may be necessary for the performance of its functions
12. To use research facilities, whether public or private, according to terms and
conditions agreed upon between the Organization and the institutions concerned.
The other federal agencies involved in environmental health laws enforcement are the
Courts whose primary duties is to determine whether a public health law has been
breached and mete out relevant punishment. They also determine issues relating to
environmental pollution, civil matters dealing with compensation, damages and
nuisance.
3.2 Public Health Laws Enforcement Bodies At State Level

We shall not be discussing the state enforcement bodies in details because most of
their functions are similar to those of the federal bodies and again because the
enforcement bodies vary from state to state. However, some of the environmental
health laws enforcement bodies at the state level include: The State Environmental
Protection Agency, the State Environmental Sanitation Authority, the Housing and
Property Development Authority, the State Capital Development Authority and the
Courts (Magistrates and State High Courts).
103
3.3 Public Health Law Enforcement Bodies At The Local Government Level
The Local Governments do not have independent bodies like the federal and state
level which are involved in environmental health enforcement. However, the
Environmental Health Unit of the Local Government Primary Health Care
Department has the responsibility of enforcing environmental health laws at the local
government level. Also, some of the federal and state level bodies have local
government branch offices which complement the role of the Environmental Health
Unit. Some the powers of the Environmental Health Officers or Health Inspectors as
they are referred to in some jurisdiction include but not limited to the following:
1. inspect premises and the community on a regular basis
2. determine the existence of pollution
3. determine the existence of nuisance
4. inspect industries to determine level of compliance with environmental
health standard
5. serve abatement and other notices to ensure the prompt removal of
statutory and other nuisances
6. determine whether any environmental health law is being or has been
breached.
7. Prosecute offenders
8. Write report of inspection
9. Inspect meats and other food products meant for human consumption
among other functions.
3.4 Environmental Health Remedies

We shall now consider some of the remedies available to a victim of environmental
pollution or harm. There are several remedies available to a victim of environmental
harm or threat that is any person who has or is likely to suffer environmental harm or
threat. These include; injunction, compensation, damages, action for loss of profit,
abatement and sensibility claim. We shall now examine each of these remedies briefly.
3.4.1 Injunction
One of the remedies available to a person who has suffered or is likely to suffer or is
continuously suffering from environmental harm or threat is to apply for an injunction
against the polluter to prevent from continuing the acts that is leading to the
environmental harm or pollution or threat. It is an order of the Court usually a High
Court restraining the defendant from taking particular act complained of by the plaintiff
in the suit. However, to succeed in an action for injunction in environmental law the
plaintiff must have a strong case against the defendant (Wolf et al, 2002). For example,
in the case of Hasley v. Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd (1961) W.LR 683 the plaintiff was
able to successfully obtain an injunction restraining the defendant from causing noise
pollution which was being generated from his boilers and vehicles. Similarly, in the
case of Allison v. Merton, Sutton and Wandsworth AHA (1973) CLY 2450 the
plaintiff obtained an injunction restraining the noise from the defendants ' hospital
boilers which were interfering with the plaintiff sleep and were causing him
depression.
104
3.4.2 Compensation
Another remedy available to a victim of environmental pollution or harm is an action
for compensation for damages suffered as result of the defendant's action which led to
the pollution. Usually compensation actions are more appropriate if negligence is
established it has not been successfully applied in case of nuisance and trespass.
Compensation is usually for damages to property and chattels and not personal injury
suffered (Wolf et al, 2002).
3.4.3 Damages
Equally a victim of environmental pollution or harm or threat can action for damages
suffered. Damages may be exemplary or specific or general. Exemplary damages has
very limited success in environmental health actions, however, where the plaintiff can
prove that the defendant undertook the act because he calculated he could make profit
that would outweigh the cost of damages he is to pay then exemplary damages would
be awarded. This is because there is some sense of willfulness in the act of the
defendant. General damages may also be awarded for destruction of property and
personal injuries where there was negligence, but not for economic loss. See the case
of Murphy v. Brentwood DC (1990)
3.4.4 Loss of Profit
Also, a victim of environmental pollution or harm can action for loss of profit and it is
availed the plaintiff once damage has been proved in a nuisance action. It is not for any
other damages but purely for economic loss (Wolf et al, 2002). See the case of
Blackburn v. ABC Ltd (1998) Env. L.R 469 where the plaintiff claims for profit
suffered as a result damage to a renovated house was rejected as it does not constitute
economic loss.
3.4.5 Sensibility Claim
This is a remedy available to person who has suffered very severe and persistent
nuisance as result of environmental pollution which has resulted in some permanent
loss. If the plaintiff cannot prove serious, severe and permanent loss of amenity then the
damage to be awarded might not be too high. See the case of Bone v. Seal (1975) 1 All
E.R 787 where the damage of £6,000 awarded to the plaintiff for exposure to odour
from a piggery was reduced to £1,000 by the Court of Appeal because the plaintiff
could not proof serious and permanent loss of amenity.
3.4.6 Abatement
Furthermore, a victim of environmental pollution could action for abatement of the
nuisance caused by the action of the defendant. This is an action in which the plaintiff is
seeking an order of court to compel the defendant to remove the nuisance he caused.
This is very common in cases of public nuisance where the relevant environmental laws
enforcement agencies have refused or neglected to take steps to abate the nuisance.
From the above discussion you can see that there are several bodies responsible for the
enforcement of public health and environmental health laws. Some have direct
enforcers others are indirect enforcer because it not their primary duties to enforce
environmental health laws. Also, you can see the various remedies available to a
victim of public health or environmental harm or threat or pollution.
105
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit our focus was on the bodies responsible for the enforcement of public health
or environmental health laws at the various level of government in Nigeria and the
remedies available to a victim of environmental pollution or harm or threat. We have
listed some of the bodies responsible for environmental health laws enforcement at both
the federal, state and local governments and have also briefly discusses some of their
function. We also listed and discussed some of the remedies available to a victim of
environmental pollution or harm. It is hoped you would now be able to list some
environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the various level of government and
discuss their functions. Also, you can now list and discuss some remedies that are
available to a victim of environmental pollution.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we focused on the various bodies responsible directly and indirectly for
the enforcement of environmental health law and also the remedies that are available
to a victim of environmental pollution. We listed several bodies responsible for
enforcement of environmental health laws at the federal, state and local government
and also discuss some of their function. We equally listed and discuss the remedies
available to the victims of environmental threat and harm.

1. Mention the various public health laws enforcement agencies in the Nigeria.
2. List some environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the federal level
3. List some environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the state level
4. List some of the environmental health enforcement bodies at the LGA
5. Briefly describe the roles of some public health laws enforcement bodies
6. Discuss some of the remedies available to a victim of environmental harm.
1. List two environmental health laws enforcement bodies at the federal level and
enumerate four of their functions
2. (a) List four remedies available to victim of environmental pollution.
(b) Briefly discuss three of remedies you have listed in your own word
1. Bell, S and McGillivray, D (2008): Environmental Law: Oxford University
Press
Kingdom
5. Wolf, S, White, A and Stanely, N (2002): Principles of Environmental Law:
Cavendish Publishing Limited, London
106

PHS 402 Public Health Law

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES

Department of Public Health

COURSE CODE: PHS 402

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO

Course Developer Dr Saka Mohammed Jimoh MBBS, FMCPH, PhD,

Course Developer Ewhrudjakpo Lawrence Esq

Chapter Writer: Dr Saka Mohammed Jimoh MBBS, FMCPH, PhD,

Chapter Writer Ewhrudjakpo Lawrence Esq

Programme Leader: Dr Gloria Anator

Course Coordinator: Dr Gloria Anator

Headquarter Office Address

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2019

All Rights Reserved

Printed by NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE GUIDE 12-15

CHAPTER TEN UNIT TEN 39-40

CHAPTER FIVETEEN UNIT FIVETEEN 65-70

CHAPTER TWENTY UNIT TWENTY 99-106

Working through this Course

Tutor Marked Assignment

Final Examination and Grading

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Public Health Law

3.2 Stewardship In Health Systems For Improved Health Outcoems

3.4 Public Health Laws and Health of Population

3.5 Public Health Law Challenges in Nigeria Health Systems

6.0 Self Assessed Exerceises

7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.2 Defination of Public Health Law

6.0 Self Assessed Exerceises

7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Meaning of Public Health

6.0 SELF ASSESSED EXERCEISES

7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Essential Characteristics of Public Health Law

3.2 Structure of The Public Health Law

 Clear criteria can be recognized for the implementation of essential authorities.

3.5 Law Reform and Health Interventions

6.0 SELF ASSESSED EXERCISES

7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.3 Beginning of Public Health Law in America; -Conquering an Epidemic

3.4 Establishment of Public Health Laws to Combat Epidemic Diseases

3.5 Board Enforcement of Sanitary Rules and Regulation

6.0 SELF ASSESSED EXERCISES

7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGN

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.2 From Public Health Policy to Primary Health Care

3.4 The Parts, Focus and Description of Public Health Law

Part Focus Description

VI Vaccination Major vaccine preventable diseases